THE USE OF ANALGESICS, THE USE OF ANALGESICS, SEDATIVE MEDICATIONS PAIN, SEDATIVE MEDICATIONS PAIN, SEDATION IN CHILDREN SEDATION IN CHILDREN Compiled by Tina M. Slusher, MD Compiled by Tina M. Slusher, MD University of Minnesota University of Minnesota Contributions from: Contributions from: JOHN BERKENBOSH, M.D. JOHN BERKENBOSH, M.D. University of Louisville University of Louisville CHERI LANDERS, M.D. CHERI LANDERS, M.D. University of Kentucky University of Kentucky LYNNE W. COULE, M.D. LYNNE W. COULE, M.D. Medical College of Georgia Medical College of Georgia DAVID ROSEN, M.D. DAVID ROSEN, M.D. West Virginia University West Virginia University STEVE BARNES, M.D. STEVE BARNES, M.D. Rush University Rush University
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THE USE OF ANALGESICS, THE USE OF ANALGESICS, SEDATIVE MEDICATIONS PAIN, SEDATIVE MEDICATIONS PAIN,
SEDATION IN CHILDRENSEDATION IN CHILDREN
Compiled by Tina M. Slusher, MDCompiled by Tina M. Slusher, MDUniversity of MinnesotaUniversity of Minnesota
Contributions from:Contributions from:JOHN BERKENBOSH, M.D.JOHN BERKENBOSH, M.D.University of LouisvilleUniversity of LouisvilleCHERI LANDERS, M.D.CHERI LANDERS, M.D.University of KentuckyUniversity of KentuckyLYNNE W. COULE, M.D.LYNNE W. COULE, M.D.
Medical College of GeorgiaMedical College of GeorgiaDAVID ROSEN, M.D.DAVID ROSEN, M.D.
West Virginia UniversityWest Virginia University STEVE BARNES, M.D.STEVE BARNES, M.D.
Rush UniversityRush University
• Add oxycotin• Add rectal morphine• Scheduled versus prn
Conflict of Interest
• I have nothing to disclose
Children especially neonates feel less pain than adults w/similar painful stimuli
1. True2. False
Anesthesia Myths cont.
• Wrong!! Children do feel pain and neonates likely feel even more pain
• Pain transmission begins @2weeks gestation w/development of skin and mouth sensory neurons
• Appearance of pain inhibitory apparatus begins at about 32 wks gestation
• <20 years ago common belief was than infants did not feel pain and no anesthesia was used even during surgery
• In 1992, a trial2 showed deep anesthesia during cardiac surgery↓ physiologic stress responses and mortality & gave convincing evidence of importance of adequate analgesia for newborn infants
• Untreated pain may have undesirable long-term consequences, even after fairly minor procedures
NelsonNelson’’s textbooks textbook
Analgesia/Sedation MythsConcerns about respiratory depression make
pain control impossible in childrenWrong again!!!
– Need to titrate and Need to monitor– Easy to overshoot in < 6 months– Caveat in the < 6 month old infant
• Opioids can cause apnea prior to pain relief• Neonates may not get good pain relief from morphine
but is commonly used in neonates-more studies needed.
Concerns about addiction should limit appropriate pain
control
1. True2. False
Analgesia/Sedation Myths
• True addiction rarely happens with appropriate pain control
• “Addiction”– Addiction vs. Tolerance vs.
Dependance
Addiction• A common fear voiced by health care
workers• Includes a psychological “need” or
craving along with physical withdrawal symptoms if medication is discontinued
• People in real pain DON’T become addicted as long as medication titrated to pain
Tolerance• The same dose of medication no longer has
the same effect as when first started• More commonly occurs in patients on long
term continuous infusions of sedatives or analgesics rather than intermittent dosing especially if not titrated to the clinical situation
• There are currently NO medications to which tolerance will not develop
Dependence
• Removing medication results in withdrawal symptoms
• To avoid withdrawal, may need to wean sedative or analgesic or change to long acting agents such as methadone or clonidine when patient has been on the medication for 1 week or more
ASSESSING PAIN• JCAHO – pain as 5th vital sign
(mandate)• Developmental and cultural
barriers– Ability to verbalize– Cultural attitudes to pain
coping/treatment• Non-painful contributors to “pain-
like” behaviors
VAS-can be used in VAS-can be used in 8yo8yoFaces scale Faces scale 4yo 4yo
Assessing Pain cont.• Autonomic measures
– Heart rate– Blood pressure
• Behavioral or combined behavioral-physiologic scales (e.g. facial expression, limb movement ± heart rate & blood pressure
What is Analgesia?
