Transforming IKS Practices Into Formal Education- CAT as a Framework of Analysis

Translating indigenous knowledge practices into formal education: Contiguity Argumentation Theory (CAT)

Ngonidzashe Mushaikwa & Daniel Angaama University of the Western Cape

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Abstract The introduction of indigenous knowledge into the South African schools’ curriculum is a good initiative if followed by supporting repositories of documented indigenous knowledge practices by the academics that are well versed in these practices. The documentation of the African history through ethno archaeological studies will give a good history of early inhabitants with their industries as reflected in some of the articles and reports which have been reviewed. The archiving of indigenous knowledge practices is a good starting point. Some of the articles on indigenous knowledge practices actually reveal that the prevention and treatment of mosquito bites and malaria are quite effective. Developing these practices further will bring effectiveness and empowerment of indigenous people of Africa. It will further put these practises on the map and not just as practises for the down trodden.

Background The backdrop of this study is multifaceted in that besides it being a joint cooperation between South Africa and Mozambique it is also involved in materials development of the indigenous knowledge practices that can be used in the South African schools. The SA-Mozambique project is doing a systematic review with the hope of setting up databases on research which the two countries have been undergoing. The Science and Indigenous Knowledge System Project (SIKSP), is also involved in the process of researching and collecting indigenous knowledge practices that can be used in the South African Education in particular. There is a call for ensuring that there are resources with regard to some indigenous knowledge practices that can be used in teaching in the schools. This is in line with the requirements of Curriculum 2005 (C2005) whose aims include among others, “...valuing indigenous knowledge systems; acknowledging the rich history and heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing the values contained in the constitution...” (CAPS, 2011, 5). The challenge which teachers face in the schools is how to integrate indigenous knowledge into the curriculum. The various articles that have been reviewed will be critically analysed using contiguity argumentation theory framework (CAT).

Introduction This paper gives an outline of various articles that have been reviewed which cover a variety of themes from different authors which are namely archaeological and ethnological reports from various authors, educational discourse and arguments on integrating Science with indigenous knowledges and articles on indigenous ways of treating and preventing malaria, another one on indigenous practices. Currently within the science education research fraternity, there is debate on whether Science and indigenous knowledges can be integrated. We will be using the contiguity argumentation theory (CAT) framework for our analysis

Archaeological reportsThe study of Archaeology entails the study of past human history and their cultures through excavations and analysis of the samples of remaining articles such as buildings, tools etc that are collected in areas under study, (Oxford Advanced learner’s Dictionary 2011). In this paper, the archaeological research articles are reports of research carried out in South Africa and Zimbabwe. The reports highlight the types of lifestyles which people practised dating back from approximately the 4th century. In South Africa archaeological reports show different stages that the inhabitants of some caves lived (Flower (2006); Sadr, & Aymar, (2006); Halls, (2000), Hughes, & Solomon, (2000), Wadley & Laue,. (2000), Orton, (2006); Mazel, & Watchman, (2003). The specimens collected included bones of animals, ostrich eggshells, clay, stone and iron tools. The same trends were found in Zimbabwe’s Gosho 1 Shelter is situated in Mashonaland East, (Burrett, 2003). This is the trend in most areas that experienced colonisation. Africa in particular, besides colonisation was faced with racial discrimination which made the indigenous knowledge practices of the people be greatly undermined. However from the archaeological research reports, there is proof that the people’s lifestyles were not stagnant but quite diverse.

The reason why I took this lenses is to show that indigenous knowledge practices on the contrary can be as innovative as any other knowledge paradigm if due interest is given to them. The question however that needs to be answered remains, “Who is going to invest or take interest in developing these indigenous knowledge practises so that they can evolve just like other knowledge systems?” Reports and research (World Bank, CIDA, and ENESCO) show that indigenous knowledge practices sustain approximately 80% of the world’s population, yet these practices are still marginalised. If the development programmes are being planned with the beneficiaries in mind, then these programmes would definitely succeed because the beneficiaries would embrace them and claim ownership. If ethno archaeological reports show that the early inhabitants of areas such as Ukhahlamba in KwaZulu Natal as far back as 190 years, and current 21st century Zulus are still practising their traditional use of ceramics together with modern ceramics it therefore means that indigenous knowledges can be practised side by side with modern technologies. The author in stressing the importance of Zulu pottery in traditional rituals states that the Zulu ceramic producers and consumers will only stop the production and trade of ceramic vessels when Zulus stop the bonding ceremonies with ancestors, family and friends when they share beer which is food besides being a beverage, (Flower, 2006). The author’s point is that Zulus, although they have embraced modern technologies, when it comes to their traditions and spirituality they prefer hoisting them using their traditional vessels whose usages are multi functional and multi-faceted depending on size and appearance.

