1 | Page AN INDEPENNT RESEARCH PROJECT ON THE EFFECTIVE USE OF BUILDING MATERIALS FOR TEMPERATURE CONTROL, FOR BUILDINGS IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA. BY AKINOLA .O. FRANCIS ARC/05/5590 SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENY TECHNOLOGY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE, ONDO STATE. IN PARTIAL, FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELORS OF TECHNOLOGY (B-TECH) DEGREE IN ARCHITECTURE. SEPTEMBER 2010
83
Embed
The Effective use of building materials for temperature control for building in southern Nigeria.
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1 | P a g e
AN INDEPENNT RESEARCH PROJECT
ON
THE EFFECTIVE USE OF BUILDING MATERIALS FOR TEMPERATURE
CONTROL, FOR BUILDINGS IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA.
BY
AKINOLA .O. FRANCIS
ARC/05/5590
SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENY TECHNOLOGY,
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE, ONDO STATE.
IN
PARTIAL, FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELORS OF
TECHNOLOGY (B-TECH) DEGREE IN ARCHITECTURE.
SEPTEMBER 2010
2 | P a g e
DECLEARATION
I hereby declare that this research work was carried out by AKINOLA OLUJIDE FRANCIS,
matriculation no ARC/05/5590 of the Department of Architecture, Federal University of
Technology Akure, Ondo state.
Student Signature.
3 | P a g e
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that, this research work was carried out by AKINOLA OLUJIDE FRANCIS
(ARC/05/5590) of the Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Ondo state.
Arc Fakere. A. A Prof Olotuah. O.A. (Supervisor) (Head of Department)
Arc Adam J.J
(Project Co-ordinator)
4 | P a g e
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to the God almighty and my loving parents.
5 | P a g e
ACKNOWLEDGEM ENT
My profound gratitude goes to God Almighty, who has kept me safe throughout my stay in this
institution and in the numerous ways he has been merciful to me.
My sincere gratitude also goes to lovely parents Mr and Mrs S.A Akinola for all their care and
support for me. I also appreciate my siblings ‘Kemi, ‘Soji, and ‘Mayowa for all their support and
encouragement during my academic pursuit.
I also wish to express my gratitude to my caring supervisor, Arc Fakere. A. A for his time,
brotherly love and impactation of knowledge. I cannot forget all my lecturers Prof O.A Olotuah,
Prof Fadamiro, Arc J.J Adam, Arc (Dr.) G Fadairo, Arc Bobadoye and a host of others that have
contributed to my stay in this noble institution.
My heart also goes out to my Uncles Mr ‘Segun Akinola, Mr ‘Shola Akinola, and Mr ‘Kayode
Akinola and his family for all their support. I will not also forget my friends ‘Jide, ’Seyi, Folarin,
Oyewole, ‘Funke, ‘Aanu, ‘Mosun and every member of the Nigeria Federation of Catholic Student
(NFCS.).
Lastly, I want to appreciate my priests at St Alberts atholic Chaplaincy, Rev. Fr. Rapheal Adesulu
and Rev. Fr. Valentine Omolakin for their spiritual guidance and support and every other persons
that are too numerous to mention, who has in one way or the other contributed to my successful
completion of this research work.
6 | P a g e
TABLE OF CONTENT
Content pages
Title page i Declaration ii Certification iii Dedication iv Acknowledgement v Table of content vi List of plates xi List of tables xii List of figures xiii Abstract xiv CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION1
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.................................................................................1
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH..........................................................3
1.3. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH.........................................................................................3
1.4. JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH......................................................................3
Plate 1: Smog in Indonesia caused by El Niño forces.....................................................................15
Plate 2: showing stone arrangement for walling purpose................................................................31
Plate3: showing Adobe sundried mud brick in Afghanistan...........................................................34
Plate 4: showing sand Crete blocks being cut in India....................................................................35
Plate 5: sand Crete block walls used for foundation walls and block work....................................36
Plate 6: Showing the Approach Elevation of the church................................................................52
Plate 7: Showing the Ceiling and the floor finishes of the sanctuary..............................................55
Plate 8: Showing the ceiling material of the whole building...........................................................60
Plate 2: Showing the floor and the ceiling finish of the sanctuary..................................................60
Plate 10: Showing St. Don Bosco Catholic Church Araromi..........................................................63
Plate 11: Showing the use of decoration sand Crete blocks for the walling
and the stabilized laterite walling....................................................................................................64
12 | P a g e
LIST OF TABLES
PLATES PAGES.
Table 1: showing the properties of the various climatic elements at the Northern and southern
area of Nigeria at different season.........................................................................................18
Table 2: Showing the various forms of temperature and their
various conversation formulas..............................................................................................22
Table 3: showing the thermal properties of metals............................................................................33
Table 4: Showing the comfortable floor temperature for various Building materials.......................48
Table 5: Showing the saturated vapour Pressure as a function of Air temperature...........................50
13 | P a g e
LIST OF FIGURES
PLATES PAGES.
