TriangulationinaStudyof ListeningStrategyInstruction · l ¶ È w _ W æ50 E51 S ¹ (2005.3) TriangulationinaStudyof ListeningStrategyInstruction NaokoOzeki 1.INTRODUCTION...

人文科学論集第50・51輯合併号(2005.3)

TriangulationinaStudyof

ListeningStrategyInstruction

NaokoOzeki

1.INTRODUCTION

TheresultsofastudydonebyOzeki(2000)showedsimilaritiesamongJapanesefemale

universitystudentsanddifferellcesintheuseofstrategiesamonghighandlowscorersona

listeningtest.Moststudentsdidnotoftenutilizelisteningstrategiesthemselves.Iflistening

strategiesareclassifiedaccordingtoOMalley&Chamot'sclassification(1990),thesestudents

rarelyusedmetαcognitivestrαtegiessuchasdirecte〔iα 亡亡ention,selectiveαt亡ention,orself-

eびαluα 亡ion.Moreover,theyrarelyusedsociα1/affectivestrαtegiessuchascooρerαtionand

questioningプbrclαrificαtioninEnglish.Theirfamiliarsociα1/affec亡ivestrαtegieswerelimited

toquestioningf`)rclαrificαtioninJapαneseαn(ipeeleing.Cognitivestrαtegieswhichwere

availabletothestudentswerealsorestricted.Theyfrequentlyemployed亡rαnslα 亡ion,

inferencing,resourcing,andnotetα んing.Trαnslαtionwasofteninvolvedinotherstrategies

suchasresourcingandnotetαhing.Jnferencingwasusuallyusedonlywhenclearexternalclues

wereavailable.

Therangeandextentoflisteningstrategiesusedbythestudentswerelimited.Inorderto

developthestudents'listeningstrategiesandiisteningskills,strategytrainingwouldbe

effectiveforallthestudentsregardlessoftheirlevel.Consequently,thepurposeofthisstudy

wastointroducelisteningstrategytrainingandevaluatetheeffectsofstrategytraining.In

theevaluationofstrategytraining,differentmodesoftriangulationwereusedinordertogive

findingscredibility.Thesemodesincludedtheuseofdifferentmeasurements,datatypes,data

sources,andmethods.

2.TRIANGULATIONINLEARNINGSTRATEGYRESEARCH

Anethnographerimprovestheprobabilitythatthefindingwillbecrediblebymeansof

prolongedengagement,persistentobservation,andtriangulation(Lincoln&Guba,1985).

Amongthese,triangulationisanessentialproceduretoenhancethecredibilityofresearchas

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wellasthedepthandclarityoftheconstructsofthephenomenon(Glesne&Peshkin,1992;

Miles&Huberman,1994;Stake,1995).Denzin(1984)identifiesfourdifferentmodesof

triangulation:dαtαsources,methods,investigαtors,andtheories.Theuseofdifferentdata

sourcesimpliesthattheresearcherscheckifthephenomenontheyareobservingcarriesthe

samemeaningunderothercircumstances;namely,atdifferenttimesandondifferent

occasions.Thesecondtypeoftriangulation,methodologicaltriangulation,istheonemost

recognized.Itmeanstheuseofmultiplemethodsofcollectingdatasuchasinterviews,

observations,andopen-endedquestionllaires.Therationaleforthisdatacollectionstrategyis

thattheweaknessesofonemethodareoftenthestrengthsofanothermethod(Merriam,1988;

O'Malley&Chamot,1990).Therefore,theycanincreasetheaccuracyoftheinterpretationby

triangulatingwithseveralsourcesofdata(LeCompte&Preissle,1993).Forinvestigator

triangulation,otherresearchersobservethesamephenomenの.It'snotfeasibletohaveother

researcherscooperateallthewaythroughtheresearch,butitispossibletohavethem

cooperateatthedatainterpretationstage.Thelastoneistheuseofmultipletheoriesforthe

sakeoftriangulation.Theorytriangulationisoftenunacceptedbyqualitativeparadigm

researchersbecausetheythinkthatcertainfactsareonlyconsistentwithonetheory(Lincoln

&Guba,1985;Miles&Huberman,1994).However,itmightbeachievedthroughtheuseoftwo

investigatorsorreviewerswhohavedifferenttheoreticalperspectives(Stake,1995).

Whenresearchersusetriangulationintheirresearchinthequalitativeparadigm,they

rarelyuseallofDenzin's(1984)fourmodesoftriangulation.Someresearcherschooseoneof

them,whileotherresearchersusemorethanoneinasinglestudy.Furthermore,researchers

sometimesuseothermodesoftriangulation.Forinstance,theyusedifferentdatatypesand

measurementsfortriangulation.Datatypesareclassifieddifferentlydependingondifferent

conceptsofclassification.Theyaredividedintoqualitativeandquantitativedatatypes,orare

situatedalongthecontinuumfromuncontrolledtomorecontrolleddatatypes(Miles&

Huberman,1994).Measurementtriangulationmeanstheuseofdifferentcriteriatoevaluatea

phenomenon.