“Relief of the perception of pain without intentional production of a sedated state. Altered mental status may be a secondary effect of medications administered for this purpose.”
MANAGING PAIN• 1990 – WHO pain management ladder
– Stepwise approach, based on anticipated severity
– 1° developed for cancer pain, adapted for all acute pain• Outpatient and inpatient applications
• Enteral and intravenous routes encouraged
WHO LADDERMILD PAIN:
– NSAIDS, Acetaminophen ± adjuvants
MODERATE PAIN:– NSAID or acetaminophen ± weak opioid
(oxy, hydro, codeine) ± adjuvants– IV opioids with scheduled NSAID or acetamin
• PCA vs CI vs intermittent
– Regional Anesthetic techniques
SEVERE PAIN:– IV opioids (PCA/CI) ± adjuvants– Regional Anesthetic techniques ± adjuvants
one available• Agonist-Antagonist• Metabolite can build up and cause
respiratory depression w/out adequate pain control
• Often underdosed• Dose 0.3-1mg/kg/dose q6hours
Ketamine
• Low dose ketamine may be alternative for pain control
• See latter section on ketamine for more information
Sucrose/Breastfeeding in Neonates
• Sucrose with or without a pacifier can be used for both pain and stress control in the neonate
• Breastfeeding + sucrose or glucose may be best alternative?
• However, recent article in Lancet questions whether oral sucrose actually does reduce pain because although pain score was lower there was no difference in nociceptive or spinal withdrawal activity (Slater R et al, Lancet. 2010;376:1225-1232
ANALGESIANALAXONE (NARCAN)
• Reverses sedation, analgesia, respiratory depression• NO agonist activity so NO risk sedation/respiratory
depression with overdoses• Dose: 0.1 mg/kg IV/IM
– use incremental doses (0.005-0.01 mg/kg) to avoid adverse
• Adverse:– short half-life, resedation/depression– opioid withdrawal (infants of addicted mothers)– agitation, seizures, N+V
Tina M. Slusher, MDAssociate Professor of Pediatrics
SEDATIONRATIONALE
• Anxiety– underlying illness– separation from parents– transport environment and transfers
• Ability to perform procedure– Safety - risks of motion (invasive)– Motion interference (i.e. radiologic)
PRESEDATION ASSESSMENTHISTORY
• Brief and Targeted:– Procedure being done and why– Pertinent past history
• underlying medical conditions• prior sedations/anaesthetics and reactions to them• Underlying airway issues
– Present medications - consider possible interactions
– Allergies - get specifics - not all reactions are allergies-include food allergies as well
– Family history of anaesthetic reactions– NPO Status– Determine specific sources of anxiety
• Patient’s NPO status– <6 mo 2 hours for clears and 4 hours
for breast milk and 6 hours for formula or food
– >6 mo 2 hours for clears and 6 hours for food unless diabetic or GER or other situations at increased risk for delayed emptying
debilitated, mentally compromised patient, hx of apnea
SEDATION EFFECTSCARDIOVASCULAR CONSIDERATIONS
• Primary concern is hypotension– vasodilation (esp. venous) (most agents)
• beware of patient with hypovolemia (presedation fasting)• drugs may be synergistic
– myocardial suppression (barbiturates, propofol)
• Precipitation of dysrhythmias– include contribution of relative bradycardia as
some drugs (opioids) blunt the normal compensatory HR response to vasodilation/hypovolemia
Volume Depletion/Hypotension
(Hemodynamic issues)
• IF intravascularly volume depleted or hypotensive may have a in BP if administered sedatives
• IF intravascularly volume depleted or hypotensive should be appropriately fluid resuscitated & hemodynamically stable PRIOR to receiving sedation!
