The Medical and Surgical Treatment of Chronic Rhinitis

The Medical and Surgical The Medical and Surgical Treatment of Chronic RhinitisTreatment of Chronic Rhinitis

R. Moulton-Barrett, MD

Defination of Chronic Rhinitis

symptoms of : nasal congestion rhinorrhoea anosmia sneezing or itchy nose lasting > 3 months in one year

• 40 million people in USA • 50% seek medical advise• 50% allergic in origin • 6 million dollars spent on decongestants / yr.

Physiology of Nasal Congestion

3 portions: vestibule

respiratory ( 92 % by area:120 sq cm's) and olfactory

Flow: Inspiratory - laminar, above inferior turbinate Expiratory - circum-laminar to paranasal sinuses

Vestibule: 1/3 nasal resistance ( by acoustic rhinometry and MRI )

Nasal Valve: 2/3's total nasal resistance ( 0.72 cm2 )

the most narrow portion of the nasal cavity

Anatomy of the Inferior Turbinate

Nerve: Post-ganglionic pterygopalatine ganglion fibres

Inf Post Lat branch of Greater Palatine Nerve

Artery: Single branch of sphenopalatine artery

enters 1-1.5 cm's from posterior superior bone

travels anteriorly along superior periosteum

Swelling: 40% of blood: through spongy submucosal venous tissue

containing small vessels with leaky basement membranes

60% of the blood passes through a/v shunts:

Sympathetic dependent - reduces

can overdrive by parasympathetics + engorges

not histamine sensitive

Acoustic Rhinometry• assesses cross-sectional area andgeometry• (experimental)

Hilberg 1989

Posterior Rhinometry • Resistance = Pressure/Flow: disputed in terms of

value Myrind N, 1980. Measurement of nasal airway

resistance -is it only for article writers.

Clinical Otolaryngol 5:161-163.

Measurement of Nasal Resistance

Dynamic variation in nasal resistance

Site: anterior-superior leading edge

Hydrostatic presssure: positional

Nervous innervation : nasal cycle ( sympathetic tone )

Inflammatory process: chronic rhinitis

Drug manipulation: vasoconstriction: 35% < resistance

Inflam. mediators: histamine independent

peptide and prostaglandin dependent

Physiology of Rhinorrhoea

Serous & Mucoserous Glands

parasympathetic and histamine dependent

induce with methacholine 'challenge' test

50-100 cilia/cell

beats mucus posteriorly at 0.3-1 cm/minute

a drop of saccarin: taste in 20 minutes,

if delayed: perform microscopy

rule out immotile cilia

Sneezing and Itching

Histamine related: released by mastcells

eosinophils

& most importantly basophil cells

Success of therapy: antihistamine/cromoglycate:

proportional to histamine in nasal smears >

mast, eosinophil, basophil cells,

in vitro histamine release in response to allergens

Nasal Cytometry

Purpose: 1. determine likelihood medical treatment success

2. make diagnosis

Collection: plastic bag and swab to slide

Stains: Hansel's or Wright'sAnalysis: > 5 neutrophils/high power field: 84% sensitive for sinusitis

>25% eosinophil/100 cells: 70% diagnostic allergic rhinitis (AR)

The other 30%: eosinophilic non- allergic rhinitis ( NARE)

Check H & P& Labs: h/o asthma

FH AR (24%) IgE>50U/ml ( usually >700u/ml=AR), skin or nasal allergen challenge testing

•If NARE: 93% respond to intra-nasal steroid therapy vs. 66% if AR. •If non-NARE/AR ( vasomotor ): < 19% respond to intra-nasal steroid therapy

Mullarkey M, Hill J and Webb R,1980. J Allergy Clin Immunol 65(2),122-126

Causes of Rhinitis

Allergic : 50 %Non-allergic Eosinophilic : 35 %Vasomotor : 12 % Others : infective autoimmune < 3 % atrophic