Figure 1: showing the classification of the world climate...................................................................7
Figure 2: showing the Ocean Currents of the World.........................................................................11
Figure 3: Showing the global wind pattern.......................................................................................12
Figure 4: The Earth's Position in Relation to the Sun.......................................................................13
Figure 5: Showing the green house effect on the world’s climate as a result of
human activities................................................................................................................16
Figure 6: showing the variations in the Nigeria vegetation which is as a result of the
response to climate changes, as one moves from the north to the southern
part of the country..............................................................................................................18
Figure 7: showing the ways in which, heat is lost and gained in humans.........................................23
Figure 8: showing the effect of breathing on human comfort, thermally..........................................24
Figure 9: showing means by which temperature is loss by the body through the skin.....................25
Figure 10: showing the reduction of heat loss due to intrinsic clothing...........................................26
Figure 11: showing ways in which loss can be reduced by Adaptive position................................27
Figure 12: Showing the time lag and decrement factor....................................................................40
Figure 13: Showing the Thermal balance within a building.............................................................41
Figure 14: Showing the Green house effect the shortwave radiation is transmitted
by the glass, absorbed by the concrete mass and emitted as long wave radiation................44
Figure 15: Showing the Wall treatment for thermal Capacity...........................................................46
Figure 16: Showing Wall treatment for insulation............................................................................46 Figure 17: Showing the Plan of the church Sacristy/Basement............................................................53
Figure 18: the Floor Plan and the Arrangement of the Church.............................................................54
Figure 19: Showing the Floor Plan of Mary Queen of Angels Catholic Church...................................59
14 | P a g e
ABSTRACT
Materials are the fabric of any building and they go a long way to determine the level of comfort or
otherwise experienced in a building and this is true for all the climatic regions of the world.
Southern Nigeria, apart from being in the tropics also experiences low temperature due to its
closeness to the Atlantic Ocean.
In order to design buildings that will meet the thermal comfort needs of the clients, the choice of
the materials and their usage for individual building component, (E.g. Wall, roof, window, door,
and floor e.t.c) must be understood in other to manage the thermal environment of the building.
Improper use of building materials in this climate can be of detrimental to the buildings comfort.
Solar radiation from the sun is the main energy source that heats up a building fabric, in other to
achieve a thermal comfort for buildings it must be brought to check, by the use of one or
combination of the following:
I. Thermal Insulating materials that can prevent heat energy from getting into the building and
cause temperature increase or decrease.
II. Using heat absorbers i.e. materials that have good thermal storage capacities that can store
heat energy within them for a period of time before they begin to release such energy to
their immediate environment (mostly indigenous materials, adobe, cod laterite walls,
bamboos e.t.c).
III. Using heat reflective materials that can reflect incoming solar heat back to the environment
and prevent heat gain or loss within the building interior spaces.
IV. Wind flow or movement within a building flame is very important; fresh air has to be
exchanged with used air within the interior space from time to time.
This study shows that, a combination of all these materials, within a building fabric allows for a
thermally balanced building environment, putting in mind several other factors.
15 | P a g e
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
There are three fundamental or basic needs of every man which is food, clothing and shelter. The
basic function of housing is to provide shelter from harsh climatic conditions (sun and rain, heat
and cold), external aggressions (protection from animals and attacks from humans) privacy and
storage of possession. Hence, housing is meant to protect man against harsh climatic conditions
such as temperature; the centre focus of this thesis (Oludare, 2005).
The climate is a determinant of how much solar radiation gets to the earth surface and the
temperature that is existent within that particular geographical location; this in turn determines the
level of thermal comfort examined in these regions. The effects of climatic variables on the
elements of climate, has lead to the existence of the various climatic regions of the world.
(Akinsemoyin and Vaughan-Richards, 1976) These climatic regions as responded also by the
demand of different materials that can be used within the region to ensure for thermal comfort. The
climatic regions of the world can be divided into the following under listed categories with each of
them, possessing peculiar characteristics.
1) Tropical Moist Climates: all months have average temperatures above 18° Celsius.
2) Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation during most of the year.
3) Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters.
4) Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters.
5) Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and summers. (Pidwirny 2006).
Nigerian happens to fall into the tropical moist climate which according to Köppen's widely-
recognized scheme of climate classification. It also defines the tropical climate as a non-arid
climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18 °C (64 °F). Area between the
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, defined by the parallels of latitude approximately 23°30′ north
and south of the Equator. Climates within the tropics lie in parallel bands. Along the Equator is the
The climatic regions of the world can be divided into the following under listed categories with
each of them, possessing peculiar characteristics, which are simple summarised below:
1) Tropical: hot and wet all year, with all months have average temperatures above 18° Celsius.
2) Mediterranean: mild winters, dry hot summers 3) Arid: dry, hot all year, with deficient precipitation during most of the year. 4) Temperate: Climates with Cold Winters. They are cold winters and mild summers. 5) Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and summers. They are very cold and dry all
year. 6) Mountains (tundra): very cold all year. (Pidwirny 2006)
Nigerian happens to fall into the tropical moist climate which according to Köppen's widely-
recognized scheme of climate classification. It also defines the tropical climate as a non-arid
climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18 °C (64 °F). Area between the
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, defined by the parallels of latitude approximately 23°30′ north
and south of the Equator. Climates within the tropics lie in parallel bands. Along the Equator is the
decorative block is in fact part of a decorative openwork screen built into an opening. The correct
term is "decorative grille" (also spelled "grill"). This kind of block is made in a special iron mould.
It is important to the issue of thermal comfort and climatology in the following ways listed below.