Theclassificationsanddefinitionsofprotocolsoftriangulationareambiguous,because

researchersdonotnecessarilyagree.Forexample,McGroartyandZhu(1997)useterms,

methodologicalanddatatriangulation.Theirmethodologicaltriangulationmeanstheuseof

multiplemeasurementstoevaluatetheeffectsoftrainingandtheuseofquantitativeand

qualitativemethods.Moreover,datatriangulationintheirstudymeanstheUseofmultiple

datasourcesanddatasets.Theirdefinitionofmethodologicaltriangulationiscompletely

differentfromthatofDenzin,becausetheirdatatriangulationagreeswithDenzin'sdefinition

ofmethodologicaltriangulation.

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TriangulationinaStudyofListeningStrategyInstruction

Althoughresearchersdonotagreewiththeclassificationsanddefinitionsofmodesof

triangulation,theyusetriangulationasameanstoincreaseinternalvalidityofresearch.In

learningstrategyresearch,differentmodesoftriangulationarealsoused.Datatype

triangulation,acombinationofqualitativeandquantitativedata,isoftenusedtoinvestigate

therelationshipsbetweenlearningstrategiesandlanguageproficiency(e.g.,Bialystok,1981;

Carrell,Pharis,&Liberto,1989;Politzer&McGroarty,1985).Verbalreportmethodsareused

asqualitativedataandaperformancetestisusedasquantitativedata.Methodological

triangulationiscommonlyusedinordertoclassifylearningstrategiesandtoinvestigatethe

useoflearningstrategiesofparticularlearners.Forthispurpose,twoorthreeofthefollowing

methodsareemployed:observation,think-aloudprocedures,interviews,andquestionnaires、

Forinstance,O'Malley,Chamot,Stewner-Manzanares,KUpper,andRusso(1985a)employed

interviewsandquestionnairestoobtainabroadrangeofstrategiesandthethink-aloud

procedurealongwithinterviewsalldquestionnairestoexaminestrategiesusedforaspecific

task.Datasourcetriangulationisoftenusedinlongitudinalstudiesoflearningstrategies.

Thatis,researcherscollectthedatafromthesameparticipantsoveranextendedperiodoftime

(e.g.,Mangubhai,1991;O'Malley&Chamot,1990).

Morethanonemodeoftriangulationisalsoemployedinlearningstrategystudies.For

example,Naiman,Frohlich,Stern,andTodesco(1978)adopteddatatypeandmethodological

triangulation.Theyusedperformancetests,observation,andinterviewstoidentifylearning

strategieswhicheffectivelanguagelearnersuse.Tofindouttherelationshipsbetweenlearning

strategiesandlanguageproficiency,Mangubhai(1991)useddatasourceandmethodological

triangulation.Thedatawascollectedovertwentyteachingsessionsthroughconcurrentthink-

aloudprotocols,aswellasimmediateanddelayedretrospectiveverbalreports.

Mostofthestudiesonstrategyinstructiondonotuseseveralmodesoftriangulation.For

example,Carrell,Pharis,andLiberto(1989)evaluatedthemetacognitivestrategytrainingfor

ESLreadingusingonlydatatypetriangulatior1.Theyexaminedthetrainingeffectusinggain

scoresontheopen-endedquestions,clozesemanticmaps,andopen-endedsemanticmaps.

Similarly,BrownandPerry(1991)usedonlydatatypetriangulatiollwithrecognitionandcued-

recallinstrumentsinordertoevaluatevocabularyacquisition.O'Malley,Chamot,Stewner-

Manzanares,KUpper,andRusso(1985b)implementedstrategyinstructiontoassessthelearning

ofESLlearnersintheareasoflistening,speaking,andvocabulary.Theyassessedthestrategy

trainingbasedononlythestatisticalanalysesonspeaking,listening,andvocabularytests .

Thatis,theyusedonlydatatypetriangulation.Althoughtheymentiolledthedevelopmentof

thestudents'strategyusewhichtheynoticedthroughobservations,studentworksheets,and

studentinteraction,theydidnotconsiderittobeafactortoevaluatestrategytraining.

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Aswehaveseen,triangulationisakeyproceduretoincreaseinternalvalidityofthe

emergingfindings,anddifferentmodesoftriangulationareusedinethnography.

Nevertheless,inthestudiesoflearningstrategyinstruction,onlydatatypetriangulation

whichinvolvesdifferentproficiencyteststendstobeusedtoevaluatestrategyinstruction.

Thisisascribedtotheresearchers'presumptionthattheprimaryobjectiveofstrategy

instructionistheprogressoflanguageproficiency.Thispresumptioniscontrarytothe

fundamentalassumptionthatstrategytraininghasdualobjectives:Oneistodevelopdomain-

specificknowledgeandtheotheristofosterlearningstrategies.Furthermore,besidesthe

developmentoflanguageproficiencyandlearningstrategies,strategytraininghasanother

purpose.Itsultimatepurposeistohelplearnersbecomeself-directedratherthantoprovide

studentswithtechniquesoflearningstrategiesandtoimprovetheirlanguageability(Chamot,

Barnhardt,El-Dinary,&Robbins,1999;Grenfell&Harris,1999;Kissam&Holda,1997;

Macaro,2001;Oxford,1990;Rubin,1987;Wenden,1987).Thereasonforthisisthatadult

learnersneedtocontinuelearningontheirownaftertheycompletelanguageeducationat

school(Benson,2001;Knowles,1980).Thelengthoflanguageeducationisoftenlimitedat

schoolandadultlearnerspossessdiversifiedneedswhichtheschoolcurriculumcannotsatisfy

completely.

