TIMSS2011 Frameworks Chapter2

7/28/2019 TIMSS2011 Frameworks Chapter2

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TIMSS 2011

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TIMSS 2011 SCIenCe FraMework | 49

Chapter 2

Overview

In todays world, some understanding o science is imperative i

citizens are to make inormed decisions about themselves and the

world in which they live. Every day they are aced with a barrage

o inormation, and siing act rom ction is possible only i they

have the tools to accomplish this. It is important, thereore, to

make certain that students leaving high school are equipped with

a undamental understanding o science such that the decisions

they make are inormed decisions. Students in the early grades

have a natural curiosity about the world and their place in it, thus

it is appropriate or them to start to learn the basics o science at a

young age. Tis knowledge and understanding should be built upon

throughout their schooling so that when as adults they are aced with

making decisions that relate to such diverse issues as the treatment

o diseases, global warming, and applications o technology, they

are able to do so rom a sound scientic basis.Te science assessment ramework or IMSS 2011 consists o

a content dimension speciying the subject matter domains to be

assessed within science (or example, biology, chemistry, physics,

and earth science at the eighth grade) and a cognitive dimension

speciying the cognitive domains or skills and behaviors (that is,

knowing, applying, and reasoning) expected o students as they

engage with the science content. Te content domains dier or the

ourth and eighth grades, reecting the nature and difculty o thescience taught at each grade. Tere is more emphasis at the ourth

grade on lie science than on its counterpart, biology, at the eighth

TIMSS 2011 Scic Fm


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grade. At the eighth grade, physics and chemistry are assessed as

separate content domains, and receive more emphasis than at ourth

grade, where they are assessed as one content domain, physical

science. Te cognitive ramework, however, is the same or both

grades, encompassing a range o cognitive processes involved inlearning science concepts and engaging in scientic inquiry right

through the primary and middle school years. Exhibit 6 shows the

target percentages o testing time devoted to each science content

and cognitive domain or the ourth- and eighth-grade assessments.

exibit 6: Tgt Pctgs f t TIMSS 2011 Scic assssmtDvtd t Ctt d Cgitiv Dmis t Fut deigt Gds

Fourth Grade

Ctt Dmis Pctgs

Lie Science 45%

Physical Science 35%

Earth Science 20%

Eighth Grade

Ctt Dmis Pctgs

Biology 35%

Chemistry 20%

Physics 25%

Earth Science 20%

Cgitiv Dmis Pctgs

Fourth Grade Eighth Grade

Knowing 40% 35%

Applying 40% 35%

Reasoning 20% 30%

50 | ChaPTer 2


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One o the ways in which students have been encouraged to

build upon their knowledge and understanding o science is through

the process o scientic inquiry and considerable emphasis has been

placed in the contemporary science curricula o many countries on

engaging students in this process. Recognizing the importance oscientic inquiry in the teaching and learning process, the TIMSS

2011 Science Framework takes the position that the understandings

and abilities required to engage in this process should not be assessed

in isolation. Rather, scientiic inquiry should be assessed in the

context o one or other o the IMSS science content domains and

drawing upon the ull range o skills and behaviors specied in the

cognitive domains. Accordingly, assessment items addressing aspects

o scientic inquiry are included within the two dimensions o the

assessment rameworkthe content dimension that covers all the

elds o science and the cognitive dimension that includes skills-

based components.

Te content and cognitive domains or the science assessment as

well as the IMSS perspective on scientic inquiry are discussed in

detail in the ollowing sections. Te content domains or the ourth

grade are presented rst, ollowed by those or the eighth grade. Te

cognitive domains, applicable to both grades, are next, ollowed by

scientic inquiry.


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52 | ChaPTer 2

Science Content Domains Fourth Grade

While IMSS recognizes that the organization o science curricula

diers across countries, or the purposes o the IMSS 2011

assessment at the ourth grade, three major domains covering most

o the topics in the various countries curricula were chosen to dene

the science contentlie science, physical science, and earth science.

It should be noted that the topics included in these content domains

may be taught in some countries in other subject areas, such as

geography.

Te content domains are shown in Exhibit 7 together with the

target percentage devoted to each domain.

exibit 7: Tgt Pctgs f t TIMSS 2011 Scic assssmtDvtd t Ctt Dmis t Fut Gd

Fut-Gd Ctt Dmis Pctgs

Lie Science 45%

Physical Science 35%

Earth Science 20%

Each content domain has several main topic areas, presented asa list o objectives covered in the science curriculum in the majority

o participating countries. Te sections below describe each science

content domain, give an overview o the topic areas to be covered

in each domain, and provide a set o assessment objectives or each

topic area. Tese objectives are written in terms o behaviors to be

elicited by items that exempliy the understandings and abilities

expected o students at ourth grade.


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Lie Science

Lie science includes understandings o the characteristics and lie

processes o living things, the relationships between them, and their

interaction with the environment. Te topic areas or lie science

are as ollows:

Characteristicsandlifeprocessesoflivingthings

Lifecycles,reproduction,andheredity

Interactionwiththeenvironment

Ecosystems

Humanhealth

Knowledge o the characteristics and lie processes o livingthings is undamental to the study o lie science. As such, students at

ourth grade are expected to be able to describe dierences between

living and nonliving things, compare and contrast physical and

behavioral characteristics o major groups o organisms, and relate

structures o such organisms to their unction.

Students are expected to know and be able to compare the lie

cycles o plants, such as a tree and a bean, and animals, such as

a housey and a rog. In the areas o reproduction and heredity,knowledge is restricted to a very basic understanding that organisms

o the same kind reproduce and that ospring closely resemble their

parents. Tey should also be able to relate the production o multiple

seeds or eggs to survival o dierent kinds o plants and animals.

Students are expected to be able to associate physical eatures

and patterns o behavior o plants and animals with the environment

in which they live and to provide examples o physical and behavioral

characteristics that make some plants and animals better suited toparticular environments. Students also should be able to demonstrate

a rudimentary knowledge o bodily responses to outside conditions.


