Theoretical Foundations

Theoretical Foundations

KNR 273

What is theory?

Theory is a possible explanation or description of the relationship between various ideas or actions

It encourages people to specify what might happen and why

Hood & Carruthers, 2002, p. 138 Provides a strong base from which

to plan interventions Shank & Coyle, 2002

What theories are used in TR?

TR often uses borrowed theory The theories are not unique to TR The theories have not been developed

through TR research The theories are borrowed from other

fields TR uses a variety of theories

because our practice is so diverse Shank & Coyle, 2002

Stumbo & Peterson, 2009

Perceived freedom and personal choice Intrinsic motivation Self-efficacy, locus of control, and causal

attribution Optimal experiences/flow

4 major theories that are related to leisure behavior

Other theories have also been identified/used

Perceived Freedom

Activity or setting is more likely to be viewed as leisure when individuals attribute their reasons for participation to themselves (i.e., actions are freely chosen) rather than determined externally by someone else or by circumstances

Stumbo & Peterson, 2009, p. 16

Perceived Freedom

Perception that one has the freedom to make choices, engage in an activity, or embark on a course of action of his or her own choosing

Shank & Coyle, 2002, p. 65 Implies people have sufficient skills,

knowledge, and attitudes to have options from which to choose

Stumbo & Peterson, 2009, p. 16

Perceived Freedom & TR

TR helps build skills TR provides options for participation TR assists individual in expanding

personal choice

Intrinsic Motivation

People are motivated toward behavior where they can experience competence and self-determination

Increased motivation to participate comes from within and they are not forced to participate

Stumbo & Peterson, 2009

Optimal Experiences/Flow

Csikszentmihalyi Flow experiences are an end in

themselves They are driven by self-directed goals

Early model Balance of challenges and skills Anxiety and Boredom

Optimal Experiences/Flow

Optimal Experiences/Flow & TR

Match between skill and demands of activity Programs for various skill levels

Minimize distractions Identify how activities relate to

things the individual values

Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)

Refers to 3 interlocked things An environment in which some

important outcome is beyond control Response of giving up The expectation that no voluntary

action can control the outcome Thought to lead to depression

Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)

Way of explaining good and bad events represents “explanatory style’

3 critical dimensions Permanence Pervasiveness Personalization

Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)

Permanence (time/how long someone gives up): Permanent (pessimistic)

People who give up easily Think always/never Produce long-lasting helplessness

Diets never work You never talk to me

Temporary (optimistic) People who resist helplessness because cause is

temporary Produce resilience

Diets don’t work if I eat out You haven’t talked to me lately

Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)

Pervasiveness (space) Universal (pessimism)

People give up on everything when fail in one area

Produce helplessness across many situations College is horrible

Specific (optimism) People may become helpless in one part of

their life yet work hard in others Produce helplessness only in original area

KNR 370 is hard but I can understand KNR 273

Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)

Personalization Internal (low self-esteem)

Blame ourselves I have no talent at poker

External (high self-esteem) Blame other people or circumstances

I have no luck at poker

Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)

Helplessness Saps motivation to initiate responses

Generalizes to other situations Disrupts ability to learn Produces emotional disturbance

Activity

Self-Efficacy

Person’s belief about whether or not s/he can successfully engage in an activity

Judgments an individual makes regarding his or her ability to perform a particular behavior

Shank & Coyle, 2002

Self-Efficacy

Can be influenced through 4 sources Performance accomplishments Vicarious experiences Persuasion Physiological arousal

Self-Efficacy: Performance Accomplishments

Prior or current experiences where person does activity and has the desired outcome

Repeated success builds sense of competence

When people think they are capable of doing a task, they are more willing to engage and persist if they experience problems

Thought to have strongest influence on self-efficacy

Shank & Coyle, 2002

Self-Efficacy: Vicarious Experiences

Situations where the person observes someone else doing the activity

Impacted by how similar the role model is to the person

Shank & Coyle, 2002

Self-Efficacy: Verbal Persuasion

Persuading the person that s/he can do something

Most often used Least effective Effectiveness is influenced by

credibility of persuader Shank & Coyle, 2002

Self-Efficacy: Physiological Arousal

Internal state of individual when performing an activity

Degree of comfort or discomfort provoked in person

Shank & Coyle, 2002

Applying Self-Efficacy to TR Practice

Think back to juggling activity, which of these sources of information did I use to get you to juggle? Performance accomplishments Vicarious experiences Persuasion Physiological arousal

Other ways of using the techniques?