Iftheultimatepurposeofstrategytrainingistodeveloplearnerautonomy,itshouldbe

evaluatedbasedonnotonlytheprogressoflanguageproficiencybutalsoonothercriteria

whichassesstheextenttowhichstrategytrainingcontributedtolearnerautonomy.Inorder

forstudentstocontinuelearningontheirown,thedevelopmentoftheirstrategyuseshouldbe

examined,thedurabilityofthestrategiesshouldbeevaluated,alldfortheirdiversifiedIleeds,

thetransferofthestrategiesshouldbeexaminedaswell.Furthermore,tomakesurethat

studentswillnotlosemotivationinstrategytrainingandwillacquirelearningstrategies,

theirattitudestowardthestrategytrainingshouldbefrequentlyexaminedwhiletheyare

receivingit.Therefore,thecriteriatoevaluatethestrategytrainingincludestudents'attitudes

towardthestrategytraining,theimprovementofstudents'languageproficiency,the

developmentofstudents'strategyuse,thedurabilityofthestrategies,andthetransferofthe

strategies(Cohen,1998;Oxford,1990;Wenden,1987).Toevaluatethestrategytrainingbased

onthesemultiplecriteriaagreeswiththeultimatepurposeofstrategytraining,the

developmentofself-directedlearners.Italsopreventsresearchersfromrecommendinga

particularinstructionbasedonasinglecriterion,whichignoresthewholeeducationaloutcome

oflearning(McGroarty&Zhu,1997).

Whenstrategytrainingisassessedbasednotonlyonthedevelopmentoflanguage

proficiencybutalsoonothercriteriaincludingtheattitudestowardthestrategytraining,the

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lmprovementofstrategyuse,thedurabilityofthestrategies,andthetransferofthe

strategies,differentmodesoftriangulatiollarenecessarilyinvolved .Inthisstudy,listening

strategyinstructionisevaluatedaccordingtofivecriteriamentionedabove.Thisimplies

measurementtriangulation・Asresearchmethods,apost-test,questionnaires,guidedjournals,

andself-evaluationsheetswereused.Multipledatacollectionstrategiesareappliedfor

methodologicaltriangulation.Thepost-testasquantitativedataandquestionnaires,guided

journals,andself-evaluationsheetsasqualitativedataareemployedfordatatype

triangulation.Thestudelltswererequiredtowriteguidedjournalsandself-evaluationsheets

everyweekovereightmonthsduringandafterthestrategytraining .Itsuggestsdatasource

triangulation.Consequently,thisstudyinvolvesmeasurements,datasources,datatypes,alld

methodsfortriangulation.Itusesfourdifferentmodesoftriangulationtodescribetheeffects

ofthestrategytrainingPrecisely.

3.METHODOLOGY

3・1ParticipantsandSetting

Forty-fivestudentsintwoclasseswhowereintheirfirstyearatafemalejuniorcollegein

AichiPrefecture,Japan,participatedinthisstudy .TheywereallJapanesenativespeakers,

andnoneofthemhadstayedinEnglish-speakingcountriesformorethantwomonths .They

wereEnglishmajorsandtheirEnglishproficiencylevelwasbeginningtolow -intermediate .

Therewere25studentsinClassAand20studentsinClassB .ClassAwasthetreatmentgroup

andClassBwasthecontrolgroup .Thetreatmentgroupreceivedlisteningstrategytraining,

butthecontrolgroupdidnot.

3・2CurriculumofStrategyTralnlngClass

3.2.1Natureofstrategytraining

Thestudentsinthetreatmentgroupreceivedstrategytrainingintheirnormallistening

class,whichwasdesignedtoimprovetheirlisteningskills .Thisclasswasofferedonceaweek

anditlasted90minutes.JapaneseuniversityclassesusuallybegininAprilandendin

FebruaryorMarch.Strategytrainingwhichwasintegratedintothenormallistening

comprehensionclassbeganonApril23andendedonOctober8 .Therewasalongbreakinthe

middleofstrategytrainingbecauseofaone-monthstudytourandatwo -monthsummer

vacation.Intotal,thestudentshad121essonsofstrategytrainingoutof20normallistening

lessonsforonesemester.Ontheotherhand ,thecontrolgrouphad20normallistening

comprehensiollclassesforonesemester .Thesamematerials,whichwereadaptedfrom

publishedtextbookssuchasListenforit(Richards,Gordon,&Harper,1987)andListentome∫

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(Foley,1985),wereusedforboththetreatmentandcontrolgroupclasses.Listening

comprehensionactivitieswerethesame,too,exceptthatthetreatmentgroupreceivedthe

strategytraininginwhichthestudentsweretaughtthenameanddefinitionofeachstrategy

andhadguidanceabouthowtouseitintheactivities.