AGENT DETERMINATION• Relative need for anxiolysis vs analgesia• Depth of sedation desired/required• Duration of procedure• Degree of patient/family anxiety
– prior experiences with procedures sedation
• Underlying medical conditions– include family history of reactions to
Some drugs like barbiturates actually increase pain by
inhibiting neural pathways
SEDATIONDEFINTIONSMild (Conscious) Sedation
• minimally depressed level of consciousness• ability to independently maintain airway patency
retained• respond appropriately to physical or verbal stimulation
Deep (Unconscious) Sedation• controlled state of decreased or lost consciousness• risk of partial/complete loss of airway protection/patency• partial/complete inability to respond appropriately
General Anaesthesia• medically controlled state of unconsciousness• complete loss of airway protection and responsiveness
Continuum of Consciousness
Awake, baseline
Generalanesthesia
Drowsy
Conscioussedation
Deepsedation
ALL SEDATION CAN PROGRESS TODEEP SEDATION REGARDLESS OF THE DRUG OR DOSE EMPLOYED!
Equipment• Check your equipment & make sure it’s the
right size for your patient and in working condition
• Must have equipment for– Securing airway– Assisting ventilation– Supporting circulation– Suctioning equipment/supplies
• PPV (ambu) bag, appropriate mask, IV supplies, & suctioning equipment are the basic minimum
control– retrograde amnesia– PO, IV, IM, IN, PR dosing routes– onset 2-6 min after IV administration,
45-60 min duration– available reversal agent
• Flumazenil
Midazolam (Versed)• Disadvantages
– No analgesia– Paradoxical reactions– More than additive risk of respiratory
compromise when added to opiate– Neonates: bradycardia, hypotension and
seizures with rapid injection– Peak serum level increased with
itraconazole, erythromycin and clarithromycin
Diazepam• Advantages: Similar to other benzo’s
except longer acting, metabolites can accumulate over time causing toxicity especially w/larger doses
• Dosage for sedation:– 0.04-0.2mg/kg/dose IV/IM q2-4 hours
(maximum 8 mg in 24 hours) – 0.12-0.8 mg/kg/24 hours PO divided q6hours
Barbiturates
• General CNS depressants• Induction of anesthesia• Hypnosis• Sedation• Respiratory depression
Pentobarbital (Nembutal)
• Advantages:– Fairly safe– Sedation, motion control, anxiolysis– Short onset (3-5 min. given IV) and
duration (15-45 min.)– Alternative to chloral hydrate in older
children– PO, IV, IM, PR dosing routes
• longer time to onset and longer duration with routes other than IV
Pentobarbital
• Disadvantages– Enhances pain perception– No reversal agent
Chloral Hydrate• Advantages
– PO, PR dosing• initial 25-100 mg/kg• repeat after 30 min if need 25-50 mg/kg
– Anxiolysis, sedation, motion control– Single dose toxicity is low– Successful in younger patients (< 2-3 yrs)– Many practitioners familiar with its use– Just as good as bourbon
Chloral Hydrate• Disadvantages
– 15-30 min to onset, lasts 1-2 hours– Less successful in older children– High doses can cause respiratory
depression and dysrhythmias– No pain control– Not reversible– Repetitive doses cause metabolites to
accumulate with unknown toxicities
Propofol
• Sedative/hypnotic anesthetic• Increased popularity for procedural
sedation– Rapid onset and recovery– Lack of agitation– Anti-emetic properties
• Deep sedation for short procedures– Consider concomitant analgesic or local
anaesthetic
NO significant Analgesic Properties
PROPOFOL• Administration:
– 1-2 mg/kg/dose – slowly and titrate– Infusion (3-5 mg/kg/hr) or frequent small boluses
• Dose-dependent• Smaller therapeutic window than ketamine
– Hypotension/bradycardia– Pain at injection site – lidocaine helps~I mix
1mg/kg in first 10cc syringe of propofol ~less problematic w/larger IV’s
Propofol cont.
• Adverse:– Respiratory depression/airway
protection• Dose-dependent• Smaller therapeutic window than
ketamine
– Hypotension/bradycardia– Pain at injection site - lidocaine
Narcotics Plus Benzo’s
• Monitor closely for respiratory depression esp. when used in combination w/benzodiazepines!
• Remember that narcotics plus benzo’s =
more respiratory depression than either alone!
Ketamine• Dissociative anesthetic• Advantages
– provides both analgesia and amnesia– less alteration of upper airway tone and reflexes than benzo’s or narcotics– preserves upper airway tone and reflexes– causes bronchodilatation
• Although studies don’t all agree ketamine likely reduces the dose of morphine when used together. (Carstensen & Moller, BMJ, 2010, 401-6)