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54 | ChaPTer 2

he study o ecosystems is essential to understanding the

interdependence o living organisms and their relationship to

the physical environment. Basic concepts related to ecosystems,

including energy low and the interaction o biotic and abiotic

actors, are expected to be introduced in the primary school sciencecurriculum. Students understandings may be demonstrated through

descriptions o specic relationships between plants and animals

in common ecosystems. Some understanding o the ways in which

human behavior can aect the environment also is expected o

ourth-grade students, especially in relation to pollution.

Finally, ourth-grade students are expected to have a rudimentary

knowledge o human health, nutrition, and disease. Tey should

demonstrate amiliarity with common communicable diseases andalso be able to relate diet and personal habits to their eect on health.

Lie Science: Characteristics and Lie Processes o Living Things

1. Describe dierences between living and nonliving things;

identiy common characteristics o living things (e.g.,

reproduction, growth, basic needs or air, ood, water).

2.Compareandcontrastphysicalandbehavioral

characteristics o major groups o living things (e.g.,

insects, birds, mammals, owering plants); identiy or

provide examples o animals and plants belonging to these

groups.

3. Relate major structures in animals to their unctions (e.g.,

stomach digests ood, teeth break down ood, bones -

support the body, lungs - take in air).

4. Relate major structures in plants to their unctions (e.g.,roots - absorb water, leaves - make ood).


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Lie Science: Lie Cycles, Reproduction, and Heredity

1. race the general steps in the lie cycle o plants

(germination, growth and development, reproduction,

seed dispersal) and animals (birth, growth and

development, reproduction, death); recognize and

compare lie cycles o amiliar plants (e.g., trees, beans) and

animals (e.g., humans, houseies, rogs).

2. Recognize that plants and animals reproduce with their

own kind to produce ospring with eatures that closely

resemble those o the parents; describe simple relationships

between reproduction and survival o dierent kinds o

plants and animals (e.g., a plant producing many seeds, a

sh producing many eggs).

Lie Science: Interactions with the Environment

1. Associate physical eatures o plants and animals with

the environments in which they live; identiy or describe

examples o certain physical or behavioral characteristics

o plants and animals that help them survive in particular

environments and explain why (e.g., type o root, type o

lea, ur thickness, hibernation, migration).

2. Describe bodily responses in animals to outside conditions

(e.g., heat, cold, danger) and to activities (e.g., exercise).


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56 | ChaPTer 2

Lie Science: Ecosystems

1. Explain that plants need the Sun to make their ood, while

animals eat plants or other animals; recognize that all

plants and animals need ood to provide energy or activity

and raw material or growth and repair.

2. Describe relationships in a given community (e.g.,

orest, tide pool, desert) based on simple ood chains,

using common plants and animals and predator-prey

relationships.

3. Explain ways in which human behavior can have positive

or negative eects on the environment; provide general

descriptions and examples o the eects o pollution on

humans, plants, animals, and their environments, and o

ways o preventing or reducing pollution.

Lie Science: Human Health

1. Recognize ways that common communicable diseases (e.g.,

colds, inuenza) are transmitted; identiy signs o health

or illness and some methods o preventing and treating

illness.2. Describe ways o staying healthy including eating a

balanced diet and regular exercise; identiy common ood

sources (e.g., ruits, vegetables, grains).


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Physical Science

Physical science includes concepts related to matter and energy,

and covers topics in the areas o both chemistry and physics. Since

students in ourth grade have only a beginning knowledge o

chemistry, the ramework places more emphasis on physics concepts.Te topic areas or physical science are listed below:

Classicationandpropertiesofmatter

Sourcesandeectsofenergy

Forcesandmotion

In the area o classication and properties o matter, ourth-grade

students are expected to have a beginning understanding o physical

states and changes in matter rom one orm to anothersolid, liquid,and gas. While general knowledge about changes o state is not

expected, students should know that water can exist in all three orms

and can change rom one orm to another by being heated or cooled.

Tey should be able to compare or classiy objects and materials on

the basis o physical properties and relate these properties to their

uses. Students are expected to have a beginning practical knowledge

o the ormation o mixtures and water solutions. hey also are

expected to identiy some changes in amiliar materials that produce

other materials with dierent properties, but are not expected to

know how these changes are related to chemical transormations.

Conceptsrelatedtosourcesandeectsofenergyencompass

heat, temperature, light, electricity, and magnetism. Students

should be able to identiy common energy sources and have some

understanding o hot objects being able to heat up cold objects.

Teir understanding o light will be assessed through identiying

common light sources and relating amiliar physical phenomena

to the behavior o light. In the area o electricity and magnetism,

students should have some notion o a complete electrical circuit

and some practical knowledge o magnets and their uses.


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58 | ChaPTer 2

Students should have an intuitive grasp o the idea o orces as

they relate to movement, such as gravity acting on alling objects and

push/pull orces. Tey should also be able to compare the eects o

greater or lesser orces on an object. Knowledge about determining

the relative weight o objects using a balance may also be assessed.

Physical Science: Classifcation and Properties o Matter

1. Name three states o matter (solid, liquid, gas) and describe

characteristic dierences in shape and volume o each

state; recognize that matter can be changed rom one

state to another by heating or cooling and describe these

changes in terms o melting, reezing, boiling, evaporation,

or condensation.

2. Compareandsortobjectsandmaterialsonthebasisof

physical properties (e.g., weight/mass, volume, magnetic

attraction); identiy properties o metals and relate them

to their use; identiy properties and common uses o water

in its solid, liquid, and gas state (e.g., coolant, solvent, heat

source).

3. Describe examples o mixtures and explain how they can

be separated; give examples o materials that dissolve in

water and those that do not; explain ways o increasing

how much and how quickly materials dissolve.

4. Identiy observable changes in materials caused by

decaying, burning, rusting, cooking that make new

materials with dierent properties.


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Physical Science: Energy Sources and Eects

1. Identiy sources o energy (e.g., the Sun, electricity, water,

wind, vibrations); describe practical uses o this energy.