3.2.2Preparationstageofstrategytraining

Sequencesofstrategytrainingweredesignedbasedonpreviouslypublishedstrategy

trainingmodels(e.g.,Ellis&Sinclair,1989;Graham,1997;Oxford,1990).Thesemodelsfollow

similarstepsinstrategytraining,whichweredividedintothreestages:prepαrαtions亡 αge,

lessonstage,αndevaluαtions亡 αgθ.Sinceitisimpossibletodiscussallthreestagesinthis

limitedspace,onlythepreparationstageisexaminedhere.

Beforethelisteningstrategytrainingstarted,thestrategiestobetaughtwerechosen.

Sincethestudents'currentrepertoireoflisteningstrategieswasdeterminedintheprevious

study,onlythosestrategieswhichthestudentsdidnotoftenuseandthuswouldbeeffective

forthedevelopmentoftheirlisteningcomprehensionwereselected(seeTable1).These

strategiesincludedallthreecategoriesofstrategies,namely,metacognitive,cognitive,and

social/affectivestrategiesaccordingtoO'MalleyandChamot'sclassificationoflearning

strategies(1990).Metacognitivestrategieswereespeciallyimportantforthestudentsasit

wouldbedesirableforthemtobeautonomoussothattheycouldcontinuelearllingEnglishon

theirownaftergraduationfromschool.Theselectedmetacognitivestrategiesusedwere

directe(ゴ αttention,selectiり θ αttention,andselfLevαluαtionstrategies.Theselectedcognitive

strategiesusedwereeffectivenotetαleing,summαrizα 亡ひ η,andinferencing.Theselected

social/affectivestrategiesusedwerequestioning/brclαrificαtioninEnglishandcooρerαtion.

3.3DataCollectlonStrategles

Multipledatacollectionstrategiesformethodologicaltriangulationwereusedinorderto

examinevariousaspectsofstrategytraining.Questionnaires,guidedjournals,self-evaluation

sheets,andapost-testwereusedasresearchmethods.Inordertoevaluatethedevelopmentof

listeningskills,apost-testwasadministered.Questionnaires,journals,andself-evaluation

sheetswereusedtoinvestigatethedevelopmentoflisteningskillsandstrategyuse.Journals

inparticularwereusedtoexaminethestudents'attitudestowardstrategytraining,the

durabilityofthestrategies,andthetransferofthestrategiesacrossthecurriculum.

3.3.lQuestionnai「es

QuestionnairesweredistributedtothestudentsintheBαsicListeningclassafterthe

studentscompletedthestrategytraining.Thequestionsinthequestionnairewereexactlythe

sameasthoseusedinthepreviousstudy(seeAppendixA).

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Tablel

Metαcognitive,

Trαining

CO9励びθ,αndSociα1/AffectiveStrαtegies/brLis亡 θ励gShillSin8Zr吻gツ

Categories ListeningStrategies

Metacognitive

Cognitive

Social/Affective

DirectedAttention

SelectiveAttention

Self-Evaluation

NoteTaking

Inferencing

Summarization

QuestioningforClarificationinEnglish

Cooperation

3.3.2Guidedjoumals

Thestudentsinthetreatmentgroupwereaskedtowriteastructuredjournalathomeonce

aweekasawritingassignment(seeAppendixB).Journalwritingwasassignedtothestudents

fortwoperiodsoftime.Thefirstperiodwasfromthefirstweekwhenthestrategytraining

startedtothelastweekwhenitwascompleted.Tobemoreprecise,thestudelltsstarted

writingthejournalforthefirstperiodonApril23andstoppedwritingitonJune18 .There

wasaone-monthstudytourandatwo-monthsummervacation.Theyresumedwritingon

September24andfinishedwritingonOctober8.Thesecondperiodofjournalwritingwasfrom

thefirstweekafterthestrategytrainingwasovertothelastweekwhentheone-yearsemester

classwasfinished・Inotherwords,thejournalforthesecondperiodbeganonOctober22and

finishedonDecember17.

Japanesewasusedforjournalwritingbecausethestudentsinthisstudy ,whowere

beginningtolow-intermediatelevel,couldnotexpressaccurateenoughwhattheyintendedto

sayinEnglishandmightnotreporttheirstrategyuseindetai1.Thequestionsinthejournal

ofthefirstperiodwereusedtoassessthefollowingaspectsofstrategytraining:

1.Attitudestowardstrategytrailling.Toexaminestudents'attitudestowardstrategy

training,thestudentswereaskedabouthowtheyfeltaboutthestrategytraining .

2.Useandtransferofthestrategies.Toexaminetheuseandtransferofthestrategies ,the

studentswereaskediftheyusedthestrategiestheyhadlearnedinstrategytrainingin

differentlanguagetasks.

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Journalwritingofthesecondperiodwasusedtoobservewhetherornotthestudentsstill

usedthestrategiestheyhadpracticedinstrategytrainingafterstrategytrainingwasoveras

wellasthetransferofthestrategiestodifferentlanguagetasks.