1. To provide light without installing burglar-proofing or any kind of louvers, shutters and
bringing in little or no solar radiation into the building
2. To provide permanent ventilation into building interiors, and helps to direct air flow within
a building interior. In Southern Nigeria, the sand Crete blocks are made use of in hollow
forms and are and are used to produce vertical non perforated walls.
Plate 5: sand Crete block walls used for foundation walls and block work.
Plate 5: sand Crete block walls used for foundation walls and block work.
Source: Field Survey at the on neighbourhood Market, at NEPA area, Akure.
48 | P a g e
2.4. THERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF A BUILDING.
2.4.1. Thermal Quantities.
There are several thermal quantities used in discussions about heat flow through buildings.
2.4.1.1. Temperature.
This is an indication of the thermal state of a body and it is measured in degrees Celsius (oC) or
degrees Kelvin (K).
2.4.1.2. Heat.
This is a form of energy measured in Joules (J).
2.4.1.3. Specific Heat.
Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy necessary to cause unit temperature
increase of a unit mass of the substance. It is measured in J/kg deg C.
2.4.1.4. Thermal Capacity.
Thermal capacity of a body is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the body by
one unit. It is measured in J/deg C.
2.4.1.5. Power
This is the ability to carry out a certain work in unit time -measured in Watts (W), which is J/S.
2.4.1.6. Thermal Conductivity.
Thermal conductivity of a material is the rate of heat flow through a unit area of unit thickness of
the material for a unit temperature difference across the material. It is also known as the K value
and is measured in W/m deg C. Good insulators have lower thermal conductivities.
2.4.1.7. Thermal Conductance
This is the rate of heat flow through a unit area of a body when the temperature difference between
the two surfaces is one degree Celsius. It is measured in W/m2 deg C. A measure of the ability of a
material to transfer heat per unit time, given one unit area of the material and a temperature
gradient through the thickness of the material. It is measured in watts per meter per degree Kelvin
2.4.1.8. Thermal Resistivity.
49 | P a g e
This is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity. It is measured in m deg C/W. Good insulators have
high thermal resistivities.
2.4.1.9. Thermal Resistance.
Thermal resistance: is the reciprocal of thermal conductance.
2.4.1.10. Surface Resistance and Conductance.
Surface resistance refers to the resistance offered to heat flow by the surface of a body, as different
from the resistance offered by the body itself. The surface conductance is the reciprocal of surface
resistance. The units are the same as for thermal resistance and conductance.
2.4.1.11. Air to Air Resistance.
Air-to-air resistance is the sum of the resistance of the body and the internal and external surface
resistances.
Ra = Rsi + Rb + Rso Where:
Ra = air-to-air resistance. Rsi = internal surface resistance. R = body resistance. R = external surface resistance. The unit of measurement
2.4.1.12. Cavity Resistance and Conductance.
Cavity resistance is the resistance offered to heat flow by a cavity enclosed within a body. The
reciprocal is cavity conductance.
2.4.1.13. Absorptivity.
This is the property of a surface which determines what proportion of incident radiation it absorbs.
2.4.1.14. Sol-Air Temperature.
This combines the heating effect of radiation incident on a building, with the effect of warm air. It
is measured in degrees Celsius.
Ts = To + (I x a)/ Fo Where:
Ts = sol-air temperature. To = outside air temperature.
50 | P a g e
I = radiation intensity. a = absorbance of the surface. Fo = outside surface conductance
2.4.2. Thermal Properties of Building Materials and Elements.
Heat transmission and absorption by building materials is affected by the absorptivity, the
conductivity and thermal capacity of the materials. These properties of materials determine the
characteristics of wall and roof elements and therefore the way they will modify the thermal
environment. Building elements possess four characteristics which affect the internal conditions -
the air-to-air transmittance (U-value), the solar gain factor, the time lag and the admittance.
2.4.2.1. Air to Air Transmittance.
This is the reciprocal of air-to-air resistance. It is commonly known as U-value and measured in the
same unit as conductance. It is defined as the rate at which heat is transmitted from the air on one
side of a wall or roof to the air on the other side (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.4.2.2. Solar Gain Factor.
This is the rate of heat flow through a construction due to solar radiation expressed as a fraction of
the incident solar radiation.
2.4.2.3. Time Lag.
This is the time delay between the impact of the diurnal variation of temperature and radiation on
the external surface, and the resultant temperature variation on the internal surface.
Figure 31: Showing the time lag and decrement factor.
51 | P a g e
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.4.2.4. Admittance.
Admittance of a surface is the rate at which the surface absorbs or emits heat from or to the air
when the air temperature is different from the temperature of the surface.
52 | P a g e
2.5. THERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF A BUILDING.
The total heat gained by a building must be lost in order to maintain a thermal balance. An excess
heat gain will result in a constant rise in temperature of the building while an excess heat loss will
cause a fall in temperature (Ogunsote, 1991). Hence, at all times the thermal environment of a
building or group of buildings have to be balanced.
2.5.1. Heat Gains
Buildings gain heat by conduction through the walls, by insulation through windows, internally
from occupants and appliances, by natural ventilation and from heating equipment.
2.5.2. Heat Losses
Buildings lose heat by conduction, evaporation, natural ventilation and through mechanical cooling
aids. In a state of equilibrium therefore, the heat loss is equal to the heat gain. We can calculate
one of these loads given the others from the equation below.