2. Recognize that hot objects can heat up cold objects;explain that heating up means an increase in temperature;

identiy examples o common materials that easily conduct

heat.

3. Identiy common light sources (e.g., bulb, ame, the Sun);

relate amiliar physical phenomena to the behavior o light

(e.g., reections, rainbows, shadows).

4. Explain the need or a complete (unbroken) electrical

pathway or simple electrical systems (e.g., ashlight,batteries in appliances) to work; recognize objects and

materials that conduct electricity.

5. Recognize that magnets have north and south poles,

that like poles repel and opposite poles attract, and that

magnets can be used to attract some other materials or

objects.

Physical Science: Forces and Motion

1. Identiy amiliar orces that cause objects to move (e.g.,

gravity on alling objects, push/pull orces); compare

eects o greater or lesser orces on an object; describe how

the relative weight o objects can be determined using a

balance.


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60 | ChaPTer 2

Earth Science

Earth science is concerned with the study o Earth and its place in

the solar system. While there is no single picture o what constitutes

an earth science curriculum that applies to all countries, the TIMSS

2011 Science Framework identies the ollowing topic areas that areuniversally considered to be important or students at the ourth

grade to understand about the planet on which they live and its

place in the solar system:

Earthsstructure,physicalcharacteristics,andresources

Earthsprocesses,cycles,andhistory

Earthinthesolarsystem

Fourth-grade students are expected to have some generalknowledge about the structure and physical characteristics o Earth.

Tey should recognize that most o Earths surace is covered by

water and be able to describe where resh and salt water are ound. At

this level, assessment o students understandings o the atmosphere

is limited to evidence or the existence o air and the presence o

water in the air. Students are also expected to know common eatures

o Earths landscape and have some understanding o the uses and

conservation o Earths resources.In the area o Earths processes, cycles, and history, ourth-

grade students are expected to be able to describe some o Earths

processes in terms o observable changes, including the movement

o water, cloud ormation, and changes in daily or seasonal weather

conditions.

Assessing the understanding o Earths history is airly limited at

thefourthgrade.However,studentsatthislevelshouldknowthat

ossils ound in rocks are the remains o plants and animals thatlived a long time ago and be able to make simple deductions about


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changes in Earths surace rom the position and arrangement o

these ossils.

Fourth-grade students are expected to demonstrate some

understandings about Earths place in the solar system based on

observations o changes in Earth and sky. In particular, they shouldbe amiliar with the motions o Earth, and relate daily changes on

Earth to its rotation on its axis and relationship to the Sun. Tey

also should be able to recognize that the moon has dierent phases.

Earth Science: Earths Structure, Physical Characteristics, and

Resources

1. Identiy substances that make up Earths surace. Recognize

that most o Earths surace is covered with water; describe

where resh or salt water are ound; provide evidence or

the existence o air; recognize common events such as

cloud ormation, dewdrops, evaporation o puddles, and

drying o wet clothes, as evidence that air contains water.

2. Describe eatures o Earths landscape (e.g., mountains,

plains, deserts, rivers, lakes, seas) and relate them to

human use (e.g., arming, irrigation, land development);

identiy some o Earths resources that are used in everydaylie (e.g., water, soil, wood, minerals, air); explain the

importance o using these resources responsibly.


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62 | ChaPTer 2

Earth Science: Earths Processes, Cycles, and History

1. Describe the movement o water on Earths surace (e.g.,

owing in rivers or streams rom mountains to oceans or

lakes); relate the ormation o clouds and rain or snow to

a change o state o water; describe changes in weather

conditions rom day to day or over the seasons in terms

o temperature, precipitation (rain or snow), clouds, and

wind.

2. Recognize that some remains (ossils) o animals and

plants that lived on Earth a long time ago are ound in

rocks; make simple deductions about changes in Earths

surace rom the location o these remains (ossils).

Earth Science: Earth in the Solar System

1. Describe the solar system as a group o planets (including

Earth) each revolving around the Sun; recognize that

the moon revolves around Earth and looks dierent in

dierent times o the month; identiy the Sun as the source

o heat and light or the solar system.

2. Relate daily patterns observed on Earth to Earths rotationon its axis and its relationship to the Sun (e.g., day and

night, appearance o shadows).


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Science Content Domains Eighth Grade

Four major content domainsbiology, chemistry, physics, and earth

sciencedeine the science content covered in the eighth-grade

assessment. It is important to note, however, that in an international

assessment such as IMSS the organization o science topics into these

domains does not correspond to the structure o science instruction

in all countries. In many countries, or example, science is taught as

general science or integrated science whereas in others, science is

taught as separate subjects such as biology, physics, and chemistry.

Additionally, some o the topics included in the TIMSS 2011

Science Framework may in some countries be taught in other courses,

such as health education, social studies, or geography. Te content

domains are shown in Exhibit 8 together with the target percentage

devoted to each domain.

exibit 8: Tgt Pctgs f t TIMSS 2011 Scic assssmtDvtd t Ctt Dmis t eigt Gd

eigt-Gd Ctt Dmis Pctgs

Biology 35%

Chemistry 20%

Physics 25%

Earth Science 20%

Each content domain has several main topic areas; each o which

is presented as a list o objectives covered in the science curriculum in

the majority o participating countries. Te sections below describe

each o the science content domains, give an overview o the topic

areas to be covered in each domain, and provide a set o assessmentobjectives or each topic area. Tese objectives are written in terms o

behaviors to be elicited by items that exempliy the understandings

and abilities expected o students at eighth grade.


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64 | ChaPTer 2

Biology

Biology includes students understandings o the structure, lie

processes, diversity, and interdependence o living organisms.

Characteristics,classication,andlifeprocessesoforganisms

Cellsandtheirfunctions

Lifecycles,reproduction,andheredity

Diversity,adaptation,andnaturalselection

Ecosystems

Humanhealth

Eighth-grade students are expected to be able to state the deningcharacteristics o major taxonomic groups and classiy organisms

according to these characteristics. hey should also be able to

locate major organs in the human body and relate the structure and

unction o organs and organ systems to basic biological processes.