In a similar study in Zimbabwe, Gosho 1 Shelther: observation into the lithic complexities of the Pfupi Industry in Northeastern Zimbabwe, Burrett, (2003), investigates the reliability of Gosho 1 shelter to verify its significant sequential variations and peradventure if there are sequential variations that had been undermined and unexploited. Results showed that activities date back to between approx. 8500-7000yrs. The study discovered that Gosho 1 excavations has deep deposit containing significant and valuable diachronic changes in the lithic and ceramic assemblages, but the earlier held view of the later stone age Pfupi tradition as a single uniformity entity are incorrect. Although there are certain changes that occur at the site from time to time, these historical changes appear to be internal reaction to demographic, ecological and social challenges faced by the exploration by communities. These results show that the inhabitants were quite interactive with the outside world through trade.

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There are other similar ethno archaeological studies carried out that state the years when the area under study was inhabited and the type of lifestyles and industries which were going on. Such studies include the Ukhahlamba dating rock art which aims at finding out the types of paints which were used using more advanced methods like the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). These studies are to verify previous studies on rock paintings in other areas and see if there were similarities. The studies of archaeology reveal how early human activities took place. In these studies the author’s voice is the dominant authority. The study on types of paints used reveal different components which constituted rock paintings. Indigenous knowledge practices from Africa and ItalyThe articles reviewed reveal various indigenous practices of treating malaria from east Africa, namely Cameroon, Nigeria and Ghana. These articles look at indigenous ways of preventing malaria and how the advent of biomedicines has affected the indigenous practices. Two articles that are socio cultural are from Kenya and Italy and again in these narratives, emerges comparisons of how these practices have adapted and survived the advent of contemporary medicines. The Kenyan article looks at narratives of Embu women in their day to day activities, what the activities entail and how these women feel. There is a study on traditional grief counselling amongst the Zion apostolic church from Venda and how it has been affected by modern society. Last but not least is an article from South Africa about collaborative research on efficacy of indigenous herbal medicines for better treatment of diseases.

The study done by Ntonifor, et al. (2006), is entitled Traditional use of Indigenous Mosquito –repellents to protect humans against mosquitoes and other insect bites in a rural community of Cameroon. The aim of the study was to document and test the efficacy of indigenous mosquito repellents used in Cameron. The study entailed selecting samples of mosquito repellents traditionally used by locals. 179 men, women and children participated in interviews and were observed on their use of plant based repellents as prophylaxes for malaria. Participants claimed that their use of traditional plants was availability. Some of the plants used are used by pharmaceuticals. The results showed that some of the traditional repellents are known potent mosquito repellents. This research will help harmonize Indigenous Knowledge practices with modern medicine and may help in finding ways of eradicating malaria. The research and many similar reports on indigenous herbal medicinal treatments will empower such communities into continuing and may even make their medicines available on the broader market provided the governments of such communities take cogniscence of these reports. Ntonifor, et al. (2006)’s research is dominantly in that it propounds to the reader that the advent of modern medicine though it was a good discovery for humankind, does not come cheap. Most rural communities especially in Africa and the third world at large still rely heavily on the use of traditional herbal medicines. Results further espouse the reports that about eighty percent of the population still rely on indigenous medicines for the treatment of various ailments. In a similar study entitled “Indigenous methods of malaria control by the Osooro people of Ondo State of Nigeria,” Osunwole, (2007), which investigated and documented the survival strategies of the Osooro people of Nigeria who live in a swampy malarial infested area. Ethnographical case study involving 75 people, archives from University of Ibadan were used and interviews with people. The findings of the research were that the Osooros have both preventive and curative local traditional treatments for malaria. The people also use coils and

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traditional herbs/methods such as Hyptis Pectinata which is poisonous to mosquitoes only and not to humans. Furthermore the Osooros believe that malaria can be both prevented and cured. Besides that knowledge, they know the symptoms of malaria and can distinguish between other types of fevers and that of malaria. This study is of great value in education and preventive health studies. In Africa it is always ideal to have alternative cures to local ailments because the modern health facilities are not available throughout the country and even scarcer in remote rural areas. In some cases, the rural clinics run out of drugs therefore having knowledge of alternative cures save lives. This research shows dominance of indigenous traditional medicines and the knowledge which people of an area develop as they interact with their environment. The two studies from Cameroon and Nigeria is testimony of how indigenous knowledge practices if acknowledged and aligned somehow into formal education can eventually develop just as the biomedicines. The fact that these practices are only left for those communities who cannot access modern medicines is a shame to the governments who instead of boosting these knowledge paradigms wait for multi-national pharmaceuticals to come and do research for them and take with them the property rights. Unless governments start looking at different epistemologies within their borders, and making them part of school curriculum, valuable knowledges will be left to die with their holders as they grow old and die. A third study on a similar topic is entitled, “Changes in treatment for malaria: western influence on indigenous practice by (James, 2000). The author’s aim was to examine the impact of western medicine over traditional medicine in treating malaria in Ghana. The author also explored the rationale behind the choice of treatment. Purposive interviews were conducted in four communities within and surrounding the Cape coast areas. In addition to interviews conducted, simple observations of each community and surveys of treatment centres were used. The objective was to determine the perception of malaria, understand the choice of treatment and personal reasons behind choice, determine how the impact of western medicine has influenced treatment selection, and place the afore mentioned objective in context with cultural/community background and current state of living. He highlighted the prospects of traditional treatment. However, he recommended that policy makers should design a policy based on the various cultures in Ghana emphasizing education for traditional remedies users.The Ghanaian study further espouses my assertion that aligning different epistemologies with formal education should be the way forward for the 21st century third world countries. The fact that indigenous herbal treatments are free and owned by communities should prompt governments to support their knowledge heritages and promote them and not alienate them for the downtrodden communities of societies. The author’s voice is equipollent since the study looks at the influences that affect either a person uses either traditional herbal medicines or modern medicines for treatment of malaria.