Qi + Qs + QC + Qv + Qm + Qe.
Where:
Qi = internal of heat loss or heat gain by conduction (W).
Qv = rate of heat loss or heat gain by
Qm = mechanical heat gain or loss rate (W).
Qe = rate of heat loss by evaporation (W) (Ogunsote, 1991).
We can calculate, for instance the amount of mechanical cooling or heating required in an existing
or a freshly designed building. We may also find out how much insulation is needed to heat a solar
house with no auxiliary heating from this equation. In heat gain or heat loss calculations the various
sources of loading are considered individually.
53 | P a g e
Figure 32: Showing the Thermal balance within a building.
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunshote, 1991).
2.5.3. Conduction
This is usually calculated for walls of a given area and is the product of the surface area, the
transmittance value and the temperature difference between the exterior and the interior.
Qc = A x U x T Where:
Qc = rate of heat loss or heat gain by conduction (W). A = surface area (m2). U = transmitance value (W/m2 degC). T = temperature difference, (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.5.4. Convection
This refers to heat loss or heat gain through the exchange of air between the building and the open
air and it covers infiltration as well as natural and forced ventilation. The rate of ventilation heat
flow is the product of the volumetric specific heat of air, the ventilation rate and the temperature
difference. See the equation below.
Qv = 1300 x U x T Where:
Qv = rate of heat loss or heat gain by ventilation (W). U = transmittance value (W/m2 deg C). T = temperature difference.
2.5.5. Solar Gains.
The glass in windows acts as a filter and its type and quality reduces the solar heat gain by the solar
gain factor. The actual solar gain will then be a product of the area of the window, the intensity of
solar radiation and the solar gain factor. See the equation below.
Qs = A x I x Where:
Qs = solar heat gain rate (W). A= solar gain factor of window glass. I = radiation heat flow density (W/m2), (Ogunsote, 1991).
54 | P a g e
2.5.6. The Green House Effects.
Short-wave radiation incident on glass is partly reflected, partly absorbed but mainly transmitted.
This is because glass is "transparent" to short-wave radiation. Other materials, such as concrete or
mud however absorb the larger portion of short-wave radiation. The absorbed energy causes a rise
in their temperature and this energy is emitted in the form of long-wave. Glass is "opaque" to long-
wave radiation and if it encloses the emitter the heat is trapped within the enclosure. This leads to a
rise in temperature within the enclosure known as the greenhouse effect.
Figure 33: Showing the Green house effect the shortwave radiation is transmitted by the glass, absorbed
by the concrete mass and emitted as long wave radiation.
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.5.7. Internal Heat Gain.
The internal heat gains are made up of the heat output of the occupants, and the lamps and motors,
if any, in the enclosure. The human body produces about 70 W while sleeping and a maximum of
about 1100 W. Sedentary activity produces about 140 W. The lamps and motors usually have their
wattage marked. The total internal heat gain is the sum of heat production by the individual persons
or equipment. See the equation below.
Q1=n1xq1+ n2xq2 +..... nnxq
Where:
Qi = internal heat gain rate (W).
N1xq1 = number of persons or equipment.
n2xq2 = heat output rate of persons or equipment (Ogunsote, 1991).
55 | P a g e
2.5.8. Device Mechanical.
These are usually heaters or air-conditioners and their rating is usually indicated. These are usually
heaters or air-conditioners and their rating is usually indicated.
2.5.9. Evaporation.
This refers to heat loss from the interior or exterior of the building by evaporation, for example
from roof ponds or fountains. It is usually ignored except for detailed studies of air
conditioning.
56 | P a g e
2.6. REQUIRED THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF BUILDING ELEMENTS.
The required thermal performance of walls and roofs are established by codes for different climatic
zones. The aim of this is to reduce heating costs and reduce the discomfort of occupants in case of
inadequate heating. These recommendations are based on economic analysis involving the cost of
heating and the cost of building materials. The optimal values vary from country to country and are
influenced the climate and living standards (Ogunsote, 1991).
In Nigeria heating is required only for a few weeks during the harmattan, especially in the northern
parts of the country where the harmattan can be very severe. In practice, heating appliances are
very rarely installed and people resort to other means of keeping warm. Peasants sometimes keep a
fire burning in their rooms and block all apertures to reduce infiltration. The design of walls and
roofs in this climate should ensure adequate insulation and thermal capacity. Crowden, (1953)
The major problem in Nigeria is however that of overheating. In the warm humid climates found
near the coast, conditions are uncomfortably hot during most of the year. In these conditions
thermal storage should be avoided and high insulation provided. The choice of either air
conditioning or fans will influence the size and type of windows used. We shall now consider four
climates and the performance of walls and roofs required for them.
2.6.1. Hot Dry Climates.
These climates are characterised by a high diurnal temperature range and low humidity with
discomfort caused by either high or low temperatures. The design of walls and roofs should
therefore moderate temperature fluctuations. This is achieved by a long time lag of 8 to 14 hours
for both internal and external walls.
57 | P a g e
Figure 34: Showing the Wall treatment for thermal Capacity.
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.6.2. Warm Humid Climate
These climates are characterised by a low diurnal temperature range, high humidity and generally
high temperatures. Comfort is achieved by ventilation and by restricting the flow of heat into the
building. Crowden, (1953).To achieves this, a short time lag, low thermal capacity; high insulation
and reflective roofs are used.