Students should have a beginning understanding o cells and

their unction, as evidenced by their ability to describe cellular make

up and to identiy cell structures and relate them to their unction.

Tey also should be able to explain how certain biological processessuch as photosynthesis and respiration are necessary to sustain lie.

Students are expected to be able to distinguish between growth

and development in dierent organisms. Tey also should be able

to compare sexual and asexual reproduction in terms o biological

processes at the cellular level, including ideas about heredity that

involve the passing o genetic material rom parent(s) to ospring.

Some understanding o diversity, adaptation, and natural

selection among organisms is expected o eighth-grade students.hey should have an appreciation o modern species in terms


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o similarity o characteristics and reproduction capabilities in a

population o related organisms. Tey also should be able to relate

diversity o characteristics to the survival or extinction o species in

changing environments. Students are expected to start considering

evidence or the history and changes in Earths lie orms over timeby the comparison o living species and ossil records.

he study o ecosystems is essential to understanding the

interdependence o living organisms and their relationship to the

physical environment. At the eighth grade, students are expected

to show introductory level understanding o the interdependence

between populations o organisms that maintains balance in an

ecosystem. hey are expected to represent the low o energy in

an ecosystem, recognize the role o organisms in the cycling omaterials, and predict the eects o changes in ecosystems. he

eect o human activity on ecosystems is an important aspect o

understanding the interdependence o living organisms and the

environment.

Eighth-grade students are expected to demonstrate knowledge

o human health, nutrition, and disease. Tey should know some

causes o disease, communicate knowledge about the mechanisms

o inection and transmission, and know the importance o the

immune system. Tey also should be able to describe the role o

specic nutrients in the unctioning o the human body.


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66 | ChaPTer 2

Biology: Characteristics, Classifcation, and Lie Processes o

Organisms

1. State the dening characteristics that dierentiate among

the major taxonomic groups and organisms within these

groups; classiy organisms on the basis o a variety o

physical characteristics.

2. Locate major organs in the human body; identiy the

components o organ systems; explain the role o organs

and organ systems in sustaining lie (e.g., circulatory,

respiratory); compare and contrast organs and organ

systems in humans and other organisms.

3. Explain how biological actions in response to external and

internal changes work to maintain stable bodily conditions

(e.g., sweating in heat, shivering in cold, increased heart

rate during exercise).

Biology: Cells and Their Functions

1. Explain that living things are made o cells that carry out

lie unctions and undergo cell division, and that tissues,

organs, and organ systems are ormed rom groups ocells with specialized structures and unctions; identiy

cell structures and some unctions o cell organelles (e.g.,

cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, chloroplast, vacuole);

compare plant and animal cells.

2. Describe the processes o photosynthesis (the need or

light, carbon dioxide, water, and chlorophyll; production

o ood; and release o oxygen) and cellular respiration (the

need or oxygen, breaking down o ood to produce energy,

and release o carbon dioxide).


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Biology: Lie Cycles, Reproduction, and Heredity

1. Compareandcontrasthowdierentorganisms(e.g.,

humans, plants, birds, insects) grow and develop.

2. Compareandcontrastasexualandsexualreproductionin general terms (e.g., asexual reproduction producing

identical ospring versus sexual reproductionegg and

spermproducing ospring that are similar but not

identical to either parent).

3. Relate the inheritance o traits to organisms passing on

genetic material to their ospring; distinguish inherited

characteristics rom acquired or learned characteristics.

Biology: Diversity, Adaptation, and Natural Selection

1. Relate the survival or extinction o species to variation in

physical/behavioral characteristics in a population and

reproductive success in a changing environment.

2. Recognize that ossils provide evidence or the relative

length o time major groups o organisms have existed on

Earth (e.g., humans, reptiles, sh, plants); describe how

similarities and dierences among living species and ossilsprovide evidence o the changes that occur in living things

over time.


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68 | ChaPTer 2

Biology: Ecosystems

1. Describe the ow o energy in an ecosystem; identiy

dierent organisms as producers, consumers, and

decomposers; draw or interpret ood pyramids or ood web

diagrams.

2. Describe the role o living things in the cycling o elements

and compounds (e.g., oxygen, carbon, water) through

Earths surace and the environment.

3. Explain the interdependence o populations o organisms

in an ecosystem in terms o the eects o competition and

predation.

4. Identiy actors that can limit population size (e.g., disease,predators, ood resources, drought); predict eects o

changes in an ecosystem (e.g., climate, water supply,

population changes, migration) on the available resources

and the balance among populations.

5. Recognize that the worlds human population is growing

and identiy reasons why (e.g., advances in medicine,

sanitation); discuss the eects o population growth on the

environment.Biology: Human Health

1. Describe causes o common diseases (e.g., inuenza,

measles,strepthroat,malaria,HIV),methodsofinfection

or transmission, prevention, and the importance o the

bodys resistance (immunity) and healing capabilities.

2. Explain the importance o diet, exercise, and liestyle

in maintaining health and preventing illness (e.g., heartdisease, high blood pressure, diabetes, skin cancer,

lung cancer); identiy the dietary sources and role o

nutrients in a healthy diet (vitamins, minerals, proteins,

carbohydrates, ats).


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Chemistry

In the area o chemistry, students will be assessed on their

understanding o concepts related to the ollowing topic areas:

Classicationandcompositionofmatter Propertiesofmatter

Chemicalchange

At the eighth grade, students should be able to classiy substances

on the basis o characteristic physical properties and recognize

that substances can be grouped according to similar chemical and

physical properties. hey are expected to dierentiate between

elements, compounds, and mixtures in terms o their composition.

Tey also are expected to have a beginning understanding o the

particulate structure o matter in terms o atoms and molecules.