In Italy, Calabria, ethno archaeological reports also show the history of the people who have gone through different colonial rulers and how the traditional practices survived though not documented. The resilience of the people of Calabria is reflected in a study by Krippner, et al. (2011). The study involved archaeological excavations, interviewing the current Calabrese and their traditional practices in the treatments of spiritual illnesses especially in the advent of biomedicines in view of Italy’s attempts of availing modern medicines to most of its citizenry. Besides them reporting the different colonialists who conquered Calabria, it shows that the cultural practises though undocumented were still being practised for holistic healing whilst biomedicines are for physical illnesses. The report shows that the people embraced the introduction of modern health facilities by their governments in the 1970s, but the older

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generations still resort back to traditional healing practices for spiritual ailments which they believe are not treatable with modern medicine. They believe that their healing practices are holistic.The Calabrese follow the moon phases when it comes to planting of crops and believe that there are spiritual illnesses caused by witchcraft, evil eye and evil spirits. They also believe that these are caused by jealousy hence they seek spiritual treatments. The herbal treatments commonly used entail bitter pomegranate roots, male fern, wild olive, oak and willow bark, sea onions, ergot of rye, Sabina, mustard and cayenne pepper. They also use animal parts for the treatment of ailments. Animals used are, hearts of swallows and puppy dogs, blood of snakes and tortoises (Douglas 70-71 cited in Krippner, et al. (2011).The article from Italy is dominantly showing how cultural practices can survive and adapt to changes brought by technological development influencing ways of life. It shows that people will accommodate the technology/development side by side their cultural practices.

The other study was “Narratives of Embu Rural Women: Gender Roles and Indigenous Knowledge, Njoki, (2001). Unstructured interviews were employed to carry out the study. 77 women participated in the interviews while 14 ranging from 20 to 80 years recounted their life histories. The study reveals that Kenyan Embu rural women play a pivotal role in day to day activities in their families such as milking cows, fetching water/firewood, cooking etc and their multi-tasking skills were incomparable. In this study the author empowered these hard working women into telling their own life styles. The aim of the author was to unpack the complex nature of the common substantiated but unnoticed participation of African women in unrelenting efforts to keep their communities going through their stocked up indigenous conceptions, experiences and wisdom. However, the residue of imperialism had condemned indigenous knowledges which are valuable to be only practised by impoverished communities in the society. This as a result has brought about marginalisation and disregard on the part of indigenous values, furthermore widening the gap between indigenous knowledge practices and modern technology. Certainly, industrialisation and technological development has eroded the unique values and magnitudes of African women’s tasks in their communities. This as a result led to women taking up both men’s roles in addition to their own roles. Nevertheless, integration of indigenous knowledge practices with other knowledge paradigms may lessen the overloaded schedule of Embu women as I critically look at the practises. Though the women are proud of what they do in their families and communities at large, I think these women are overly overburdened. By giving them a platform to describe what their days entail, indigenous women roles are being esteemed. The study of the Embu women however shows the disparities in gender roles which has been worsened by modernisation and industrialisation. This is so especially in situations whereby the husband lives and works in town and his family stays in rural areas. In this case, urbanisation overburdened the already burdened rural women/African who now plays both roles which used to be performed by men. The interviewer even questions the practice of women eating last after everyone has been fed yet they are the most hardworking people. The author’s view as an onlooker, though assimilative in the sense brings to the fore the enslaving practises that women have to bear. Another study was done in South Africa on grief counselling amongst the Venda Zionist church members from the Limpopo (Sepele and Edwards, 2008). The study’s aim was to determine how the advent of modern funeral services in contemporary societies has affected the traditional grief counselling within the African Indigenous Churches (AIC) in South Africa.

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The results show that the people still practised their traditional grieving ways alongside the contemporary methods offered by funeral services. This research reveals the dominance of traditional practices in that people simply assimilate the new technologies into their own practices and use them as and when needed. This article is very interesting in that the modern day psychologists can actually learn from it as they offer their services to such communities. It will help them design programs that match the traditional practices in order for them to have an impact on users.

Last but not list is a report from the CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) South Africa (Maharaj, 2007), on collaborative research on seeking treatments of contemporary ailments such as cancer, HIV/AIDS etc using the herbal knowledge of herbalists including the efficacy of hoodia as treatment for obesity. The report highlights the kind of collaboration, who the participants are and what benefits are available for South Africa. This report shows emerging trends in the ways in which research is now focusing in the advent of illnesses caused by lifestyles, erosion of cultural values and mores due to modernisation with regards to sexual behaviour and entertainment.

