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C h a p t e r
4
The Tissue
Level of Organization
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides
prepared by Jason LaPres
Lone Star College - North Harris
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.,
publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Four Types of Tissues
Tissues are collections of cells and cell
products that perform specific, limited
functions
Types of tissue
Epithelial tissue
Covers exposed surfaces
Lines internal passageways
Forms glands
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Four Types of Tissues
Types of Tissue (cont’d)
Connective tissue
Fills internal spaces
Supports other tissues
Transports materials
Stores energy
Muscle tissue
Specialized for contraction
Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs
Neural tissue
Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another
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Epithelial Tissues
Epithelia
Layers of cells covering internal or external
surfaces
Glands
Structures that produce secretions
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Epithelial Tissues
Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity (cell junctions)
Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
Attachment (basal lamina)
Avascularity
Regeneration
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Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells.
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Epithelial Tissues
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Provide physical protection
Control permeability
Provide sensation
Produce specialized secretions (glandular
epithelium)
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Epithelial Tissues
Specializations of Epithelial Cells
Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
Produce secretions (protection and messengers)
Free Surface and Attached Surface
Polarity
Apical surfaces:
– microvilli increase absorption or secretion
– cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid
Basolateral surfaces
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Epithelial Tissues
Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia
Intercellular connections
Attachment to basal lamina
Epithelial maintenance and repair
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Epithelial Tissues
Intercellular Connections
Support and communication
CAMs (cell adhesion molecules):
– transmembrane proteins
Intercellular cement:
– proteoglycans
Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid):
– glycosaminoglycans
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Epithelial Tissues
Intercellular Connections
Cell junctions
Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material:
– occluding (tight) junctions
– gap junctions
– macula adherens (desmosomes)
Intercellular Connections
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Epithelial Tissues
Cell Junctions
Occluding (Tight) junctions—between two plasma
membranes
Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
Prevents passage of water and solutes
Isolates wastes in the lumen
Gap junctions—allow rapid communication
Held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins,
connexons)
Allow ions to pass
Coordinate contractions in heart muscle
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Epithelial Tissues
Cell Junctions
Macula adherens (Desmosomes)
CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular
cement
Spot desmosomes
– tie cells together
– allow bending and twisting
Hemidesmosomes
– attach cells to the basal lamina
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Epithelial Tissues
Attachment to the Basal Lamina
Clear layer (Lamina lucida)
Thin layer
Secreted by epithelia
Barrier to proteins
Dense layer (Lamina densa)
Thick fibers
Produced by connective tissue
Strength and filtration
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Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections
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Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections
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Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections
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Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections
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Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial Maintenance and Repair
Epithelia are replaced by division of
germinative cells (stem cells)
Near basal lamina
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Classification of Epithelia
Singular epithelium; plural epithelia
Classes of Epithelia
Based on shape
Squamous epithelia: thin and flat
Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped
Columnar epithelia: tall, slender rectangles
Based on layers
Simple epithelium: single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells
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Classification of Epithelia
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Classification of Epithelia
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Classification of Epithelia
Squamous Epithelia
Simple squamous epithelium
Absorption and diffusion
Mesothelium
Lines body cavities
Endothelium
Lines heart and blood vessels
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–3 Squamous Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Squamous Epithelia
Stratified squamous epithelium
Protects against attacks
Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–3 Squamous Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Cuboidal Epithelia
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Secretion and absorption
Stratified cuboidal epithelia
Sweat ducts and mammary ducts
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Transitional Epithelium
Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling
and returns to its previous shape without damage
Appearance changes as stretching occurs
Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g. urinary
bladder)
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Columnar Epithelia
Simple columnar epithelium
Absorption and secretion
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Cilia movement
Stratified columnar epithelium
Protection
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–5 Columnar Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–5 Columnar Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–5 Columnar Epithelia.
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Classification of Epithelia
Glandular Epithelia
Endocrine glands
Release hormones:
– into interstitial fluid
– no ducts
Exocrine glands
Produce secretions:
– onto epithelial surfaces
– through ducts
Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion
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Classification of Epithelia
Modes of Secretion in Glandular Epithelia
Merocrine secretion
Is produced in Golgi apparatus
Is released by vesicles (exocytosis)
For example, sweat glands
Apocrine secretion
Is produced in Golgi apparatus
Is released by shedding cytoplasm
For example, mammary gland
Holocrine secretion
Is released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
Gland cells replaced by stem cells
For example, sebaceous gland
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–6 Modes of Glandular Secretion.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–6 Modes of Glandular Secretion.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–6 Modes of Glandular Secretion.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–6 Modes of Glandular Secretion.