Students should have a clear understanding o the properties

o matter. Tey should describe methods o separating mixtures

based on their physical properties, dene solutions, and recognize

the actors that aect the rate at which materials dissolve. Students

also are expected to demonstrate knowledge o some properties and

uses o metals and water, and be able to compare properties o acids

and bases.

In the area o chemical change, students are expected to

recognize the dierences between physical and chemical changes

and demonstrate basic knowledge o conservation o matter during

these changes. In addition, they should be able to identiy common

reactions that release or absorb heat. Students also are expected to

recognize the need or oxygen in rusting, tarnishing, and burning

and the relative tendency o amiliar substances to undergo these

types o reactions.


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Chemistry: Classifcation and Composition o Matter

1. Classifyorcomparesubstancesonthebasisof

characteristic physical properties that can be demonstrated

or measured (e.g., density, thermal or electrical

conductivity, solubility, melting or boiling point, magnetic

properties).

2. Recognize that substances may be grouped according

to similar chemical and physical properties; describe

properties o metals that distinguish them rom nonmetals.

3. Dierentiate between pure substances (elements

and compounds) and mixtures (homogeneous and

heterogeneous) on the basis o their ormation andcomposition, and provide or identiy examples o each

(may be solid, liquid, or gas).

4. Describe the structure o matter in terms o particles,

includingmoleculesascombinationsofatoms(e.g.,H2O,

O2,CO2 ) and atoms as composed o subatomic particles

(electrons surrounding a nucleus containing protons and

neutrons).

Chemistry: Properties o Matter

1. Select or describe physical methods or separating

mixtures into their components (e.g., ltration, distillation,

dissolution); dene solutions in terms o substance(s)

(solid, liquid, or gas solutes) dissolved in a solvent; relate

concentration to the amounts o solute or solvent; explain

the eect o actors such as temperature, stirring, and

particle size on the rate at which materials dissolve.


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2. Relate the behavior and uses o water to its physical

properties (e.g., melting point and boiling point, ability to

dissolve many substances, thermal properties, expansion

upon reezing).

3. Comparethepropertiesofcommonacidsandbases(acidshave a sour taste and react with metals; bases usually have

a bitter taste and slippery eel; strong acids and bases are

corrosive; both acids and bases dissolve in water and react

with indicators to produce dierent color changes; acids

and bases neutralize each other).

Chemistry: Chemical Change

1. Dierentiate chemical rom physical changes in terms

o the transormation (reaction) o one or more pure

substances (reactants) into dierent pure substances

(products); provide evidence that a chemical change has

taken place based on common examples (e.g., temperature

change, gas production, color change, light emission).

2. Recognize that mass is conserved during chemical change;

recognize that some chemical reactions release energy

(e.g., heat, light) while others absorb it; classiy amiliarchemical changes as either releasing or absorbing heat

(e.g., burning, neutralization, cooking).

3. Recognize that oxygen is needed in common oxidation

reactions (combustion, rusting, tarnishing); relate its

importance to re saety and preservation o metal objects

(coins, cars, cookware, statues); order amiliar substances

by how readily they burn, rust, or tarnish.


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72 | ChaPTer 2

Physics

In physics, students understandings o concepts related to physical

processes and energy will be assessed in the ollowing topic areas:

Physicalstatesandchangesinmatter Energytransformations,heat,andtemperature

Lightandsound

Electricityandmagnetism

Forcesandmotion

Eighth-grade students should be able to describe processes

involved in changes o state and begin to relate the states o matter

to the distance and movement among particles. Tey also should beable to demonstrate understanding that mass is conserved during

physicalchanges.Conceptsrelatedtoenergytransformations,

heat, and temperature also are assessed at the eighth-grade level.

Students are expected to be able to identiy dierent orms o energy,

describe simple energy transormations, and apply the principle o

conservation o total energy in practical situations. Students also

are expected to relate heating to transer o energy, and to relate

temperature changes to changes in the speed o particles.

Students at the eighth grade are expected to know some basic

properties o light and its interaction with matter; to use simple

geometrical optics to solve practical problems; and to relate the

appearance and color o objects to light properties. Students also

are expected to recognize the characteristics o sound and some o

its properties. In the area o electricity and magnetism, assessment

o students understandings o electricity includes current ow in

complete circuits, simple circuit diagrams, and the relationship

between current and voltage in circuits. Tey also are expected to be


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able to describe properties, orces, and uses o permanent magnets

and electromagnets.

Students are expected to be able to describe general types o

orces, and predict changes in the motion o an object based on the

orces acting upon it. Tey also should demonstrate common senseunderstanding o density and pressure as they relate to amiliar

physical phenomena, although more ormalized knowledge is not

expected. Students also are expected to have a basic knowledge o

work and simple machines.

Physics: Physical States and Changes in Matter

1. Apply knowledge about the movement o and distance

between particles to explain the physical properties

o solids, liquids, and gases (volume, shape, density,

compressibility).

2. Describe melting, reezing, boiling, evaporation, and

condensation as changes o state resulting rom heating

and cooling; relate the rate or extent o these processes to

physical actors (e.g., surace area, dissolved substances,

temperature); recognize that temperature remains constant

during changes o state; explain that mass remains constantduring physical changes (e.g., change o state, dissolving

solids, thermal expansion).


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74 | ChaPTer 2

Physics: Energy Transormations, Heat, and Temperature

1. Identiy dierent orms o energy (e.g., mechanical, light,

sound, electrical, thermal, chemical); describe simple

energy transormations (e.g., combustion in an engine to

move a car, electrical energy to power a lamp, light energy

to chemical energy in photosynthesis, hydroelectric power,

changes between potential and kinetic energy); and apply

knowledge o the concept o conservation o total energy.

2. Relate heating to the transer o energy rom an object

at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature;

compare the relative thermal conductivity o dierent

materials; compare and contrast methods o heat transer

(conduction, convection, and radiation).

3. Relate temperature changes to changes in volume and/or

pressure and to changes in the speed o particles.