In my view I think, the scourge caused by HIV/AIDS should be relooked at holistically. I am of the opinion that countries in Africa specifically should design their own prevention/treatment programmes and not just adopt programs from America. The proof of having home grown programmes for HIV/AIDS prevention/treatment was witnessed in Uganda which through its own home grown HIV/AIDS prevention/treatment protocols reduced the infection rates by large percentages through behavioural change, Green,(2000). I believe that innovation should emerge from Africa and not to await intervention from outside yet the indigenous knowledge practices reports show that these practices are equally effective. What Africa should focus on is documenting and vigorously researching and validating their own practices with the hope of developing them further.

Empirical research papers in Integration of Indigenous Knowledge and Education/ScienceFive articles were also reviewed which are mostly empirical papers on education with specific reference to the demands of the South African Curriculum (C2005). One entitled, Indigenous Knowledge and reframing the debate on knowledge diversity. Green, J. L.(2008). The author calls for the use of diverse epistemologies in the classroom for advancement and enhancement of knowledge. It is a theoretical argument on integration of indigenous knowledge with science and this author argues for the adoption of diverse epistemologies for knowledge enhancement. Claims made are that the use of other epistemologies should be on the basis that they can enhance knowledge acquisition and not on realism or truths only. The author’s voice is very critical and argument the basis of his argument is a response to Horsthemke’s call for upholding universal knowledge. His/ her voice is dominant and critics the works of those who prefer the teaching of universal knowledges. I think this argument is very critical especially in this country where some of C2005’s aims were categorically stated to integrate IK and Science yet no clarity is given as to how this should be done (Onwu and Mosimege, 2004).

In another study entitled, Argumentation-teaching as a method to introduce Indigenous knowledge into science classrooms: opportunities and challenges. Hewson, & Ogunniyi (2011). The study had 9 focus group participants who are post graduates, master’s and

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doctoral students at a university. The researchers also used what they called “critical incident technique” on the teachers who were introduced to argumentation as a teaching strategy and technique that could be used in the integration of Science and Indigenous Knowledge. These teachers then were expected to teach and then were interviewed about using argumentation to integrate IK and Science. The teachers had various challenges which ranged from language issues, on the part of learners, the need for prior knowledge and the teacher support from the stakeholders. Generally the participants agreed that argumentation could be used in the teaching of science and indigenous knowledge. The authors’ voices are quite dominant in the study.

The challenge which faces the teachers though is the fact that the curriculum is not very clear as to what IK should be taught. It also does not even feature in assessments which mean that teachers can exclude the teaching of an integrated Science-Indigenous knowledge curriculum because the curriculum is very much exam driven.

Another article is entitled “Rethinking argumentation- teaching strategies and Indigenous Knowledge in South African science classrooms,” Otulaja, et al. (2011). This is a response to the above study of introducing argumentation as a teaching strategy of integrating science-IK. The basis of this argument is that it might be too cumbersome for the teachers to bare the challenges of a new curriculum that is seeking to introduce indigenous knowledge which is a totally new epistemology in science classrooms and then at the same time introduce argumentation as a new teaching strategy. Their stance is to encourage the education stakeholders who are holders and knowers of indigenous knowledge and heritages to value, know and document their national indigenous heritage as of paramount importance before introducing argumentation as a teaching strategy. Their argument is to create repositories that teachers can access in their day to day teaching. Besides there is still ongoing debate as to the appropriateness and whether it is possible to integrate science with IK and whose IK will be used in the South African classrooms contexts which are diverse since there are eleven official languages spoken. The authors also challenge all those who hold indigenous knowledge to start documenting it, reasons being that it is the duty of the holders of such heritages to safeguard it and avoid IK being an appendage in western science yet it is a body of knowledge in its own rights. The authors’ voices are quite dominant in prompting the Indigenous Knowledge holders to start archiving the practices that can bring innovation to IK and uplift the holders.

I do concur with the authors of the above article that there is need to have archives which teachers can access in their teaching before argumentation can be effectively used. Currently, the resources are scanty. Then the curriculum needs to clarify what IK needs to be taught the same way science topics are elaborated in the C2005 and CAPS 2011.The other article is a narrative report of Indigenous Knowledge and indigenous Communications, (Mundy, & Compton, 1991). The report narrates the various indigenous knowledges and ways they are communicated. Indigenous knowledges are communicated informally and practiced so exogenous ways can be communicated through IK communication for their acceptance by communities. The report suggests for the use of indigenous communication to be used when introducing development programmes to indigenous communities so that they can be sustained. IK and indigenous communications are as authentic as formal ways but more preferred by indigenous people so in schools which have learners from indigenous communities the use of indigenous communications may be used to enhance conceptualization of knowledge. The ways of communication listed are

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folktales, horn blowing, poetry, songs and dances. The author’s voice is assimilated since it is a report.

Conclusion

I am of the opinion that indigenous people must start taking interest in their own heritages,

where they came from and where they are going. They must be the movers of their destinies.