If only nasal obstruction must r/o masses

AllergicNasal Challenge Test• Primary phase: 5-30 seconds later sneezing occurs

histamine dependent

secondary to basophil degranulation

then delayed intra-nasal eosinophilia

• Secondary phase: 7 hours later

also caused by basophil degranulation

and parasympathetic overdrive

histamine independent

• If the allergen is rechallenged there may be 100x's greater response

Seasonal primary and secondary phases

• when pollen counts are >50/cubic meter April-May: oak

May-August: birch

April-August: ragweed • or when in-home dust countsare elevated:

Dermatophygoides pteronyssinus or farinae : fans mattress covers wash carpets open windows dusting humidifiers

Vasomotor Rhinitis

Secondary to: parasympathetic excess or

sympathetic reduction

• Drugs – rhinitis medicamentosa - topical cocaine and oxymetolazone

- produces prolonged vasoconstriction - followed by reactive hyperemia - via down regulation: alpha1 & 2 blockage

– antihypertensive medications: vasodilators ie. alpha blockers

• Hormonal – estrogenic - BCP & Gravidarum: estrogenic cholinesterase inhibition – acromegaly – hypothyroidism: responds to thyroxine and – old man's drip: responds to testosterone

Medical TherapyIntra-Nasal Steroids• Most useful agent: 60-75% benefit all causes chronic rhinitis placebo 20% benefit

• Inhibits: mast cell migration into nasal mucosa basophil cell, not eosinophil cell degranulation

• least effect on: parasympathetic tone non-histamine related rhinorrhoea of VR

• S/E: freon causes drying crusting and bleeding ( 5% ) aqueous propylene glycol produce burning ( 5% ) very rare side - effects of septal perforation

- blindness

• Little benefit for VMR• positioning the patient

Medical therapy

Anti-histamines

• Have little effect on nasal blockage since histamine independent

• Inhibit primary phase reactive symptoms

• As effective as steroids for seasonal AR for sneezing & rhinorrhoea

Cromoglycate

• Inhibition of protein kinase C leads to reduced degranulation

• Has no place in the treatment of NARE or vasomotor rhinitis

• Limits phase 1 symptoms and poor for congestion

• Use 4-6 times daily

• Though newest drug 'Nedocromil" may reduce nasal obstruction in allergic rhinitis

Ipratropium bromide

• Few side-effects since not absorbed by mucosa

• Inhibits c-GMP synthesis which causes decreased glandular secretion

• 400ug QID may produce cracking and bleeding

• 80ug QID is equally effective in reducing rhinorrhea but not sneezing or obstruction•

Immunotherapy

• Mechanism: cytokine related inhibition of basophil sensitivity

via T cells rather than blocking IgG antibodies

• " May be initiated at any time " during medical therapy for AR Gordon, 1992. O-HNS 107;6(2), pg. 861

• Degree of success is multi-factorial and of particular importance is allergen avoidance therapy

• 90% of asthmatics with positive skin and nasal challenge tests benefited by mold immunotherpy ( Goode states: 75%)

• Yet intra-nasal steroids are better tolerated and more effective in the therapy for seasonal AR

Surgical Treatment: General principles

• Rhinorrhoea: neurectomy or steroid injection

• Obstruction: all forms of therapy with good results

• Inferior turbinate: commonest cause of nasal obstruction

• Reduce the inferior turbinate during septoplasty

• Atrophic rhinitis from turbinectomy is extremely rare

Choices: Inferior Turbinate

steroid injection

sclerotherpy

outfracture

submucous resection of bone

submucosal bipolar electro- cautery

mucosa/ soft tissue resection: AgNO3

CO2 laser or needle cautery

turbinectomy: partial or complete

neurectomy: pterygopalatine ganglion or vidian nerve by: cryo or sclero-therapy

cautery or knife

endo or non-endoscopically

Outfracture

method: clamp and rotate outwards

advantage: little bleeding

easy to perform

may combine with posterior turbinectomy

disadvantage: 25% show no improvement

Thomas, et al, 1985

Submucous Resection of Bone

method: anterior incision over head of the inferior turbinate

resection of the anterior 1/3 using curved scissors

advantage: useful - uncontrolled perrenial enlarged inferior turbinate easy

little bleeding or post-operative crusting or drainage

preserves mucosa

disadvantage: may require general anaesthesia

need packing

inferior long-term results to turbinectomy

House P,1951. Submucous Resection of the Inferior Turbinal Bone. Laryngoscope 61(7),637-648.