Figure 35: Showing Wall treatment for insulation.
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.6.3. Cold climates
Cold climates are distinguished by low air temperatures. The design of walls and roofs should
therefore prevent loss of heat (Ogunsote, 1991). An additional problem is condensation which can
58 | P a g e
form on internal surfaces if temperatures are allowed to drop too low. The preservation of heat is
achieved through high insulation and auxiliary heating in severe cases. The insulation provided
must prevent condensation on the internal surfaces.
2.6.4. Composite climate.
Composite climates are characterised by alternating hot dry, cold dry and warm humid seasons.
The design of roofs and walls depends on the relative duration of the seasons. Light, insulated
walls and roofs are used when the dry season is up to two months while heavy walls and light roofs
are used when the dry season lasts for more than three months.
2.6.5. Floors.
Floors also influence the thermal environment within buildings and their design should be
considered along with that of walls and roofs. In hot dry climates the floor should help moderate
temperatures (Ogunsote, 1991). This is achieved by heavy floors laid in direct contact with the
ground thereby utilizing the high thermal capacity of the soil. In severe cases buildings should be
partly or totally submerged. In warm humid climates the floor should help in cooling down the
building at night. Light floors raised well above the ground improve the cooling rate but where this
is not architecturally feasible a heavy floor in direct contact with the ground is used. Crowden,
(1953)
In cold climates floors should be well insulated to prevent heat loss and probable condensation. In
composite climates heavy floors are used.
Foot comfort is very important in the design of floors. The thermal sensation experienced by the
bare foot on a floor is however dependent not on the subfloor but on the finish (Evans, 1980).
The choice of finishes should therefore depend on the climate and the average air temperature in
dwellings. In hot climates PVC tiles or terrazzo may be adequate while softwood or carpets may be
needed in colder climates (Ogunsote, 1991).
59 | P a g e
Table 9: Showing the comfortable floor temperature for various Building materials.
S/N MATERIALS COMFORTABLE FLOOR
TEMPERATURE FOR BARE FEET OC
1 Iron/steel 29.5
2 Gravel concrete 25.5 - 26.5
3 Granolithic 26
4 Terrazzo tiles 26
5 Quarry tiles 25
6 Foam slag
concrete 25
7 Brick 24-25
8 Linoleum 22
9 Rubber floor tiles 22
10 Hard wood 21-22
11 P.V.C. tiles 22
12 Plaster 19
13 Softwood 17-19
14 Cork floor tiles 15 - 16
15 Insulation board below 5
16 Carpet below 5
17 Cork below 5
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunsote, 1991).
60 | P a g e
2.7. CONDENSATION.
The amount of vapour air can hold depends on the air temperature. Warm air can hold more vapour
than air at a lower temperature as is illustrated in table 5. When warm air is cooled therefore, there
comes a time when the vapour in the air is sufficient to saturate the air mass (Russel et. al 1997).
The vapour pressure at this temperature is called the saturation vapour pressure while the
temperature is the dew point of air for the given vapour content. When the air is cooled further, it
will no longer be able to hold some of the vapour and this excess vapour is converted to a liquid in
a process called condensation. There are two types of condensation – surface and interstitial
condensation (Evans, 1980).
• Surface Condensation
• Interstitials condensation
2.7.1. Surface Condensation.
This occurs when air comes into contact with a surface at a temperature below its dew point. A
layer of moisture is formed on the surface of the wall or roof as may be observed in some kitchens,
bathrooms or rooms. This leads to damp interiors and mould growth (Ogunsote, 1991).
2.7.2. Interstitials Condensation.
This is condensation within walls or roofs. This is a result of temperature and vapour pressure
gradients across the wall. It may also be caused by surface condensation being absorbed into the
wall. This may cause damage to organic building materials and increase heat loss through a
reduction in resistance of the building material (Fisk, 1981).
The factors affecting condensation are the indoor vapour pressure level, the temperature and
absorptivity of the internal surfaces and the vapour transmission of walls. Interstitial condensation
is prevented by predicting dew point temperatures at different points within the wall and checking
if these do not cause condensation. Adequate insulation should be provided and cold bridges
avoided (Russel et. al 1997). It is sometimes necessary to restrict vapours to bathrooms, washing
61 | P a g e
rooms and kitchens. Good ventilation will reduce the risk of surface condensation (Ogunsote,
1991).
Table 10: Showing the saturated vapour Pressure as a function of Air temperature. Saturation vapour pressure
Air temp. oc
Kn/m2 Mmhg g/m3 g/kg of dry air
0 0.61 4.6 4.8 3.8
5 0.87 6.5 6.8 5.4
10 1.23 9.2 9.4 7.6
15 1.71 12.8 12.8 10.5
20 2.33 17.5 17.3 14.4
25 3.17 23.8 23.0 19.4
30 4.23 31.7 30.4 26.2
35 5.60 42.2 39.6 34.7
Source: Introduction to building climatology (Ogunsote, 1991).
62 | P a g e
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 CASE STUDY
This chapter discusses the various building materials that are employed in the construction of
different existing building within Akure city. These buildings are located at different strategic
location within the city.
