IEEE Proof INVITED PAPER 1 A Review of Ammonia-Based 2 Thermochemical Energy 3 Storage for Concentrating 4 Solar Power 5 6 7 8 By Rebecca Dunn , Keith Lovegrove, and Greg Burgess 9 ABSTRACT | The development of a thermochemical energy 10 storage system based on ammonia, for use with concentrating 11 solar power is discussed in this paper. This is one of a group of 12 storage options for concentrating solar power, some of which 13 are already operating commercially using molten salts. The 14 ammonia storage development has involved prototype solar 15 receiver/reactors operated in conjunction with a 20-m 2 dish 16 concentrator, as well as closed-loop storage demonstrations. 17 An ongoing computational study deals with the performance of 18 an ammonia receiver for a 489-m 2 dish concentrator. The 19 ammonia storage system could employ industry-standard 20 ammonia synthesis converters for superheated steam produc- 21 tion. A standard 1500 t/day ammonia synthesis reactor would 22 suffice for a 10-MW e baseload plant with 330 large 489-m 2 23 dishes. At this stage, an updated economic assessment of the 24 system would be valuable. 25 KEYWORDS | Ammonia; concentrating solar power; dish 26 concentrators; energy storage; thermochemical storage 27 I. INTRODUCTION 28 This paper discusses the ammonia-based thermochemical 29 storage system which has been developed for use with 30 concentrating solar power (CSP) systems. As described in 31 several papers within this special issue AQ1 , CSP systems can 32 provide energy storage fully integrated within the electric- 33 ity-generating plantVa commercial reality at several CSP 34 plants using molten salt in Spain [1], [2]. Parabolic mirrors 35 in the form of troughs, linear Fresnel, power towers, or 36 dishes are used to concentrate solar radiation to a hot focus. 37 The concentration ratio can be up to 100 for parabolic 38 troughs and linear Fresnel systems, or in excess of 1000 for 39 power towers (central receivers) and dishesVthe geomet- 40 ric concentration ratio being the ratio of the area of the 41 receiver aperture to the area of mirror aperture. The heat 42 collected at the focus can be used to produce steam for 43 immediate electricity generation, or alternatively it can be 44 stored prior to electricity generation using molten salt [3], 45 sensible heat storage in solids [4]–[6], phase change salts 46 [7], or thermochemical storage cycles [8]. 47 The thermal approach to energy storage using CSP 48 systems has several potential advantages. 49 • Because the storage occurs before the conversion 50 of heat to electricity at the turbine/generator set, 51 the difference in overall solar-to-electric con- 52 version efficiency between a system with storage 53 and one without can be close to zero. For exam- 54 ple, in commercial molten-salt storage systems, 55 the storage system can have an effective efficiency 56 of 99% [3]. 57 • The actual energy storing components are rela- 58 tively simple and potentially cost effective. 59 • Full integration into the system means that 60 some components may actually be reduced in size Manuscript received April 15, 2011; revised August 11, 2011; accepted August 14, 2011. The authors are with the Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 0200, Australia (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]). Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2011.2166529 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1 0018-9219/$26.00 Ó2011 IEEE
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INV ITEDP A P E R
1 A Review of Ammonia-Based2 Thermochemical Energy3 Storage for Concentrating4 Solar Power5
6
7
8 By Rebecca Dunn, Keith Lovegrove, and Greg Burgess
9 ABSTRACT | The development of a thermochemical energy
10 storage system based on ammonia, for use with concentrating
11 solar power is discussed in this paper. This is one of a group of
12 storage options for concentrating solar power, some of which
13 are already operating commercially using molten salts. The
14 ammonia storage development has involved prototype solar
15 receiver/reactors operated in conjunction with a 20-m2 dish
16 concentrator, as well as closed-loop storage demonstrations.
17 An ongoing computational study deals with the performance of
18 an ammonia receiver for a 489-m2 dish concentrator. The
19 ammonia storage system could employ industry-standard
20 ammonia synthesis converters for superheated steam produc-
21 tion. A standard 1500 t/day ammonia synthesis reactor would
22 suffice for a 10-MWe baseload plant with 330 large 489-m2
23 dishes. At this stage, an updated economic assessment of the
24 system would be valuable.