Soft Tissue Cautery

method(s): unipolar single - 3 points or bipolar * cautery

advantage: simple equipment and simple to do

disadvantage: difficult to determine degree of thermal injury,

pain may be diffulcult to control by local anaesthesia

mucosal loss with prolonged time for remucosalization ie.

crusting and rhinorrhoea

risk of sequestrium formation: persistent swelling

fetor

rhinorrhoea

crusting

* Hurd L,1931. Bipolar electrode fro electrocoagulation of the inferior turbinate. Arch Otol 13,442

Steroid Injection:

method: 0.5cc Kenolog ( 40mg/ml ) on spinal needle

advantage: quick, under local anaesthetic, rapid results

disadvantage: lasts 4 weeks

facial flushing ( 5% )

at least 11 reports of blindness ( 1 at UC-Irvine )

small risk of septal perforation or sequestrium

Mabry R,1983. Corticosteroids in otolaryngology:intraturbinal injection. Otolaryngol Head and Neck Surg 91(6),717-720

CO2 Laser

method: defocused and 10W continuously

to the anterior 1/3 of the inferior turbinate

advantage: less bleeding, less pain, faster healing

disadvantage: associated with synechiae formation

Selkin S,1985. Laser turbinectomy as an adjunct to rhinoseptoplasty. Arch Otolarygol 111,446-449

KTP Laser

method: 532nm laserscope 1mm wide, 1mm deep

8W continuous X hatched and teflon splints placed

advantages: 85% improvement at 2-4 year follow-up

no packing and no bleeding

disadvantages: specialized equipment

2 weeks of rhinorhoea

8 weeks of crusting

Levine H,1991. The potassium-titanyl phospahte laser fro treatment of turbinate dysfunction. Otolaryngol Head and Neck Surg 104(2),247-251

Cryotherapy

method: closed nitrous oxide cryo 'gun' at -40c for 60-75 seconds to 4 places on the sup & ant head of the inferior

turbinate

advantages: local anaesthesia no bleeding little dyscomfort may combine with neurectomy for vasomotor rhinitis 85% improvement at 2 yr. follow-up

disadvantages: until recently required specialized equipment rhinorrhoea if do not combine with neuroectomy, inferior long-term results compared to turbinectomy*

* OzenbergerJ,1973. Cryotherapy for the treatment of dhronic rhinitis. Laryngoscope 83,508-16

Turbinectomy methods: anterior 1/3 or total*

advantage: * despite Goode's criticisms in 1985

do not appear to cause atrophic rhinitis

useful for hypertrophic posterior 'mulberry' turbinates

best long term results

disadvantage: most post-operative dyscomfort/pain/crusting

usually requires packing

3-5% significant bleeding and

when combined with other nasal procedures under

general anaesthesia it led to prolonged hospitalization.** Elwany S and Harrison R, 1990. Inferior turbinectomy: Comparison of four techniques.

J Laryngol Otol 104,206-209 Ophir, D 1992. Long-term follow-up of the effectiveness and safety of inferior turbinectomy. Plast Reconst Surg 90 (6),985-987

Neurectomy

methods: trans-nasal: Malcolmson, 1959

trans-antral: Golding-Wood, 1962

endoscopic: El Shazly, 1991

advantages: 90% improvement of rhinorrhoea

disadvantages: possible reduction of maxillary sensation

conjunctival irritation 'red eye' (25%)

may regenerate in time

El Shazly M,1991. Endoscopic Surgery of the Vidian Nerve.

Preliminary Report. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 100:536-539.

Cryotherapy: Neurectomy

method: apply probe 1 minute -180C to the vidian nerve 6mm posterior to the sphenopalatine foramen 1cm posterior toposterior border to the middle turbinate or 1.2cm above & lateral to superior border of the choana

advantages: quick can use in conjunction with cryo-turbinate reductio well tolerated on out-patient basis 86% improvement

disadvantages: unpredictable extent of result operator experience dependent

Strom M, 1989 . A long-term assessment of cryotherpy for testing vasomotor rhinitis. Ear Nose and Throat 69(12), 839-842