3.3.3Self-evaluationsheet

Thestudentsfilledintheself-evaluationsheeteveryweekduringandafterthestrategy

training.Theperiodduringwhichthestudentsfilledintheself-evaluationsheetwasfrom

April23toDecember17withathree-monthbreakbecauseofastudytourandsummer

vacation.Theself-evaluationsheetsusedinthefirstandsecondperiodswereslightlydifferent

fromeachother(seeAppendixC).Intheself-evaluationsheetofthesecondperiod,Question4

0fthefirstperiod,whichaskedthestudentsaboutthenamesofthestrategiestheyhadlearned

inclass,wasremoved.

Theforemostpurposeoftheself-evaluationsheetswastopromotetheself-evaluation

strategyofthestudents.However,thestrategyuseofthestudentscouldalsobeexamined

throughthissheetbecausethesheetcontainedthequestionthataskedthestudentswhich

strategiestheyhadusedinclass.

3.3.4Post-test

Inthepreviousstudy(Ozeki,2000),thestudentshadalreadytakenthepre-testonApri118.

Inordertocomparethedevelopmentofthelisteningabilityofthestudentsinthecontrol

groupandthoseinthetreatmentgroupaftertheyhadreceivedstrategytrainillg,apost-test

wasadministeredonOctober15.Boththetreatmentgroupandthecontrolgroupparticipated

inthepost-test.

Asapost-test,thestudentstookalisteningcomprehensiontest,BαsicForrnBofTheJapan

AssociationofCollegeEnglishTeachers.TheformatofBasicFormBwasthesameasthatof

BαsicForrnA,whichhadbeenusedinthepreviousstudy.Itconsistsoffourparts,eachofwhich

includes10questions.InPαr亡1,studentslistentofourdescriptionsandchooseonedescription

whichbestfitsthegivenpicture.InPαr亡2,theylistentoaquestionandthentofourpossible

answers.TheychooseoneanswerwhichisthemostappropriateＬnPαr亡3,theylistentoashort

conversationandthentothequestionsconcerningtheconversation.Theylistentofourpossible

answersandchoosethemostappropriateone.InPαrt4,theylistentoshortstories.Thenthey

listentooneortwoquestionsconcerningeachstoryandtofourpossibleanswerstoeach

question.Theyareaskedtochooseoneanswer,whichisthemostappropriate.Therearesixshort

storiesinthispart;Twoofthemproposeonequestionandfourofthemproposetwoquestions.

BasicFormBandBasicFormAwereconsideredtobeparallelforms.Therefore,the

developmentofthelisteningcomprehensionabilityofthestudentswasjudgedbycomparing

thescoresofBasicFormAandBasicFormB.

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3.4DataAnalyslsStrategies

3.4.1Questionnaires

Ineachquestion,thestudents'answerswereopen-ended.Theanswersstudentswrote

downforeachlisteningtaskwereexaminedseveraltimesbytheresearcher,andcertain

regularitiesinthestudents'answersemerged.Inadditiontothestrategiesidentifiedinthe

previousstudy,thestrategiesthestudentshadlearnedillthestrategytrainingwerefound.

Thesestrategiesweresumrnαrizαtioninthecognitivestrategyandcooperationinthe

social/affectivestrategy.Thecodesofthesetwostrategieswerecreatedandaddedtothe

previouscodelist.Metacognitivestrategieswerethesameasthoseinthepreviousstudy.The

newcodelistisshowninTable2(seeTable2).

Table2

∧[etvCodeLis亡inThisS亡udy

MainCategories Subcategories Codes

Metacogllitive

Cognitive

Social/Affective

DirectedAttention

SelectiveAttention

Self-Evaluation

Planning

Resourcingofthe

English/JapalleseDictionary

RepeatedListening

Grouping

NoteTaking

Elaboration

Translation

Inferencing

Repetition

RoteMemorization

Summarization

QuestioningforClarificationinJapanese

QuestioningforClarificationinEnglish

Peeking

Cooperation

D

S

E

P

M

M

M

M

R

L

G

N

E

T

I

P

M

S

J

E

P

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

S

S

S

S

17

Basedonthecodelist,allthestudents'answerswerecodedbytheresearcherandanother

rater.Thecodingsoftheresearcherandtheraterwerecompared,andthestrategieswhich

werecodedasthesameandasdifferentbybothpersonswerecounted.Theinterrater

reliabilityofthedatacodingwas90%.Theresearcherandtheraterdiscussedthestrategies

whichtheycodeddifferentlyandcametoaconsensus.Thentheoccurrencesofthelearning

strategiesweretalliedforallthestudents.

3.4.2Guidedjournals

Journalsweredividedintothosewritteninthefirstperiodalldthoseinthesecondperiod .

Therewere12entriesinthefirstperiodandsevenentriesinthesecondperiod .

Therewerethreequestionsinthejournalsforthefirstperiod .Alltheopen-endedanswers

toQuestionsland2wereclassifiedbythedatemarkedonthejournalandbyeachquestion .

Forinstance,theanswersofallthestudentstoQues亡め η10nApril23couldbeseenatonce .

AlthoughQuestionsland20ftheguidedjournalforthefirstperiodweredifferent

questions,inQuestion1,thestudelltsveryoftengavetheanswerswhichalsoappliedto

Question2.Forinstance,somestudentsanswered,"Summarizationwasverydifficultforme

becauseitwasthefirsttimetopracticeit.ButIthinkitisveryusefulformetolearnitbecause

Icalluseitinalltheothersubjects."Consequently,theanswerstoQuestionsland2were

analyzedtogether.Alltheopinionslistedperdateweretalliedaccordingtothekindofopinions .