The case study also focuses on one type of building, which is the church that can accommodate
large number of people at a time. Attentions were given to the ways and techniques that were
employed in the construction of these buildings. The work also looked at the various types of the
materials used, their properties and the possible reasons why these materials were used, giving
climate and temperature a good consideration for assessment in this region.
Interviews were conducted at the various case study locations, with the chief respondents being the
pastors over the church and some worshippers in the church. This was done in other to be able to
ascertain the opinion of the people as regards the issue of the comfort that they feel in these
buildings and from there be able deduce the factors that might have contributed to the comfort or
otherwise experienced in these building.
63 | P a g e
3.1. CASE STUDY 1
ST ALBERTS CATHOLIC CHAPLAINCY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
AKURE.
The building is catholic chaplain that accommodates about four hundred worshippers every Sunday
and a daily average of one hundred users of the building, for various religious activities. The
building was started in the year 2000 and was completed for usage in 2003, with several other
works still going on in the building in phases.
Plate 6: Showing the Approach Elevation of the church
Source: Field Survey to St. Albert’s Catholic Chaplaincy FUT, Akure, (2010).
The building is located within the campus of Federal University of Technology, Akure. The church
building can be accessed through the Northern entrance of the institution. The building is bounded
in the north by the proposed school Mosque that is under construction, in the south by the school
bookshop and café, in the east by the senior staff quarters and in the west by the school sport
complex.
64 | P a g e
3.1.1. Description.
The building is a Catholic Church and it’s a perfect rectangle in shape with its length being two
times breadth. The length is about 39M while the breath is about 16.2m.the sanctuary is 12m in
breadth and 9.6m in length which is also same for the basement of the church.
The basement is used as a sacristy and also for Sunday school classes for the children. The Church
can be divided into four parts defined by the hierarchy of worship in the church.
(1) Sanctuary.
(2) The Church hall,
(3) The Sacristy/ Basement.
(4) The outer terrace
The sanctuary also houses four other smaller rooms which are used an stores and parish offices.
Furthermore the altar, the blessed tabernacle and the Marian statue are present on the sanctuary.
Figure 36: Showing the Plan of the church Sacristy/Basement Source: Field Survey to St. Albert’s Catholic Chaplaincy FUT, Akure.
65 | P a g e
Figure 37: the Floor Plan and the Arrangement of the Church, (2010).
Source: Field Survey to St. Albert’s Catholic Chaplaincy FUT, Akure.
66 | P a g e
3.1.2. Material Used For Various Building Components.
Roof
The building was roofed with galvanized aluminium roofing sheets, which are very good
conductors of thermal heat into the building and covered with wooden fascia board. The roof is
simply gabled and stepped down over the terrace that goes round the building.
Ceiling
Asbestos ceiling boards were used in the building and its spans through the length of the altar and
to the terrace. For the basement the slab above the basement was painted.
Plate 7: Showing the Ceiling and the floor finishes of the sanctuary.
Source: Field Survey to St. Albert’s Catholic Chaplaincy FUT, Akure (2010).
Wall
Hollow sand Crete blocks were used for the construction of the wall and wash painted with cream
emulsion paints. Reinforced concrete was used for structural support especially in the sacristy,
which also constitutes parts of the wall.
Window
The Window frames were made of aluminum and clear glass was used to glaze the window. The
windows are placed at about 2.1M to each other and are about 3m in length and 1.8M in height.
67 | P a g e
The use of transoms was employed on the building, and the width of each was about 1.8m and a
height of 6m.
Door
Doors were constructed of Hardwood, which were about 2.4M in length and 2.1M in height.
Floor
The floor of the building is divided according to the materials used for them.
1. Cement sand screed was used for the basement
2. The congregation area was finished with terrazzo floor finish.
3. The sanctuary was finished with porcelain floor tiles.
3.1.3. Observation/ Deductions
The following observations were made during the cause of the visitation to the site:
a) That there was consideration for the thermal comforts in the design of the building, through
the introduction of the terrace, to prevent the direct transfer of solar radiation into the
building. However the transom above the terrace was not well catered for hence it brings in
direct solar radiation.
b) That the building is not able to balance itself thermally as in most cases its either it is too
cold or too hot inside the building during programmes, which depends on the time and the
prevailing weather condition.
c) That the use of clear glass for the glazing the window, easily allows radiant heat into the
building interior.
d) That the bright cream colour used for the interior of the building, encourages the multiple
reflection of the radiant heat that is entering the building.
e) That the radiant heat from the sun finds it very easy to get into the building but is not easily
removed from the building
68 | P a g e
f) That the hollow sand Crete wall has, low thermal retention capacity and insulation capacity,
hence, radiant heat easily moves through it into the building and allow the through feel of
the temperature of the external environment into the building interior.
g) That the roofing materials also heats up easily and transfer the heat to the immediate
environment winch is the ceiling, which cannot effectively cater for the thermal insulation,
required. This therefore allows the building interior to heat up or become cold as the case
may be.
69 | P a g e
3.2. CASE STUDY 2
MARY QUEEN OF ANGEL CATHOLIC CHURCH
The church is located along hospital road in Akure, before Aquinas College. The road is accessible
through Oda road via NEPA market.