25 KEYWORDS | Ammonia; concentrating solar power; dish
26 concentrators; energy storage; thermochemical storage
27 I . INTRODUCTION
28 This paper discusses the ammonia-based thermochemical
29 storage system which has been developed for use with
30concentrating solar power (CSP) systems. As described in
31several papers within this special issue AQ1, CSP systems can
32provide energy storage fully integrated within the electric-
33ity-generating plantVa commercial reality at several CSP34plants using molten salt in Spain [1], [2]. Parabolic mirrors
35in the form of troughs, linear Fresnel, power towers, or
36dishes are used to concentrate solar radiation to a hot focus.
37The concentration ratio can be up to 100 for parabolic
38troughs and linear Fresnel systems, or in excess of 1000 for
39power towers (central receivers) and dishesVthe geomet-
40ric concentration ratio being the ratio of the area of the
41receiver aperture to the area of mirror aperture. The heat42collected at the focus can be used to produce steam for
43immediate electricity generation, or alternatively it can be
44stored prior to electricity generation using molten salt [3],
45sensible heat storage in solids [4]–[6], phase change salts
46[7], or thermochemical storage cycles [8].
47The thermal approach to energy storage using CSP
48systems has several potential advantages.
49• Because the storage occurs before the conversion50of heat to electricity at the turbine/generator set,
51the difference in overall solar-to-electric con-
52version efficiency between a system with storage
53and one without can be close to zero. For exam-
54ple, in commercial molten-salt storage systems,
55the storage system can have an effective efficiency
56of 99% [3].
57• The actual energy storing components are rela-58tively simple and potentially cost effective.
59• Full integration into the system means that
60some components may actually be reduced in size
Manuscript received April 15, 2011; revised August 11, 2011; accepted August 14, 2011.
The authors are with the Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 0200,
Dunn et al. : A Review of Ammonia-Based Thermochemical Energy Storage for Concentrating Solar Power
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383 computational models and with a 2.8-m2 trough concen-
384 trator shown in Fig. 6 [46], [50], [51]. A ruthenium-on-
385 carbon catalyst (Table 1) was adopted in these experiments
386 in lieu of the iron-based catalyst, to allow dissociation at
387 lower temperatures achieved with the trough, 400 �C and388 below. The DNK-2R iron catalyst used with the dish con-
389 centrator only shows significant activity at 500 �C and
390 above, and hence was not suitable for use with the trough
391 concentrator. Ultimately, an economic assessment would
392 have to be made on the use of rare metal catalysts such as
393 ruthenium. A summary of the catalysts used in the various
394 experimental reactors at ANU is given in Table 1. The
395 kinetic mechanisms for the synthesis and decomposition of396 ammonia has been described by various authors for iron-
397 based catalysts [52]–[54] and for ruthenium-based cata-
398 lysts [55]–[57].
399 V. CLOSED-LOOP TESTS
400 In a full-scale thermochemical storage system, the syn-
401 thesis heat recovery reactor performs the reverse reaction
402 to that occurring in the solar reactor. This reverse reaction
403 releases heat, which is used to drive the power cycle, as
404 illustrated in the right-hand side of Fig. 1. As mentioned
405 above, the ammonia synthesis stage can employ off-the-
406 shelf hardware for heat and power recovery [21], [22], with407 some converter designs able to produce superheated steam
408 at up to 520 �C and 10 MPa. Nonetheless, three synthesis
409 heat recovery reactorsVtwo 1-kWchem reactors and one
410 10-kWchem reactorVwere constructed at the ANU for the
411 purpose of performing closed-loop storage demonstrations,
412 and also to calibrate a 2-D computational reactor model for
413 synthesis [58]. These reactors are described in Table 1.
414 Results obtained with the computational model were used415 to investigate the effect of operating parameters on the
416 thermal output from the heat recovery system [22].
417 A closed-loop demonstration involves both solar
418 dissociation and subsequent synthesis heat recovery. In
419 September 1998, the first closed-loop solar ammonia stor-
420 age was demonstrated with the 2.2-kWchem Mark II solar
421 receiver/reactor, the 20-m2 dish concentrator, and a
4221-kWchem heavy-walled synthesis reactor [45]. Further
423closed-loop storage experiments were conducted with this
424experimental setup, including a 5-h experimental run in
425January 1999 [45]. Following the installation of the
42615-kWsol receiver, 10-kWchem synthesis reactor, and va-427rious improvements to the closed-loop experimental sys-
428tem, the first continuous 24-h run of solar ammonia
429storage and heat recovery was performed in May 2002.