Physics: Light and Sound

1. Describe or identiy basic properties o light (e.g.,

transmission through dierent media; speed o light;

reection, reraction, absorption; splitting o white lightinto its component colors); relate the appearance or

color o objects to the properties o reected or absorbed

light; solve practical problems involving the reection o

light rom plane mirrors and the ormation o shadows;

interpret simple ray diagrams to identiy the path o light

and locate reected or projected images using lenses.

2. Recognize the characteristics o sound (loudness, pitch,

amplitude, requency); describe or identiy some basic

properties o sound (need or a medium or transmission,

reection and absorption by suraces, and relative speed

through dierent media).


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Physics: Electricity and Magnetism

1. Describe the ow o current in an electrical circuit; draw

or identiy diagrams representing complete circuits (series

and parallel); classiy materials as electrical conductors or

insulators; describe actors that aect currents in circuits;

recognize that there is a relationship between current and

voltage in a circuit.

2. Describe the properties o permanent magnets and

electromagnets and the eects o magnetic orce; describe

uses o permanent magnets and electromagnets in

everyday lie (e.g., doorbell, recycling actories).

Physics: Forces and Motion

1. Describe the motion (uniorm and non-uniorm) o

an object in terms o its position, direction, and speed;

describe general types o orces (e.g., weight as a orce due

to gravity, contact orce, buoyant orce, riction); predict

changes in motion (i any) o an object based on the orces

acting on it.

2. Explain observable physical phenomena in terms odensity dierences (e.g., oating or sinking objects, rising

balloons).

3. Demonstrate basic knowledge o work and the unction o

simple machines (e.g., levers and ramps) using common

examples.

4. Explain pressure in terms o orce and area; describe eects

related to pressure (e.g., atmospheric pressure as a unction

o altitude, ocean pressure as a unction o depth, evidenceo gas pressure in balloons, uid levels).


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76 | ChaPTer 2

Earth Science

Earth science is concerned with the study o Earth and its place in

the solar system and the universe. opics covered in the teaching and

learning o earth science draw on the elds o geology, astronomy,

meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography, and are related toconcepts in biology, physics, and chemistry. Although separate

courses in earth science covering all o these topics are not taught

in all countries, it is expected that understandings related to earth

science topic areas will have been included in a science curriculum

covering the physical and lie sciences or in separate courses such

as geography and geology.

While there is no single picture o what constitutes an earth

science curriculum that applies to all countries, the TIMSS 2011Science Framework identiies the ollowing topic areas that are

universally considered to be important or students at the eighth

grade to understand about the planet on which they live and its

place in the universe:

Earthsstructureandphysicalfeatures

Earthsprocesses,cycles,andhistory

Earthsresources,theiruseandconservation Earthinthesolarsystemandtheuniverse

Eighth-grade students are expected to have some general

knowledge about the structure and physical eatures o Earth. Tey

are expected to demonstrate knowledge o the structure and physical

characteristics o Earths crust, mantle, and core, and to describe

the distribution o water on Earth, including its physical state,

composition, and movement. Students are expected to be amiliar

with the relative abundance o the main components o air, and withchanges in atmospheric conditions in relation to altitude.


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In the area o Earths processes, cycles, and history, students

should provide descriptions based on the concept o cycles and

patterns. In particular, they should be able to describe in words or

diagrams the rock and water cycle. Students are expected to have a

sense o the magnitude o time scales, and to describe some physicalprocesses and geological events that have taken place on Earth over

billions o years. Students also are expected to interpret and use data

or maps relating global and local actors to weather patterns, and to

dierentiate between daily weather changes and general climate in

various regions o the world.

Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge o Earths

resources and their use and conservation by providing examples

o renewable and nonrenewable resources, describing methods oconservation and recycling, relating common methods o agriculture

and land use to land resources, and discussing the actors related to

the supply and demand o resh water.

Eighth-grade students are expected to have some knowledge o

the solar system in terms o the relative distances, sizes, and motions

o the Sun, the planets, and their moons, and o how phenomena on

Earth relate to the motion o bodies in the solar system. Students also

are expected to compare the physical eatures o Earth, the moon,

and the other planets with respect to their ability to support lie.


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78 | ChaPTer 2

Earth Science: Earths Structure and Physical Features

1. Describe the structure and physical characteristics o

Earths crust, mantle, and core as provided by observable

phenomena (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes); describe the

characteristics and uses o rocks, minerals, and soils;

describe the ormation o soils.

2. Comparethephysicalstate,movement,compositionand

relative distribution o water on Earth.

3. Recognize that Earths atmosphere is a mixture o

gases, and identiy the relative abundance o its main

components; relate changes in atmospheric conditions to

altitude.Earth Science: Earths Processes, Cycles, and History

1. Describe the general processes involved in the rock

cycle; identiy or describe physical processes and major

geological events that have occurred over millions o years

(e.g., erosion, volcanic activity, mountain building, plate

movement); explain the ormation o ossils and ossil uels.

2. Diagram or describe the processes in Earths water cycle,

reerencing the Sun as the source o energy; and the role

o cloud movement and water ow in the circulation and

renewal o resh water on Earths surace.

3. Compareseasonalclimatesinrelationtolatitude,altitudeand

geography; identiy or describe causes o long- and short-

term climatic changes (e.g., ice ages, global warming, volcanic

eruptions, changes in ocean currents); interpret weather data/

maps, and relate changing weather patterns to global and

local actors in terms o such actors as temperature, pressure,precipitation, and wind speed and direction.


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Earth Science: Earths Resources, Their Use and Conservation

1. Provide examples o renewable and nonrenewable

resources; discuss advantages and disadvantages o

dierent energy sources; describe methods o conservation

o resources and methods o waste management (e.g.,

recycling); relate some environmental concerns to their

possible causes and eects (e.g., pollution, global warming,

deorestation, desertication); present ways in which

science, technology, and human behavior can be used to

address these concerns.

2. Explain how common methods o agriculture and land

use (e.g., arming, tree harvesting, mining) can aect

land resources; describe how resh water is obtained(e.g., purication, desalination, irrigation); explain the

importance o water conservation.