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Classification of Epithelia
Glandular Epithelia
Types of secretions
Serous glands:
– watery secretions
Mucous glands:
– secrete mucins
Mixed exocrine glands:
– both serous and mucous
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Classification of Epithelia
Glandular Epithelia
Gland structure
Unicellular glands
– Mucous (goblet) cells are the only unicellular
exocrine glands:
» scattered among epithelia
» for example, in intestinal lining
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Classification of Epithelia
Glandular Epithelia
Gland structure
Multicellular glands:
– structure of the duct:
» simple (undivided)
» compound (divided)
– shape of secretory portion of the gland:
» tubular (tube shaped)
» alveolar or acinar (blind pockets)
– relationship between ducts and glandular areas:
» branched (several secretory areas sharing one duct)
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–7 A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands.
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Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4–7 A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands.
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Connective Tissues
Connect epithelium to the rest of the body
(basal lamina)
Provide structure (bone)
Store energy (fat)
Transport materials (blood)
Have no contact with environment
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Connective Tissues
Characteristics of Connective Tissues
Specialized cells
Solid extracellular protein fibers
Fluid extracellular ground substance
The extracellular components of connective
tissues (fibers and ground substance) make up
the matrix
Majority of tissue volume
Determines specialized function
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Connective Tissues
Classification of Connective Tissues
Connective tissue proper
Connect and protect
Fluid connective tissues
Transport
Supportive connective tissues
Structural strength
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Connective Tissues
Categories of Connective Tissue Proper
Loose connective tissue
More ground substance, less fibers
For example, fat (adipose tissue)
Dense connective tissue
More fibers, less ground substance
For example, tendons
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Connective Tissues
Fibroblasts
Fibrocytes
Macrophages
Adipocytes
Mesenchymal cells
Melanocytes
Mast cells
Lymphocytes
Microphages
Nine Cell Types of Connective Tissue Proper
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Proper Cells
Fibroblasts
The most abundant cell type:
– found in all connective tissue proper
– secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)
Fibrocytes
The second most abundant cell type:
– found in all connective tissue proper
– maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Proper Cells
Macrophages
Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system:
– eat pathogens and damaged cells
– fixed macrophages stay in tissue
– free macrophages migrate
Adipocytes
Fat cells:
– each cell stores a single, large fat droplet
Mesenchymal Cells
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection:
– differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc.
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Proper Cells
Melanocytes
Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
Mast Cells
Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection:
– release histamine and heparin
Basophils are leukocytes (white blood cells) that
also contain histamine and heparin
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Proper Cells
Lymphocytes
Specialized immune cells in lymphoid (lymphatic) system:
– For example, lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells
(plasmocytes) that produce antibodies
Microphages
Phagocytic blood cells:
– respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells
– For example, neutrophils and eosinophils
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Fibers
Collagen fibers
Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
Long, straight, and unbranched
Strong and flexible
Resist force in one direction
For example, tendons and ligaments
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Fibers
Reticular fibers
Network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
Strong and flexible
Resist force in many directions
Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and
structures
For example, sheaths around organs
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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Fibers
Elastic fibers
Contain elastin
Branched and wavy
Return to original length after stretching
For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae
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Connective Tissues
Ground Substance
Is clear, colorless, and viscous
Fills spaces between cells and slows
pathogen movement
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–8 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper.
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–8 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper.
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Connective Tissues
Embryonic Connective Tissues
Are not found in adults
Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells)
The first connective tissue in embryos
Mucous connective tissue
Loose embryonic connective tissue
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–9 Connective Tissues in Embryos.
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Connective Tissues
[INSERT FIG. 4.9b]
Figure 4–9 Connective Tissues in Embryos.