I also strongly believe that indigenous knowledge practices will only be developed from

where they are now by their holders. The challenges of bringing this body of knowledge into

mainstream education are not going to come easy. Resistance will be experienced all over

and this might require the political will to enact such big moves. The challenges are

humongous because resistance will be faced externally and internally from the indigenous

people themselves who are supposed to be the benefactors because nobody wants change

especially from the “norm” to the unknown. The documentation of indigenous artefacts and

practices should be prioritised by indigenous peoples themselves, and stakeholders as

affirmed by Otulaja et al, (2011). In a nutshell I would reiterate that the answer to IK-Science

integration argument lies with the politics of the day.

Reference

Burrett, R. S. (2003). Gosho 1 Shelther: observation into the lithic complexities of the Pfupi Industry in northeastern Zimbabwe, Southern African Humanities. Vol. 15, pp. 1-43.

Deepa, S. (2008). Agrawal-Report on World Bank on Indigenous: Indigenous knowledge Initiatives at the World Bank. http://books.google.co.za.

Department of Education (2002) C2005: National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Natural Sciences Grade 7-9. Pretoria. Government Printers.

Flower, K. D (2006). Classification and Collapse: The ethno history of Zulu Ceramic use. Source; Southern African Humanities Vol. 18 (2) pp. 93-117.

Green, E.C. (2000). Indigenous responses to AIDS in Africa. World Bank Report: indigenous Knowledge for Development. A Framework for Action: Knowledge and Learning Centre, Africa Region. Ontario, World Bank staff.

Green, J. L. (2008). Indigenous Knowledge and reframing the debate on knowledge diversity, Journal of the World Archaeological Congress, DOI 10.1007/s11759-008-9057-9.

Hewson, M.G.& Ogunniyi, M.B. (2011). Argumentation-teaching as a method to introduceIndigenous knowledge into science classrooms: opportunities and challenges, Cult Stud of Sci Educ, Vol. 6:679–692.

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James, K.L. (2000) Changes in Treatment for Malaria: Western Influence on Indigenous Practice. African Diaspora collection, digitalcollections@sit.

Krippner, Budden, A., Gallante, R.& Bova, M. (2011).The Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy. Internatinal Journal of Transpersonal studies, vol 30(1-2), pp 48-62.

Maharaj, V. (2007). Ancient knowledge meets modern science for medicinal purposes: CSIR ScienceScope.

Mazel, A.D & Watchman, A.L.(2003). Dating rock painting in the Ukhahlamba –Drakensberg and the Biggarsberg , KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa,

Mundy, P & Compton, J. L. (1991). Indigenous Knowledge and indigenous Communication, Development Communication Report 74, 1991/3. Clearinghouse on Development Communication, Arlington, VA.

Njoki, W. ( Narratives of Embu Rural Women: Gender Roles and Indigenous Knowledge. Gender, Technology and Development 5 (3). New Dehli, Sage Publications.

Ntonifor, N.N., Ngufor, C. A. , Kimbi,H.K. & Oben, B.O. (2006). Traditional use of Indigenous Mosquito –repellents to protect humans against mosquitoes and other insect bites in a rural community of Cameron, East African Medical journal, Vol. 83.(10).

Hewson, M.G., Ogunniyi,M.B. (2010). Argumentation Teaching as a Method to Introduce

Indigenous Knowledge into Science Classrooms: Opportunities and Challenges.

Cultural studies of Science education.

Omolewa, M. (2007). Traditional African modes of education; their relevance in the modern world, International Review of Education , 53:593–612.

Onwu, G. & Mosimege, M. (2004). Indigenous Knowledge Systems. African Journal of Research in Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 8(1), 1-2.

Osunwole, A. (2007). Indigenous Methods of malaria control by the Osooro people of Ondo State of Nigeria. African Journal for the Psychological study of Social Issues, vol 10 (1).

Otulaja, F.S., Cameron, A, & Msimanga, A. (2011). Rethinking argumentation- teaching strategies and Indigenous Knowledge in South African science classrooms, Cult Stud of Sci Educ Vol, 6:693–703.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2012) International Student’s Edition, 8th (ed) Oxford University Press.

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Selepe, M. C. & Edwards, S. D. (2008). Grief counseling in African indigenous Churches: A case study of the Zion Apostolic church in Venda: A socio-culture. Natal Mus. J. Humanities Vol. 12 pp. 15–31.

Wadley, L. & Laue, G. (2000). Cave, eastern Free State, South Africa: test excavations at a multiple-occupation Oakhurst Industry site, Natal Mus. J. Humanities Vol. 12 , pp. 1–13.