TheanswerstoQuestion3wereanalyzedasfollows:First,whetherornotthestudents

usedstrategiesinotherclasseswastalliedforeachdate.Second,iftheydid,thenumberof

strategiestheyhadusedwascountedforeachstrategytheymentioned .Third,thenamesof

theclasseswheretheyhadusedstrategieswerelisted.

Theguidedjournalforthesecondperiodaskedthestudentstoansweronlyonequestion .

ThisquestionwasexactlythesameasQuestion30ftheguidedjournalforthefirstperiod .

Therefore,theanswerstothisquestionwereanalyzedinthesamewayastheanswersto

Question30fthefirstperiod.

3.4.3Self-evaluationsheet

Therewere19entriesineachstudent'sself-evaluationsheet(seeAppendixC)、Therewere

eightquestionsonthissheet.Theanswersofallthestudentswereclassifiedbydateand

question.Forexample,theanswersofallthestudentstoQues亡ion30nApril23couldbeseen

atonce.Questions1,2,and8weremultiple-choicequestions,andtheanswerstothese

questionsweretallied.Alltheopen-endedanswerstoQuestions3,5,6,and7weretranscribed

andtalliedaccordingtothekindofanswers.Thestrategiesthestudentshadmentionedin

Question4werecoded.Codingwascarriedoutaccordingtothenewcodelist(seeTable2)

becausenonewstrategieswerefoundintheself-evaluationsheet .

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3.4.4Post_test

ThescoresofallthestudentswhotooktheBasicForrnBtestwerecalculatedby

Kαitαleushα,apublisherofEFLbooksinJapan,whichhadpublishedthislistelling

comprehensiontest.Thefinalscoreofeachstudentwasquantifiedthroughthefollowing

procedure,whichwasprovidedbythepublisher.First,therawscoreineachpart,namely,

Pαrts1,2,3,and4,0feachstudentwascounted.Nexttherawscoreofeachpartwasconverted

tostandardizedscores.StandardizedscoresofPartsland2werethescoreswhichreceived

twicetheweight,whilethoseofParts3and4werethescoreswhichreceivedthreetimesthe

weight.

4.SUMMARYOFTHERESULTS

Inthisstudy,effectivenessofstrategytrainingisevaluatedaccordingtofivecriteria:the

developmentofstudents'listeningability,theimprovementoftheirstrategyuse,their

attitudestowardstrategytraining,thetransferofthestrategies,andthedurabilityofthe

strategles.

Fromtheresultofthecomparisonofthepre-testandpost-testscoresbyt-test ,the

strategytrainingwassuccessfulaccordingtothefirstcriterion,thedevelopmentofthe

students'listeningability,becausetheprogressofthelisteningabilityofthestudentsinthe

treatmentgroupwasgreaterthanthatofthecontrolgroup.Next,theguidedjournalsforthe

treatmentgrouprevealedthatthestudentshadpositiveattitudestowardthestrategytraining

asawholeaswellasthetrainingforeachstrategy.Theresultsoftheself-evaluationsheetand

thejournalshowedthatthestudentsusedthestrategiestheyhadlearnednotonlyinthe

listeningcomprehensionclassbutalsoinotherclasses.Inadditiontothat,theycontinued

applyingthestrategiesilltheirclassesafterthestrategytrainingwascompleted.

Thedevelopmentofthestudents'strategyusecouldbeseenfromtheresultsofthe

questionnaires,self-evaluationsheets,andjournals.Thetreatmentgroupusedlesscognitive

andsocial/affectivestrategiesthandidthecontrolgroup.However ,thekindsofstrategies

whichthecontrolgroupusedwerealmostthesameasthosewhichhadbeenfoundtobeused

bythestudentsinthepreviousstudy:translation,resourcing,inferencing,andnotetakingfor

cognitivestrategiesandquestioningforclarificationinJapaneseandpeekingfor

social/affectivestrategies.Thesestrategiesrequiredlittleconceptualprocessingofthe

students.Forexample,althoughinferencingusuallyinvolvesintricate,reflectiveprocesses,the

natureofinferencingasusedbythestudentsofthecontrolgroupwasmodest ,guessing

somethingfromvisibleoraudiblecluessuchasthespeaker'sgestures,facialexpressions,and

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intonation.Similarly,theirnotetakingwasunsophisticated,tryingtotranslateintoJapanese

whatthespeakersaidwithoutprocessingtheinformation.Whatwasmoreimportantwas

that,exceptforpeekingandinferellcing,theotherstrategiesalmostalwaysinvolvedthe

processoftranslation.Itseemedthatwithのttranslationthestudentsinthecontrolgroup

couldnothaveperformedanytask.