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Connective Tissues
Loose Connective Tissues
The packing materials of the body
Three types in adults
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
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Connective Tissues
Areolar Tissue
Least specialized
Open framework
Viscous ground substance
Elastic fibers
Holds blood vessels and capillary beds
For example, under skin (subcutaneous layer)
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Connective Tissues
Adipose Tissue
Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
Types of adipose tissue White fat:
– most common
– stores fat
– absorbs shocks
– slows heat loss (insulation)
Brown fat:
– more vascularized
– adipocytes have many mitochondria
– when stimulated by nervous system, fat break down accelerates, releasing energy
– absorbs energy from surrounding tissues
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Connective Tissues
Adipose Tissue
Adipose cells
Adipocytes in adults do not divide:
– expand to store fat
– shrink as fats are released
Mesenchymal cells divide and
differentiate:
– to produce more fat cells
– when more storage is needed
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Connective Tissues
Reticular Tissue
Provides support
Complex, three-dimensional network
Supportive fibers (stroma)
Support functional cells (parenchyma)
Reticular organs
Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–10 Adipose and Reticular Tissues.
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–10 Adipose and Reticular Tissues.
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Connective Tissues
Dense Connective Tissues
Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with
high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers
Dense regular connective tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue
Elastic tissue
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Connective Tissues
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
Tendons attach muscles to bones
Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize
organs
Aponeuroses attach in sheets to large, flat
muscles
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–11 Dense Connective Tissues.
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Connective Tissues
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers
Layered in skin
Around cartilages (perichondrium)
Around bones (periosteum)
Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver,
kidneys)
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–11 Dense Connective Tissues.
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Connective Tissues
Elastic Tissue
Made of elastic fibers
For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–11 Dense Connective Tissues.
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Connective Tissues
Fluid Connective Tissues
Blood and lymph
Watery matrix of dissolved proteins
Carry specific cell types (formed elements)
Formed elements of blood
– red blood cells (erythrocytes)
– white blood cells (leukocytes)
– platelets
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Connective Tissues
Fluid Elements of Fluid Connective
Tissues
Extracellular
Plasma
Interstitial fluid
Lymph
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Connective Tissues
Figure 4–12 Formed Elements of the Blood.
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Connective Tissues
Lymph
Extracellular fluid
Collected from interstitial space
Monitored by immune system
Transported by lymphoid (lymphatic) system
Returned to venous system
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Connective Tissues
Fluid Tissue Transport Systems
Cardiovascular system (blood)
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Lymphoid (lymphatic) system (lymph)
Lymphatic vessels
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Support soft tissues and body weight
Cartilage
Gel-type ground substance
For shock absorption and protection
Bone
Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
For weight support
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Cartilage Matrix
Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates
Ground substance proteins
Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by
lacunae (chambers)
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Cartilage Structure
No blood vessels:
Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor
Perichondrium:
Outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Figure 4–13 The Growth of Cartilage.
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Figure 4–13 The Growth of Cartilage.
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Types of Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Stiff, flexible support
Reduces friction between bones
Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea
Elastic cartilage
Supportive but bends easily
Found in external ear and epiglottis
Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage)
Limits movement
Prevents bone-to-bone contact
Pads knee joints
Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Figure 4–14 The Types of Cartilage.
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Figure 4–14 The Types of Cartilage.
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Figure 4–14 The Types of Cartilage.
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Bone or osseous tissue Strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits)
Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
Bone cells or osteocytes Arranged around central canals within matrix
Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply
Periosteum Covers bone surfaces
Fibrous layer
Cellular layer
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Supportive Connective Tissues
Figure 4–15 Bone.
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Supportive Connective Tissues
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Membranes
Membranes
Are physical barriers
That line or cover portions of the body
Consist of
An epithelium
Supported by connective tissues
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Membranes
Four Types of Membranes
Mucous membranes
Serous membranes
Cutaneous membrane
Synovial membranes
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Membranes
Mucous membranes (mucosae)
Line passageways that have external connections
In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts
Epithelial surfaces must be moist
To reduce friction
To facilitate absorption and excretion
Lamina propria
Is areolar tissue
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Membranes
Serous Membranes
Line cavities not open to the outside
Are thin but strong
Have fluid transudate to reduce friction
Have a parietal portion covering the cavity
Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the
organs
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Membranes
Three Serous Membranes
Pleura:
Lines pleural cavities
Covers lungs
Peritoneum:
Lines peritoneal cavity
Covers abdominal organs
Pericardium:
Lines pericardial cavity
Covers heart
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Membranes
Figure 4–16 Membranes.
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Membranes
Cutaneous membrane
Is skin, surface of the body
Thick, waterproof, and dry
Synovial membranes
Line moving, articulating joint cavities
Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)
Protect the ends of bones
Lack a true epithelium
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Membranes
Figure 4–16 Membranes.