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[Type the document title]

Title and Author Aim, background

of study, & Hypothesis

Design, Methodology, Context - appropriate to IKS

Results, findings (Claims Made, warrants or justification for claims)

Summary and conclusions(Discussion backings for claims, implicit assumptions)

Outcomes Contingent conditions under which the paper holds

Critical voice (critique the paper in terms of CAT)What aspect of the CAT categories is evident

Impact (Benefit of the study to research, policy, community & country

Indigenous Knowledge and reframing the debate on knowledge diversity. Green, J. L. (2008)

Calls for the use of diverse epistemologies for advancement and enhancement of knowledge

A theoretical argument on integration of indigenous knowledge with science.IKS-Science related

Argues for adoption of diverse epistemologies for knowledge enhancement

Claims that the use of other epistemologies should be on the basis that they can enhance knowledge acquisition and not on realism or truths

Science education. IK and science integration debate in South Africa

The author’s voice is very critical and argument is a response to Horsthemke’s call for upholding universal knowledge (equipollency)

Very relevant to the current calls for a socio-scientific curriculum.

Indigenous Knowledge and indigenous CommunicationMundy, P & Compton, J. L.. (1991)

The paper narrates the various indigenous knowledges and ways they are communicated

Qualitative design Indigenous knowledges are communicated informally and practiced so exogenous way can be communicated through IK communication for acceptance by communities

Claims that IK and Indigenous communication can be used when introducing development programmes to indigenous communities so that they can be sustained

Education. IK and communications are as authentic as formal ways but more preferred by indigenous people.

Equipollents. Narrates various ways in which IK communication takes place and how it can be adopted in formal education

IK and indigenous communication can be successfully used to enhance acquisition of exogenous knowledge.

Traditional African modes of education;

Exploring characteristics, goals, modes of

Theoretical paper calling for introduction of

Author claims that in traditional African modes of

There is a lot of knowledge in traditional

IKS and the school curriculum. IK

Dominant- author sees potential in IK and calls for

Contribution to education policies in African schools

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[Type the document title]

their relevance in the modern worldOmolewa, M. (2007) Education

transmission, teaching and learning strategies of African indigenous education with the aim of co-opting it into formal education

some traditional African modes of education into modern education/school curriculum

communication, every member of society is prepared for a societal role to play so adopting it into school curriculum would ensure survival of IK

knowledge and to preserve it, the school should take the role of transmission of this epistemology. This promotes intergenerational harmony

can form part of vocational training and harmonises school and society.

African governments to adopt IK into school curricular

Rethinking argumentation - teaching strategies and Indigenous Knowledge in South African science classrooms, Otulaja, F. S. (2011).

Aim – an argument in response to Hewson an Ogunniyi (2011)’s call for using argumentation as a strategy for aligning the IK into science classrooms.

Empirical/theoretical study appropriate to IK-Science integration discourse on whether to align or not and how to.

Their appeal is for education researchers who are well versed in IK practices to document this body of knowledge so that teachers can access and use them

They support the IK –Science alignment and the use of argumentation in teaching provided the resources are available for teachers.

This paper falls under the current discourse about the revised SA curriculum and how Science and IK can be integrated especially with the curriculum which is not clear either of how to integrate.

The authors’ voices and message put forward is dominant in this critique. I agree that the current Sa curriculum is not very clear therefore introducing argumentation as well will further frustrate the educators/teachers. Furthermore, there the curriculum is silent on what is to be taught as IK.

This article adds to the current discourse on the SA curriculum and its undecided stance on the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in mainstream education.

Argumentation Aim: Introducing argumentation-

The study had 9 focus group

Generally the participants

The participants accepted that

The paper is under discursive

The authors’ voices are very

The paper is part of discourse on

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[Type the document title]

Teaching as a

Method to

Introduce

Indigenous

Knowledge into

Science

Classrooms:

Opportunities

and Challenges.

Cultural studies

of Science

education,

Hewson, M.G

& Ogunniyi,

M.B. (2010)

teaching as a method to introduce Indigenous knowledge into science classrooms: opportunities and challenges.

participants who are post graduates, master’s and doctoral students at a university. The researchers also used what they called “critical incident technique”

agreed that argumentation could be used in the teaching of science and indigenous knowledge. They also had various challenges which ranged from language issues, on the part of learners, the need for prior knowledge and the teacher support from the stakeholders.

argumentation could be used as a strategy to integrate scie-Ik . They however noted some factors that hinder argumentation e.g. language, need for repositories, time.

issues of the South African Schools’ curriculum and the way forward.

dominant throughout the paper. The issues raised in the paper are critical in SA especially with the crucial changes that would have made the South African syllabus one of the best in the continent had it been specific in its IK-Sci integration policy.

integration of IK-Scie and how to integrate and what to integrate since the curriculum did not implicitly state that.

Traditional use of Indigenous Mosquito –repellents to protect humans against mosquitoes and other insect bites in a rural community of

To document and test the efficacy of indigenous mosquito repellents

Selected evaluation of plant based personal protection against mosquitoes

179 men, women and children participated in interviews and were observed on their use of plant based repellents and local prophylaxes taken

Participants claimed that their use of traditional plants was availability. Some of the plants used are used by pharmaceuticals

Some of the traditional repellents are known potent mosquito repellents

Authors’ voices aresuppressed

Research will help harmonise IK ways with pharmacologists

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[Type the document title]

CameronNtonifor, N.N., Ngufor, C. A. , Kimbi,H.K. & Oben, B.O.

Indigenous methods of malaria control by the Osooro people of Ondo State of Nigeria.Osunwole, A.