3.2.1. Description
The building is also a religious building and it is not a perfect rectangle as the length only varies
from the breadth by 6M. The building is about 36M in length and 30M in breadth. The building can
be categorized into three areas, which are:
• The church Hall
• The sanctuary
• The sacristy
The sanctuary houses the blessed tabernacle, while the sacristy houses the Marian shrine and the
Blessed Sacrament but both of them have a direct relationship with the church hall. The sacristy
also serves as a store for sacramental within the church. The church hall accommodates about one
thousand congregation (1000) worshippers at a time.
70 | P a g e
Figure 38: Showing the Floor Plan of Mary Queen of Angels Catholic Church.Source: Field Survey
to Mary Queen of Angel’s Catholic, church hospital Road, Akure, (2010).
3.2.2. Materials Used For Various Building Components.
Roof
The building is roofed with long-span aluminium roofing sheets, with steel members as supporting
members. Fascia board was not used in the building.
Ceiling
The ceiling materials are published wood the wood is well treated and patterned in stripes.
71 | P a g e
Plate 8: Showing the ceiling material of the whole building.
Source: Field Survey to Mary Queen of Angels Catholic, church hospital Road, Akure, (2010).
Wall
The wall majorly is made of and sand Crete hollow block wall and reinforced concrete were it is
necessary. Some wall in the building is covered with wooden panels.
Plate 4: Showing the floor and the ceiling finish of the sanctuary.Source: Field Survey to Mary
Queen of Angels Catholic, church hospital Road, Akure, (2010).
Doors
The doors are made of polished woods and they are about 2.4M high and 2.1M in width and are
four in number.
Windows
72 | P a g e
The windows are made of aluminium frames and coloured (tinted) and clear glass used on building
façade and they are vertically inclined. They are about 3m in length and about 5.1M in height.
Floor
The floor area can be divided into two different types the sanctuary and church auditorium. The
sanctuary is finished with marble stones, while the church auditorium is finished with polished
terrazzo floor finish.
3.2.3. Observation / Deduction
The following observations were made during the cause of the visitation to the site:
a) That there was consideration for the thermal comforts in the design of the building, through the
introduction of vertical walls at angles to serve as shading device to prevent the direct transfer
of solar radiation into the building.
b) That the building is not able to balance itself thermally, due to the size of the building in most
cases its either it is too cold or too hot inside the building during programmes, which depends
on the time and the prevailing weather condition. Further the windows prevent the direct
penetration of solar radiation into the building.
c) That the use of the tinted glazing for the window, and this prevents the transfer of radiant heat
into the building interior.
d) That the bright cream colour used for the interior of the building, encourages the multiple
reflection of the radiant heat that is entering the building. Some are reflected back to the
external environment and others are reflected continuously within the building.
e) That the radiant heat from the sun finds it difficult to get into the building and to exit the
building
f) That the hollow sand Crete wall has, low thermal retention capacity and insulation capacity,
hence, radiant heat easily moves through it into the building and allow the through feel of the
temperature of the external environment into the building interior.
73 | P a g e
g) That the roofing materials also heats up easily and transfer the heat to the immediate
environment winch is the ceiling, which can cater for the thermal insulation, required. This
therefore allows the building interior to heat up or become cold as the case may be.
74 | P a g e
3.3. CASE STUDY 3
ST. DON BOSCO CATHOLIC CHURCH ARAROMI.
The church is located along on no. 51 Araromi Street Akure. It can be easily accesses through the
popular Oba Adesida road and the Benin Owo high way. The building was constructed by the
Italian Silesian priests. Possessing great aesthetics and a masterfully use of local materials within
the building fabric.
Plate 10: Showing St. Don Bosco Catholic Church Araromi.
Source: Field survey to St. Don Bosco Catholic Church, Araromi, Akure, (2010).
3.3.1. Description
The building is also a religious building and it is a perfect square that is about 30M on all sides.
The building can be divided into three areas, which are:
• The church Hall
• The sanctuary
• The sacristy
• The exposition room
75 | P a g e
The sanctuary houses the blessed tabernacle and the Marian shrine. A small room foe adoration and
exposition of the Blessed Sacrament is also provided for within the building. The sacristy also
serves as a store for sacramental within the church. The church hall accommodates about 650
worshippers on Sundays at a time.
The use of reinforced concrete is pronounced on the building; for structural support, for the roof
gutter. The building also has a terrace that moves almost round the building.
3.3.2. Materials Used For Various Building Components.
Roof
The building was roofed by the use of asbestos roofing sheet. The roof is generally hipped into four
parts and supported within the ceiling member by beams that span the length and the breadth of the
church. The use of a massive roof gutter made of reinforced concrete members was noticed on the
building.
The ceiling in this building is exposed as the roof members could be clearly seen in the building
frame work.
Wall
The walls can be divided into two (2) main regions in terms of the materials used.
The first region is the decorative sand Crete block section that spans from the ground level to about
2.7M in height and it can be seen on all the elevations of the building, as can be seen on the plate
12. This section is made up of two different patterns of this block wall.
Plate 11: Showing the use of decoration sand Crete blocks for the walling and the stabilized laterite
walling.
76 | P a g e
Source: Field survey to St. Don Bosco Catholic Church, Araromi, Akure, (2010).
The second is the laterite mud bricks, going to a height of about 4.2M and spanning round the
building is about the major wall on the building and it is supported at intervals by structural
members (columns and beams).
Doors
The doors are made of polished woods and they are about 2.4M high and 2.1M in width. The doors
are Located on different sides of the building elevation, with two of them being the most used
doors.