Earth Science: Earth in the Solar System and the Universe

1. Explain phenomena on Earth (day and night, year, seasons

in the northern and southern hemisphere, tides, phases o

the moon, eclipses, appearance o the Sun, moon, planets,

and constellations) in terms o the relative movements,distances, and sizes o Earth, the moon, and other bodies

in and outside the solar system.

2. CompareandcontrastthephysicalfeaturesofEarthwith

the moon and other planets (e.g., atmosphere, temperature,

water, distance rom the Sun, period o revolution and

rotation, ability to support lie); recognize the role o

gravity in the solar system (e.g., tides, keeping the planets

and moons in orbit, pulling us to Earths surace).


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80 | ChaPTer 2

Science Cognitive Domains Fourth andEighth Grades

o respond correctly to IMSS test items, students need to be

amiliar with the science content being assessed, but they also need

to draw on a range o cognitive skills. Describing these skills plays

a crucial role in the development o an assessment like IMSS 2011,

since they are vital in ensuring that the survey covers the appropriate

range o cognitive skills across the content domains already outlined.

Tis section outlines the skills and abilities associated with the

cognitive dimension.

Te cognitive dimension is divided into three domains based

on what students have to know and do when conronting thevarious items developed or the IMSS 2011 assessment. Te rst

domain, knowing, covers science acts, procedures, and concepts

students need to know, while the second domain, applying, ocuses

on the ability o the student to apply knowledge and conceptual

understanding to a science problem. Te third domain, reasoning,

goes beyond the solution o routine science problems to encompass

unamiliar situations, complex contexts, and multi-step problems.

Tese three cognitive domains are used at both grades, however

the percentages vary between ourth and eighth grade in accordance

with the increased cognitive ability, maturity, instruction, experience,

and breadth and depth o understanding o students at the higher

grade level (see Exhibit 9). Tus the percentage o items that involve

knowing is higher at the ourth grade while the percentage o items

that ask students to engage in reasoning is higher at the eighth grade.

For ourth and eighth grades, each content domain will include

items developed to address each o the three cognitive domains.

For example, the lie science content domain will include knowing,applying, and reasoning items, as will the other content domains.


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exibit 9: Tgt Pctgs f t TIMSS 2011 Scic assssmtDvtd t Cgitiv Dmis t Fut d eigt Gds

Cgitiv Dmis Pctgs

Fourth Grade Eighth Grade

Knowing 40% 35%

Applying 40% 35%

Reasoning 20% 30%

While some hierarchy is imposed in the division o behaviors

into the three cognitive domains, a range o diiculty levels is

expected or items developed or each o the cognitive domains.

he ollowing sections urther describe the student skills and

abilities dening the cognitive domains. Te general descriptionsare ollowed by lists o specic behaviors to be elicited by items that

are aligned with each domain.

Knowing

Knowing reers to students knowledge base o science acts,

inormation, concepts, and tools. Accurate and broad-based actual

knowledge enables students to engage successully in the more

complex cognitive activities essential to the scientic enterprise.

Students are expected to recall or recognize accurate sciencestatements; possess knowledge o vocabulary, acts, inormation,

symbols, and units; and select appropriate apparatus, equipment,

measurement devices, and experimental operations to use in

conducting investigations. Tis cognitive domain also includes the

selection o illustrative examples in support o statements o acts

or concepts.


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82 | ChaPTer 2

1 Recall/Recognize

Make or identiy accurate statementsabout science acts, relationships,processes, and concepts; identiy thecharacteristics or properties o specic

organisms, materials, and processes.

2 Defne Provide or identiy denitions oscientic terms; recognize anduse scientic vocabulary, symbols,abbreviations, units, and scales inrelevant contexts.

3 Describe Describe organisms, physical materials,and science processes that demonstrateknowledge o properties, structure,unction, and relationships.

4 Illustrate withExamples

Support or clariy statements o actsor concepts with appropriate examples;identiy or provide specic examples toillustrate knowledge o general concepts.

5 DemonstrateKnowledgeo ScientifcInstruments

Demonstrate knowledge o how to usescience apparatus, equipment, tools,measurement devices, and scales.

Applying

he questions in this cognitive domain are designed to involve

the direct application o knowledge and understanding o science

in straightorward situations. o measure applying, IMSS 2011

will include items that require students to compare, contrast, and

classiy; to interpret scientiic inormation in light o a science

concept or principle; and to use and apply their understanding o

science concepts and principles to ind a solution or develop an


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explanation. Items aligned with this cognitive domain may also

involve the direct application or demonstration o relationships,

equations, and ormulas in contexts likely to be amiliar in the

teaching and learning o science concepts. Both quantitative

problems requiring a numerical solution and qualitative problemsrequiring a written descriptive response are included. In providing

explanations, students should be able to use diagrams or models to

illustrate structures and relationships and demonstrate knowledge

o scientic concepts.

1 Compare/Contrast/Classiy

Identiy or describe similaritiesand dierences between groups oorganisms, materials, or processes;distinguish, classiy, or order individualobjects, materials, organisms, andprocesses based on given characteristicsand properties.

2 Use Models Use a diagram or model to demonstrateunderstanding o a science concept,structure, relationship, process, orbiological or physical system or cycle

(e.g., ood web, electrical circuit, watercycle, solar system, atomic structure).

3 Relate Relate knowledge o an underlyingbiological or physical concept to anobserved or inerred property, behavior,or use o objects, organisms, ormaterials.

4 InterpretInormation Interpret relevant textual, tabular, orgraphical inormation in light o ascience concept or principle.


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reasoning and o an understanding o the investigation o cause

and eect. hey are expected to evaluate and make decisions,

weigh advantages and disadvantages o alternative materials and

processes, consider the impact o dierent scientic endeavors, and

evaluate solutions to problems. By the eighth grade, in particular,students should consider and evaluate alternative explanations,

extend conclusions to new situations, and justiy explanations

basedonevidenceandscientificunderstanding.Considerable

scientic reasoning also is involved in developing hypotheses and

designing scientic investigations to test them, and in analyzing

and interpreting data. Abilities in this area are introduced at a very

basic level in primary school and then urther developed throughout

students science education in middle and secondary school.