To study the survival strategies of the Osooro people of Nigeria who live in a swampy malarial infested area.

Ethnographical case study.75 people, archives from University of Ibadan, interviews with people

The Osooros have both preventive and curative local traditional treatments for malaria

They also use coils and traditional herbs/methods such as Hyptis Pectinata which is poisonous to mosquitoes only and not humans

The Osooros believe that malaria can be both prevented and cured and know the symptoms of malaria

Researcher’s voice is suppressed as findings are unpacked

Valuable in education and preventative health studies.

Classification and Collapse: The ethno history of Zulu Ceramic use. Flower, K. D (2006).Source; Southern African Humanities Vol. 18 (2) pp 93-117

To elaborate on the classification and uses of the Zulu ceremics from the 19th century.The aim of the author was to unify the historical observation, linguistic data, ethnographic accounts and recent ethno archaeological research on ceramic use among Zulu

Ethnographical and archaeological qualitative research He interviewed more than twenty potters to solidify the reason why pottery was still made and in use after many decades of collapse.

For the Zulus, the shape, sizes and surface appearance determine the ceramic vessels’ uses

Ceramic vessels have different uses and values at different occasions

However, it was observed that the Zulu could not substantiate with evidence that local pottery were not for decorations but symbolic. From his study, it was well grounded that the collapse

Though shape, size and outside appearance are factors to consider for usage, ceramic vessels have multi-functional uses, e.g. storage, beer brewing, serving

The researcher aims at adding some historical uses of ceramics over yrs by the Zulus of South Africa

Valuable research to archaeology.

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speaking people in South Africa.

of Zulu ceramic repertoire occurs because of the outcome effect of the more durable European metal containers. However, the economic, socio-cosmic and symbolic significance that were attached to pottery encouraged the production in their community.

Indigenous healing Tradition in Calabria, ItalyKrippner, S. et al. (2011)

Aim: An ethno historical study of people of Calabria, Italy’s traditional healing practices under modern technology;Hypothesis; Calabrese still practice traditional healing alongside biomedicines.

Qualitative ethnological research

Appropriate to IKS

The older Calabrese still practice traditional healing rituals alongside contemporary medicines,Claims; not all illnesses are treatable by biomedicines, especially those caused by (evil eye) witch craft.

The advent of biomedicines has not affected the practice of traditional healing amongst the older generations of Calabria, Italy. The authors make implicit findings about how these communities still use both methods for physical and psychological

The authors take an assimilative role as they research and record their findings without criticizing. They noted however that despite the undergoing different phases of governance, the practices, though not documented are still being

The article reveal the nature of IKS( holistic) and this is evident in any most parts of the world. The trend of leaving IK practices for the downtrodden is changed in this study. The Italian government has ensured availability of

The study can be of use in the bio-medicines and in education as well.

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wellbeing. practiced. health physicians to its citizenry, the Calabrese still believe in traditional healing practices to augment modern practices.

Grief counseling in African indigenous Churches: A case study of the Zion Apostolic church in Venda: A socio-culture. Selepe, M. C. & Edwards, S. D. (2008)

To unpack the effects funeral services have had on grieving in an African indigenous church.

A qualitative case study of the members of an Apostolic church from Venda and how they deal with grief.

There has not been any shift due to emergency of funeral services in the traditional African ways of grief counselling

Despite the commercialization of funeral services, this has not affected the ritual practices among the African indigenous churches with reference to the Zion Apostolic Church in Venda. Bereavement still remains a shared experience. The church understands the multi-layered approach affecting the surviving family which is emotional, physical,

IKS – Socio cultural.

Can be used by psychologists when they help the bereaved and in schools to understand children going through bereavement.

This research can help funeral service providers and communities to allow these processes followed by the African Indigenous churches in their grief counselling approaches.

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cognitive and behavioral. They therefore use a holistic approach to help them move from shock, to healing, to final incorporation to the community.

Narratives of Embu Rural Women: Gender Roles and Indigenous Knowledge. Njoki Wane

Source: Gender, Technology and Development 5 (3).

Type; Article Aim; To acknowledge by unraveling the roles that African play in sustaining their communities through their accumulated indigenous knowledge.

Narratives of rural Embu Women of Kenya. Qualitative study involving Unstructured interviews was employed to carry out the study. 77 women participated in the interview while 14 ranging from 20 to 80 years recounted their life histories.

Kenyan Embu rural women play a pivotal role in day to day activities in their families such as milking cows, fetching water/firewood, cooking and their multi-tasking etc.,

The rewards accorded to formal education has led to the abandonment of IK practices. IK practices are still on-going in rural areas hence it is seen as a practice by poor rural people who are marginalized.

African women- the Embu, should be able to proclaim and define their own IK practices

However, the residue of imperialism had condemned indigenous knowledge which is valuable. This as a result has brought disreputation on the part of indigenous values and thereby widened the gap between IK and modern technology.