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Internal Framework of the Body
Connective tissues
Provide strength and stability
Maintain positions of internal organs
Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
and nerves
Fasciae
Singular form is fascia
The body’s framework of connective tissue
Layers and wrappings that support or surround
organs
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Internal Framework of the Body
Three Types of Fasciae
Superficial fascia
Deep fascia
Subserous fascia
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Internal Framework of the Body
Figure 4–17 The Fasciae.
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Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction
Produces all body movement
Three types of muscle tissue
Skeletal muscle
Large body muscles responsible for movement
Cardiac muscle
Found only in the heart
Smooth muscle
Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels;
urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive
tracts)
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Muscle Tissue
Classification of Muscle Cells
Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance)
Nonstriated (not banded; smooth)
Muscle cells can have a single nucleus
Muscle cells can be multinucleate
Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily
(consciously)
Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily
(automatically)
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Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Cells
Are long and thin
Are usually called muscle fibers
Do not divide
New fibers are produced by stem cells
(myosatellite cells)
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Muscle Tissue
Figure 4–18 Muscle Tissue.
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Muscle Tissue
Cardiac muscle cells
Are called cardiocytes
Form branching networks connected at
intercalated discs
Are regulated by pacemaker cells
Smooth muscle cells
Are small and tapered
Can divide and regenerate
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Muscle Tissue
Figure 4–18 Muscle Tissue.
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Muscle Tissue
Figure 4–18 Muscle Tissue.
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Neural Tissue
Also called nervous or nerve tissue
Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
Rapidly senses internal or external
environment
Processes information and controls
responses
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Neural Tissue
Neural tissue is concentrated in the
central nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord
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Neural Tissue
Two Kinds of Neural Cells
Neurons
Nerve cells
Perform electrical communication
Neuroglia
Supporting cells
Repair and supply nutrients to neurons
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Neural Tissue
Cell Parts of a Neuron
Cell body
Contains the nucleus and nucleolus
Dendrites
Short branches extending from the cell body
Receive incoming signals
Axon (nerve fiber)
Long, thin extension of the cell body
Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination
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Neural Tissue
Figure 4–19 Neural Tissue.
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
Tissues respond to injuries to maintain
homeostasis
Cells restore homeostasis with two processes
Inflammation
Regeneration
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
Inflammation = inflammatory response
The tissue’s first response to injury
Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory
response include
Swelling
Redness
Heat
Pain
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
Inflammatory Response
Can be triggered by
Trauma (physical injury)
Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens)
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
The Process of Inflammation
Damaged cells release chemical signals into the
surrounding interstitial fluid
Prostaglandins
Proteins
Potassium ions
As cells break down
Lysosomes release enzymes
That destroy the injured cell
And attack surrounding tissues
Tissue destruction is called necrosis
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
The Process of Inflammation
Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate
in the wound
Abscess:
– pus trapped in an enclosed area
Injury stimulates mast cells to release
Histamine
Heparin
Prostaglandins
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
The Process of Inflammation
Dilation of blood vessels
Increases blood circulation in the area
Causes warmth and redness
Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area
Removes wastes
Plasma diffuses into the area
Causing swelling and pain
Phagocytic white blood cells
Clean up the area
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
Figure 4–20 An Introduction to Inflammation.
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
Regeneration
When the injury or infection is cleaned up
Healing (regeneration) begins
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Tissue Injuries and Repair
The Process of Regeneration
Fibrocytes move into necrotic area
Lay down collagen fibers
To bind the area together (scar tissue)
New cells migrate into area
Or are produced by mesenchymal stem cells
Not all tissues can regenerate
Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well
Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate
poorly)
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Aging and Tissue
Aging and Tissue Structure
Speed and efficiency of tissue repair
decreases with age, due to
Slower rate of energy consumption (metabolism)
Hormonal alterations
Reduced physical activity
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Aging and Tissue
Effects of Aging
Chemical and structural tissue changes
Thinning epithelia and connective tissues
Increased bruising and bone brittleness
Joint pain and broken bones
Cardiovascular disease
Mental deterioration
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Aging and Tissue
Aging and Cancer Incidence
Cancer rates increase with age
1 in 4 people in the United States develops cancer
Cancer is the #2 cause of death in the United
States
Environmental chemicals and cigarette smoke
cause cancer