Thequalityofthestrategieswhichthestudentsinthetreatmentgroupusedexceededthat

ofthecontrolgroup.Theyoftellappliedcognitivelydemandingstrategiessuchasinferencing

withlillguisticandnon-1illguisticclues,variousformsofnotetaking,andsummarizationin

thelisteningclassaswellasinotherclasses.Theyalsocametoemployelaborationmore,

whichtheyhadnotlearnedexplicitlyinthestrategytraining.Itseemedthatlearningthe

strategiesexplicitlyhelpedthestudentsactivatetheirthinkingprocessesandbecomeconscious

ofotherlisteningstrategieswhichwouldimprovetheirlisteningability.Itcouldbesaidthat

theylearnedtousecognitivelyelaborativestrategiesthroughstrategytraining.

Thestudentsinthetreatmentgroupusedlesstranslationaftertheyhadreceivedthe

strategytraining.Oneofthereasonswasthattranslationwasdiscouragedinclassinorderto

saveextraprocessingtimenecessaryfortranslation.Theotherreasonwasthatresourcing,

closelyrelatedtotranslation,wasalsodiscouragedinordertoenhancetheuseofinferencing

andquestioningforclarification.Thestudentscouldrefrainfromusingtranslationand

resourcing,whichseemednottocontributetotheirlearningeffectively,bypracticingmore

demandingbuteffectivestrategies.

Thestudentsinthetreatmentgroupusedmetacognitivestrategiesmoreoftenthanthose

inthecontrolgroup.Directedattention,selectiveattention,andplanningwereoftenusedat

thesametimetheyusedothercognitivestrategies.Self-evaluation,whichtheywereexpected

touseafterclass,becamefamiliartothemwhiletheywerereceivingthestrategytraining.

Besidesthesemetacognitivestrategieswhichtheyhadlearnedexplicitlyinthestrategy

training,theycametouseanothermetacognitivestrategy,planning.Byusingplanning,they

previewedtheconceptofataskandproposedstrategiesforaparticulartask.Beingconscious

ofavailablestrategiesseemedtoenablethestudentstoemployplanning.

Fillally,judgingfromtheresultsofthequestionnaireandself-evaluationsheet,the

studentswhoreceivedthestrategytrainingovercametheirweaknessesinlisteningtosome

extentastheydevelopedtheirstrategyuse.Theseweaknessesincludedbecominganxiousand

losingtrackofthematerialwhentheyheardunfamiliarwordsortranslatingearlierportions

ofapassageandthusmissingsubsequentportions.

Insum,thestudentsimprovedtheuseofthestrategiesinthefollowingaspectsthrough

thestrategytraining:(a)Thestudentsutilizedmetacogllitivestrategiessuchasdirected

20

＼


attention,selectiveattention,andself-evaluationmoreoften;(b)appliedmorecognitively

demandingstrategiessuchasinferencing,summarization,andnotetakingtoappropriate

tasks;(c)refrainedfromusinglesseffectivestrategiessuchastranslationandresourcing;and

(d)developedotherproductivestrategiessuchasplanningandelaboration.

Toconclude,thestrategytraininghadbeensuccessfulbasedonthefivecriteriamentioned

above.

5.DISCUSSIONANDCONCI_USION

Previousstudieswhichexaminedstrategytrainingfocusedonsolelythedevelopmentof

performanceoflanguagetasksthroughstrategytraining.Nevertheless,thecriticalroleof

strategytraininginlanguageteachingistofosterlearnerautonomy .Consequently,itshould

addressothereffectsofstrategytrainingaswellasthedevelopmentoflanguageproficiency .

Measurement,datasource,datatype,andmethodtriangulationwereusedinordertoassess

thelisteningstrategyinstructiollinthisstudy.Theuseofmultiplemodesoftriangulation

madeitpossibletonotonlydescribethefindingsthoroughlybutalsotogivethemcredibility.

Intheassessmentofstrategytraining,thefollowingfivecriteriawereintroduced:the

developmentofstudents'listeningability,theimprovementoftheirstrategyuse,their

attitudestowardsstrategytraining,thetransferofthestrategies,andthedurabilityofthe

strategies.Here,criterionormeasurementtriangulationwasadopted .Thedevelopmentofthe

students'useofmetacognitive,cognitive,arldsocial/affectivestrategieswasseenthroughthe

open-endedquestionllaires,guidedjournals,andself-evaluationsheets .Thisfindingwas

confirmedbytheuseofthesethreedifferentdatacollectionstrategies,thatis,method

triangulation.Theexaminationoftheguidedjournalsandevaluationsheetsshowedthatthe

studentsusedthestrategiestheyhadlearnednotonlyinlisteningclassesbutalsoinother

classes.Theyalsorevealedthatthestudentscontinuedemployingthestrategiesafterthe

strategytraininghadbeencompleted.Thesefindingsweretriangulatedbytwodifferellt

methods,theguidedjournalsandevaluationsheets,whichimpliesmethodtriangulation.The

guidedjournalsshowedthatthestudentsfavoredthelisteningstrategytrailling.Theyliked

instructionofeachstrategytrainingalongwiththewholestrategytraining .Thestudents

wrotetheguidedjournalsandself-evaluationsheetseveryweekeachtimetheyhadalistening

class.Inotherwords,datafromtheguidedjournalsandself-evaluationsheetswerecollected

atdifferenttimes。Therefore,datasourcetriangulationwasincluded .Fillally,theuseof

differentdatatypesfortriangulationwasalsoinvolvedinthisstudy.Thecomparisonofthe

pre-testandpost-testscoresshowedthatthedevelopmentoflisteningskillsofthetreatment

21

groupoutperformedthatofthecontrolgroup.Theuseofquantitativedataoflisteningtests

alongwithqualitativedataofquestionnaires,journals,andself-evaluationsheetsindicates

datatypetriangulation.