Some items in this cognitive domain may ocus on uniied

concepts and major conceptual themes, requiring students to bring

together knowledge and understanding rom dierent areas and

apply it to new situations. As such, they may involve the integration

o mathematics and science and/or the integration and synthesis o

concepts across the domains o science.

1 Analyze Analyze problems to determine therelevant relationships, concepts, andproblem-solving steps; develop andexplain problem-solving strategies.

2 Integrate/Synthesize

Provide solutions to problems thatrequire consideration o a number odierent actors or related concepts;make associations or connectionsbetween concepts in dierent areas o

science; demonstrate understandingo unied concepts and themes acrossthe domains o science; integratemathematical concepts or procedures inthe solutions to science problems.


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86 | ChaPTer 2

3 Hypothesize/Predict

Combineknowledgeofscienceconcepts with inormation romexperience or observation to ormulatequestions that can be answered by

investigation; ormulate hypotheses astestable assumptions using knowledgerom observation and/or analysis oscientic inormation and conceptualunderstanding; make predictions aboutthe eects o changes in biological orphysical conditions in light o evidenceand scientic understanding.

4 Design Design or plan investigations appropriateor answering scientic questions ortesting hypotheses; describe or recognizethe characteristics o well-designedinvestigations in terms o variables tobe measured and controlled and cause-and-eect relationships; make decisionsabout measurements or procedures touse in conducting investigations.

5 DrawConclusions

Detect patterns in data, describe orsummarize data trends, and interpolateor extrapolate rom data or giveninormation; make valid inerenceson the basis o evidence and/orunderstanding o science concepts;draw appropriate conclusions thataddress questions or hypotheses, and

demonstrate understanding o cause andeect.


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6 Generalize Make general conclusions that gobeyond the experimental or givenconditions, and apply conclusions to newsituations; determine general ormulas

or expressing physical relationships.

7 Evaluate Weigh advantages and disadvantagesto make decisions about alternativeprocesses, materials, and sources;consider scientic and social actorsto evaluate the impact o scienceand technology on biological and

physical systems; evaluate alternativeexplanations and problem-solvingstrategies and solutions; evaluateresults o investigations with respectto sufciency o data to supportconclusions.

8 Justiy Use evidence and scienticunderstanding to justiy explanationsand problem solutions; construct

arguments to support the reasonablenesso solutions to problems, conclusionsrom investigations, or scienticexplanations.


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88 | ChaPTer 2

Scientifc Inquiry in TIMSS 2011

In the TIMSS 2011 Science Framework, the processes o scientic

inquiry are accepted as undamental aspects o scientic knowledge

inherent in all elds o science and having both content- and skills-

based components. Items and tasks assessing these processes require

students to demonstrate knowledge o the tools and methods

necessary to do science, to apply this knowledge to engage in

scientiic investigations, and to use scientiic understanding to

propose explanations based on evidence. In IMSS, such items are

not considered to be context-ree, but always are situated in the

context o content objectives (biology, chemistry, etc.) and draw

rom the ull range o skills and behaviors specied in the cognitive

domains.It is expected that students at both grade levels will possess some

general knowledge o the nature o science and scientic inquiry,

including the act that scientic knowledge is subject to change,

the importance o using dierent types o scientic investigations

in veriying scientiic knowledge, the use o basic scientiic

methods, communication o results, and the interaction o science,

mathematics, and technology. In addition to this general knowledge,

students are expected to demonstrate the skills and abilities involvedin ve major aspects o the scientic inquiry process:

Formulatingquestionsandhypotheses

Designinginvestigations

Representingdata

Analyzingandinterpretingdata

Drawingconclusionsanddevelopingexplanations

hese aspects o scientiic inquiry are appropriate or both

ourth- and eighth-grade students, but the understandings and


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abilities to be demonstrated increase in complexity across grades,

reecting the cognitive development o students.

he learning o science in the ourth grade is ocused on

observing and describing and students at this level are expected

to be able to ormulate questions that can be answered based onobservations or inormation obtained about the natural world. o

obtain evidence to answer these questions, they should demonstrate

a grasp o what constitutes a air test, and be able to describe and

conduct an investigation based on making systematic observations

or measurements using simple tools, equipment, and procedures.

Tey also are expected to represent their ndings using simple charts

and diagrams, identiy simple relationships, and briey describe the

resultsoftheirinvestigations.Conclusionsdrawnfrominvestigationsat the ourth grade are expected to be written as an answer to a

specic question.

By the eighth grade, students should demonstrate a more

ormalized approach to scientic investigation that involves more

evaluation and decision-making. hey are expected to be able

to ormulate a hypothesis or prediction based on observation or

scientic knowledge that can be tested by investigation. Tey are

expected to demonstrate an understanding o cause and eect

and the importance o speciying variables to be controlled and

varied in well-designed investigations. Tey may also be required to

make more decisions about the measurements to be made and the

equipment and procedures to use. In addition, students at this level

are expected to use appropriate terminology, units, precision, ormat,

and scales. hey should also demonstrate more advanced data

analysis skills in selecting and applying appropriate mathematical

techniques and describing patterns in data. Eighth-grade students

may be expected to evaluate the results o their investigation withrespect to the sufciency o their data or supporting conclusions

that address the question or hypothesis under investigation.


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he assessment o both ourth- and eighth-grade students

ability to provide explanations based on evidence rom scientic

investigations provides another measure o their understanding

and application o related science concepts. By the eighth grade, it

is expected that students will be able to ormulate explanations interms o cause-and-eect relationships between variables and in

light o scientic understanding. At this level, students may also

begin to consider alternative explanations and apply or extend their

conclusions to new situations.

TIMSS2011 Frameworks Chapter2

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