430VI. SYSTEM STUDIES
431One of the key motivating factors for the study of the
432ammonia storage system is the substantial chemical indus-
433try engagement with ammonia production via the Haber–
434Bosch process. There are a range of companies offering
435synthesis reactors commercially, with typical capacities
436between 300 and 2000 t/day. High pressures are em-
437ployed, which referring back to Fig. 2 dictate that synthesis438occurs at higher temperatures and this results in higher
439reaction rates. Typically, a synthesis reactor consists of a
440large pressure vessel that contains a series of separate
441catalyst Bbeds.[ Each bed operates as an Badiabatic[ reac-
442tor with insulated walls. In each bed, or reaction stage,
443heat is produced by the synthesis reaction. To lower the
444inlet temperature for the next bed, the reactants can be
445cooled between each bed, or more low-temperature446reactants can be added [22]. As already noted, some such
447reactors are designed to produce steam at up to 520 �C and
44810 MPa, and steam turbines are often incorporated into
449ammonia plants. The existence of these proven commer-
450cial reactor systems facilitates system studies of solar
451thermal power stations using the technology.
452As mentioned above, an exergetic analysis of an ammonia
453storage system operating at 30 MPa (�300 atmospheres)454by Lovegrove et al. [34] concluded that a net solar-to-
455electric conversion efficiency of 20% was industrially
456achievable with such a system. Large-scale system chal-
457lenges such as centralized fluid control have been ad-
458dressed [59]. In addition, two hypothetical ammonia
459baseload plants were examined in detail: a 4-MWe plant
460[43] and a 10-MWe plant [60], each with an array of dish
Fig. 6. (a) The 2.8-m2 trough concentrator operated at the ANU. (b) A closeup of the cavity receiver showing the ammonia dissociation
reactor for the trough. (c) The trough tracking the sun. Yellow arrows indicate the direction of fluid flow. (Photos: ANU.)
Dunn et al. : A Review of Ammonia-Based Thermochemical Energy Storage for Concentrating Solar Power
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461 solar concentrators connected to a central power block.462 The 10-MWe plant study concluded that a baseload plant of
463 this scale located at Alice Springs in central Australia, with
464 an 80% capacity factor, could be operated with 400 large
465 400-m2 dishesVeach converting 308-kWth at design
466 pointVand a standard 1500-t/day ammonia synthesis re-
467 actor. Taking into account modest economies of scale, such
468 a plant was costed at AUD 157 million (in 1997 Australian
469 Dollars), resulting in a levelized electricity cost (LEC) of470 AUD 0.24 per kWh. A long-term projection of a LEC was
471 predicted at AUD 0.12–0.15 per kWh. The dishes used in
472 this study were 400-m2 dishes, previously developed at the
473 ANU [40], [41], [61]. Substitution with the new 489-m2
474 dishes described above would reduce the number of dishes
475 required to less than 330.
476 The ammonia-based system as originally conceived by
477 Carden was actually intended to address the need for low-478 loss energy transport from a field of dishes to a central
479 power block; ideas of the benefit of longer term energy
480 storage came later. The high cost of conventional pressure
481 vessels and the volume of gas storage needed motivated an
482 early investigation of underground storage of gases [62].
483 Such ideas remain a very long way from commercial
484 reality.
485 A solution that has been proposed for the purposes of486 system studies is to employ long lengths of large diameter
487 pressure piping (commonly used by the natural gas indus-
488 try) as the storage volume. This has the advantage of
489 offering a solution that can be costed based on existing
490 industry practice. The 10-MWe study, for example,
491 concluded that 162 km of DN-300 pipe (323.9-mm OD,
492 12.7-mm wall thickness) would provide sufficient energy
493 storage for 24-h baseload operation of the 10-MWe plant.494 The storage volume addressed in this way does become
495 the second most significant contributor to overall system
496 costVafter the solar collector field [60]Vand as a conse-
497 quence, questions remain about the potential economic
498 viability.
499 VII. CONCLUSION
500 Through three and a half decades of both experiment and
501 computation, it has been shown that ammonia-based ther-
502 mochemical energy storage for concentrating solar power
503is technically achievable. Development has largely cen-504tered on use with dish concentrators, of which a 489-m2
505prototype is now available.
506Technically the system is at a level of development
507where a multidish pilot scale system could be designed and
508built with confidence.
509On the one hand, an ammonia-based storage system
510has the benefits of abundant resources (nitrogen and hy-
511drogen gases) and the substantial experience of the ammo-512nia synthesis industry. On the other hand, it is yet to be
513established conclusively if such a storage system would be
514economically competitive with other alternatives.
515The limits to dispatchability for ammonia-based storage
516also deserve further investigation. While 24-h baseload
517operation is clearly technically feasible, conventional in-
518dustry practice suggests very slow ramp rates for ammonia
519synthesis reactors, thus limiting the capability to match520varying loads. It is possible, however, that innovative
521approaches could be developed to allow greater flexibility.