Inbrief,measurement,method,datasource,anddatatypetriangulationwereusedin

ordertoassessthelisteningstrategytraining.Theuseofmultipleprotocolsfortriangulation

hasrarelybeenintroducedinstrategyinstructionresearch,althoughitisprobablytheonly

meanstoassessstrategytrainingprecisely.Furtherresearchisneededtoassessstrategy

instructioninthefieldsofreading,writing,speaking,andcontentareasthroughtheuseof

differentmodesoftriangulation.

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23

AppendixA

Questionnaire

Year Name

StudentNumber

AIlswerthefollowingquestionsindetail.

1.Athome,youareworkingonlisteningcomprehensionhomework.Whenyoudon't

understandthewordsyouhear,whatdoyoudo?

2.Inclass,youareworkingonalisteningcomprehensionexercise.Whenyoudon'tunderstand

thewordsyouhear,whatdoyoudo?

3.YourteachertalksfortenminutesaboutcollegelifeintheU.S.Youhavetounderstandthe

mainideaandthenanswerseveralquestionsabouthertalk.

a.Whatdoyoudothathelpsyouunderstandtheteacher?

b.Whatdoyoudotorememberthemainideaanddetails?

c.Whatdoyoudothathelpsyouanswerquestions?

4.Yourteachertellsyouthestepsneededtodotheactivity,andthenyouhavetoactuallydo

ityourself.

a.Doyouhavespecialtechniquestorememberthesteps?

b.Whatdoyoudoifyouforgetwhattodonextasyou

aredoingtheactivity?

5.YouaretalkingtoaforeignteacherwhoolllyspeaksEnglish.Youmustlistentowhat

he/shesaysandunderstandthemeaning.

a.Whatdoyoudothathelpsyouunderstand?

b.Whatdoyoudothathelpsyouremembernewwordsorphrases?

6.Yourteachersaysseveralsentencesinthepresentationthatincludewordsyoudon'tknow.

Doyouhavespecialtrickstohelpyouunderstandherpresentation?

7.DoyouhaveothertechniqueswhichyouusetounderstandEnglish?

8.Doyoucheckyourcomprehension?Ifyes,how?

9.Whatisyourweaknessinlisteningcomprehension?

24


AppendixB

GuidedJournals

(fortheFirstPeriod)

1.Whatdoyouthinkofthestrategytrainingthisweek?

2.Doyouthinkthatstrategytrainingisusefulforyourlanguagedevelopment?

Yes,Idobecause

No,Idon'tbecause

3.Didyouuselearnedstrategiesfortheotherclasses?

Yes,Iused(namesofstrategies)for(namesofclasses).

Yes,Iusedfor.

Yes,Iusedfor.

Yes,Iusedfor.

No,Ididn't.

(fortheSecondPeriod)

Didyouusestrategiesyouhadlearnedinyourclassesthisweek?

Yes,Iused(namesofstrategies)for(namesofclasses).

Yes,Iusedfor.

Yes,Iusedfor.

Yes,Iusedfor.

No,Ididn't.

25

AppendixC

Self-EvaluationSheet

(FortheFirstPeriod)

1.Whatpercentageofthematerialofeachlisteningtaskdidyouunderstandtoday?

TasklLessthan50%About50%Morethan50%

Task2Lessthan50%About50%Morethan50%



2.WhatpreYentsyoufromunderstandingthematerial?

3.Doyouthinkthatyoucomprehendedmoreofthespokenmaterialthaninthelastclass?

YesNo

4.Whatkindoflearningstrategiesdidyoulearnthisweek?

5.Whichstrategiesdidyouuseinthisclass?

6.Whatdidyoulearninthisclass?(Englishvocabulary,grammar,organization,andsoon)

7.Whatkindofmistakesdidyoumakeinthisclass?

8.Didyouconcentrateonlisteninginclass?

Yes,allthetimeSo,so Notreally

(FortheSecondPeriod)

1.Whatpercentageofthematerialofeachlisteningtaskdidyouunderstandtoday?

TasklLessthan50%About50%Morethan50%




2.Whatpreventsyoufromunderstandingthematerial?

26


3.Doyouthinkthatyoucomprehendedmoreofthespokenmaterialthaninthelastclass?

YesNo

4.Whichstrategiesdidyouuseinthisclass?

5.Whatdidyoulearninthisclass?(Englishvocabulary,grammar,organization,andsoon)

6.Whatkindofmistakesdidyoumakeinthisclass?

7.Didyouconcentrateonlisteninginclass?

Yes,allthetimeSo,so Notreally

27

TriangulationinaStudyof ListeningStrategyInstruction · l ¶ È w _ W æ50 E51 S ¹ (2005.3) TriangulationinaStudyof ListeningStrategyInstruction NaokoOzeki 1.INTRODUCTION...

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