The author’s voice is dominant as s/he partakes some of the activities and she asks why men cannot do or share the chores which seem to overwhelm women. S/he questions the practice where women eat last, and do almost everything at the homestead.The aim of the author was to unpack the complex nature of the common untold and unnoticed

This study can be used to compare and discuss the gender roles in IK practices and the modern society and how women’s roles have evolved.

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Certainly, technology has eroded the unique value and magnitude of African women tasks in their communities. Nevertheless, integration of the two knowledge paradigms may still be possible if indigenous women roles are esteemed.

participation of African women in unrelenting efforts to keep their communities going using their stocked indigenous conceptions, experience and wisdom.

Ancient knowledge meets modern science for medicinal purposes: Vinesh Maharaj

Type- Research based (CSIR) Aims- at transforming traditional herbal medicines into minimally-processed herbal medicines for treatment of various ailments including cancer and HIV/AIDS through collaboration of traditional healers in South Africa

Research based- through collaboration there are laboratories that isolate the pharmacologically active ingredients within the herbs and then try to patent them. Also aims at Good Manufacturing Practices back in the communities.

11,000 herbal plant species collected and 32,000 of the extracts from the collected species have been prepared. 250 claims for cures based on medicinal plants, 72 claims for cures of different diseases e.g. asthma, arthritis, malaria and HIV.

Collaborative research can benefit the biomedical and herbalists if the holders of indigenous herbal medicines are afforded property rights.

Bio –medical research and indigenous knowledge practices.

There have been success stories of finding treatments of chronic illnesses.

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and the CSIR, South Africa , UCT, UKN and other international stakeholders

Encounters with the colonial: Dr Ernest warren, science, and new representations of nature at the natal museum (1903-1913)Author: Brooks, S. (2005), Vol 17; Source: Southern African Humanities

This one is not part of the paper

Aim: To show how the political system of any period can influence history; In this case it is on the Museum in Natal/ now kwaZulu Natal.

ethno history Not IKS related

The article evidently revealed how Dr Ernest Warren’s early training as a scientist helped him to pursue his goal and interest in life. Despite the enormous challenges and logistical difficulties with Zululand officials as well as assembling zoological garden and museum collection, he built an international museum and zoological garden in Zululand, so as to preserve nature. He highlighted why living nature needed to be

Historical-education

The article is like an autobiography of Warren Ernest.

It is relevant in the study of history of South Africa.

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regarded

Title: Changes in treatment for malaria: western influence on indigenous practice Source: African Diaspora collectionAuthor: Kourtney L. James

Aim: to highlight how people of the Cape coast of Ghana respond to malaria using traditional and modern medicines and the push / pull factors affecting choice of treatment.

The objective is to determine the perception of malaria, understand choice of treatment and personal reasons behind choice, determine how the impact of western medicine has influenced treatment selection

Qualitative researchPurposive interviews were conducted in four communities within and surrounding the cape coast areas. In addition to interviews conducted, simple observations of each community and survey of treatment centres were taken

Relevant to IKS discourse

Studying the practices taken by people when treating malaria and what influences their choice of either traditional medicines or biomedicines.However, he recommended that policy makers should design a policy based on the various cultures in Ghana emphasizing education for traditional remedies users.

The author aim was to examine the impact of western medicine over traditional medicine in treating malaria in Ghana. The author also explored the rationale behind the choice of treatment were taken. Objective in context with cultural/community background and current state of living. He highlighted the prospects of traditional treatment.

The use of IK treatment of malaria in the Cape coast in Ghana is influenced by affordability of modern treatment.

Access remains an issue in most parts of Africa and governments seem not to have the political will to empower IK holders and invest in these practices which sustain most of the societies.

Important study on policy in Health ad education.

Title: Gosho 1 Shelther: observation into the lithic complexities of the Pfupi

The aim of the study was to investigate the reliability of Gosho 1 shelter to verify its

Excavations were done for examination of samples collected

The study discovered that Gosho 1 excavations has deep deposit containing

Although there are certain changes that occur at the site from time to time, these historical changes

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Industry in northeastern ZimbabweAuthor: Burrett, R. S. (2003), Southern African Humanities vol. 15 Pages 1-43

significant sequential variations and peradventure if there are sequential variations that had been undermined and unexploited.

significant and valuable diachronic changes in the lithic and ceramic assemblages, but the earlier held views of the later stone age Pfupi tradition as a single uniformity entity are incorrect.Results showed that activities date back to between approx. 8500-7000yrs.

appear to be internal reaction to demographic, ecological and social challenges faced by the exploration communities

Dating rock painting in the Ukhahlamba –Drakensberg and the Biggarsberg , KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa, Mazel, A.D & Watchman, A.L.(2003)

To establish a chronology of rock art and hunter gatherers of holocene

15 samples were collected from the area

Parietal art in Ukhahlamba is now believed to be between 2000-3000

The findings will contribute towards systematic sequencing of rock painting.

Archaeological, documenting of early human activities and trade in KwaZulu- Natal.

The study will help in defining the history and lifestyles of the current inhabitants of Ukhahlamba.

The results show that Ukhahlamba was inhabited as far back as 2000-3000 years it compares how the current inhabitants have changed in their practices and trade.

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