522Cost estimates have been calculated in the past, includ-
523ing an analysis of piping costs [63] and a more complete
524analysis of levelized electricity cost for the hypothetical
52510-MWe plant [60]. However, this levelized electricity cost
526was calculated over a decade ago, and we now find our-
527selves in a new context in which to evaluate the economic528viability of an ammonia storage system. Molten-salt stor-
529age for concentrating solar power plants is now commer-
530cial, and more information on CSP plant costs is available
531due to significant industry activity in Spain since 2007, and
532also in the United States. Thus, a new cost estimate for the
533technology, including cost-reduction potentials, would be
534timely.
535Somewhat intertwined with new cost estimates is the536challenge of high-pressure storage (10–30 MPa; �100–
537300 atmospheres). It would also be timely to determine
538whether such high system pressures could be economic in
539the long term, and if not whether a less costly alternative
540exists, for example, storing the product gases in porous
541Bsolid state[ storage cartridges.
542However, regardless of the outcome of such assess-
543ments, the receiver and system development produced by544this research program will still be of use as other ther-
545mochemical storage options approach similar development
546stages. h
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ABOUT THE AUT HORS
547 Rebecca Dunn received the combined B.Eng./B.S.
548 degree with first class honors in engineering and
549 the University Medal from the Australian National
550 University, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia, in 2007.
551 She majored in sustainable energy systems (en-
552 gineering) and chemistry (science). She is cur-
553 rently working towards the Ph.D. degree at the
554 Australian National University in the High Tem-
555 perature Solar Thermal Group, where her research
556 is in concentrating solar energy storage.
557 She has previously completed internships in electricity distribution,
558 with ActewAGL, and at Braemar Power Station (gas-fired), with NewGen
559 Power.
560 Ms. Dunn has been an active member of the Australian Solar Energy
561 Society since 2004.
562 Keith Lovegrove received the B.S. degree with
563 honors (first class) from the Department of
564 Physics, Australian National University (ANU),
565 Canberra, A.C.T., Australia, 1983 and the Ph.D.
566 degreeAQ4 from the same university in 1993.
567 He is the leader of the Australian National
568 University’s Solar Thermal Group. He is also the
569 Head of Solar Thermal for the U.K.-based renew-
570 able energy consulting company ITPower. He was
571 the lead inventor and design and construction
572 team leader of the recently completed 500 m2 Generation II Big Dish
573 solar concentrator at the Australian National University. This is the
574 largest dish concentrator in the world, and was recognized with a 2009
575 Design Award from the Light Weight Structures Association of Australia.
576 He has authored or coauthored two book chapters, 100 research papers,
577and 29 engineering technical reports, and has been an invited or plenary
578speaker at 25 conferences and forums.
579Dr. Lovegrove has had a long involvement with the Australian Solar
580Energy Society, an affiliate Section of the International Solar Energy
581Society, serving as National Chair, Vice Chair, and Treasurer. As Chair, he
582initiated the annual Australian BSustainable House Day.[ He has
583represented Australia as IEA SolarPACES Solar Chemistry task represen-
584tative over many years. During 2010, he was a Member of the Australian
585Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council, Expert
586Working Group on Climate Energy and Water Links.
587Greg Burgess received the B.Sc. (honors) degree
588in physics from the University of Melbourne,
589Melbourne, Vic., Australia, in 1980 and the
590M.App.Sc. degree in computing and electronics
591engineering from Swinburne University of Tech-
592nology, Melbourne, Vic. Australia, in 1998.
593Since 1999, he has been a Research Officer in
594the Research School of Engineering, Australian
595National University (ANU), Canberra, A.C.T.,
596Australia. He has previously worked in geophys-
597ical and human biomechanics research programs at ANU and at La Trobe
598University (Melbourne), as well as in industry in systems analysis and
599production planning and management. His research interests include
600solar concentrator optics, concentrator control systems, photogramme-
601try, and energy analysis of microalgal biofuels. He was a member of the
602design team for the ANU 500 m2 Generation II Big Dish solar con-
603centrator, and was responsible for metrology during dish construction.
604The dish was awarded joint first prize in the Special Applications category
605of the Lightweight Structures Association of Australia 2009 Awards of
606Excellence.
Dunn et al. : A Review of Ammonia-Based Thermochemical Energy Storage for Concentrating Solar Power
10 Proceedings of the IEEE |
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