Windows
Windows were only used on the building for lighting purpose and they are vertically oriented. They
are tinted with pattern son them to prevent the direct penetration of solar radiation from the sun.
Floor
The floor area can be divided into two different types the sanctuary and church auditorium. The
sanctuary is finished with polished stone marble, while the church auditorium is finished with
polished terrazzo floor finish.
3.3.3. Observation / Deduction
The following observations were made during the cause of the visitation to the site:
a) That there was consideration for the thermal control in the building through the use of materials
that is evident in their selection and the design of the various building elements.
b) That the building able to balance itself thermally, irrespective of the population using it and
time that is being used. Windows were not employed for ventilation purposes but rather for
lighting. Ventilation was through the lower walls and the horizontal opening between the walls
and the roof.
c) That the use of the tinted glazing for the window, and this prevents the transfer of radiant heat
into the building interior.
d) That the colour of the interior is combination of both bright and the dull colours.
77 | P a g e
e) That the hollow sand Crete wall has, low thermal retention capacity and insulation capacity, but
when used in the decorative form allows air movement into and outside the building without
letting in much of solar radiation. The Latrite wall on the other hand has a very good thermal
storage capacity and can store heat energy from the sun for twelve (12) hours before fully
releasing it.
f) That the roofing materials are made of asbestos that also have very good thermal retention
capacity, thereby reducing the heat amount of heat transferred into the building.
g) That the way and manner that the various building materials had been used as allowed for the
good control of the internal micro-climatic conditions of the building.
78 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.
4.1. Conclusion
Materials have the potentials of transforming the comfort level experienced by the user of a
building coupled with other elements of design. This helps to provide a balanced environment in
which man, can carry out its activities comfortably. Materials provide a solution to the numerous
environmental conditions that are not favourable to man. In Southern Nigeria, high temperature in
the day and lower temperature at night is the predominant climatic condition. Hence, materials that
can store thermal energy and release them over a long period of time, and those that can prevent or
reduce the transfer of solar energy (inform of Radiant Heat), into the building are favourable within
the region. Material like laterite (cob, sod, wattle and daub, Adobee), glass, wood, stones are very
important within this region.
Solar Radiation from the sun has been the only source of energy to the earth surface and is
responsible for increase in temperature that is experienced in this region of the world. In order to
have a building that is thermally stable, Solar Radiation must be controlled. From the research
work carried on the building the following conclusions have been reached;
a) The tropical climate is characterised by an average minimum annual temperature of 200c i.e.
it is regarded as a region with high temperature.
b) Solar radiation is one of the climatic elements that needs to be controlled in the tropics in
other to achieve or maintain a thermally balance inferior environment.
c) Building materials when not properly selected and applied on a building can cause a lot of
thermal imbalance on buildings.
d) In most cases indigenous materials such as bamboo, raffia, laterite wall, stones, woods,
provide ready-made solution to challenges, posed by the climate on materials usage on
buildings and also help to balance heat loss and heat gain within a building.
79 | P a g e
e) Materials like laterite wall, asbestos roofing sheets, wood, gypsum e.t.c. board have very
good heat capacity that allows them to store thermal energy and release them to the
immediate environment when the heat source is removed.
f) Some building materials has a very high specific heat capacity and here they get heated up
easily and any materials when used for walling or roofing on a building must be insulated
with other materials that are insulators.
4.2. RECOMMENDATION
In other that a balanced thermal environment be attained in the design of buildings in Southern
Nigeria following recommendation have been made:
a) More considerations should be given to the building materials that will be used and how
they will be used on buildings.
b) Materials that are good reflectors of solar heat should be used for building components that
are exposed to the sun (Wall, doors, windows, roofs e.t.c.) and materials.
c) Those materials that are thermal insulators should be used for walling and roofing in other
to prevent the direct inflow of radiant heat.
d) Within the interior spaces materials should be designed such that, they allows the free
movements of air in and outside the building for
e) Professional should make very cautious effort to design buildings with a good knowledge of
the potentials of the materials that are available to them.
f) More attention has to be paid to the use of Indigenous materials as they readily provide
solutions to climatic problems.
g) More ways in which the indigenous building materials can be used should be developed,
through research.
80 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Adeleke B.O, Leong G.C, (1978): Certificate physical and Human Geography,
Lagos, University press limited. Pp 10-80
Airapetov.D, (1986): Architectural materials Science, second edition,
Moscow Mir publishers. Pp 23-45
Akinsemoyin, K, Aughan-Richards, A. (1976): Building Lagos. F and A Service, Lagos.
pp 7-9.
Ashrae (1971): Applications of Solar Energy and Cooling of Buildings,
Ed. Richard, C.J. and Benjamin, Y.H. ASHRAE, New York.
Boucher, K. (1975): Global Climate, London, English Universities Press.
Callender, J.H. (1974): Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data,
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Crowden .C (1953): Indoor Climate and Thermal Comfort in the Tropics, Conference
on tropical Architecture, report of Proceedings 1954.
David .D.T (1985): Survey of climatology, the handbook of applied metrology
second edition, London Longman publishers. Pp 62-132
Evans, M. (1980): Housing, Climate and Comfort. London The Architectural Press.
Fisk, D.J. (1981): Thermal control of buildings, Applied Science Publishers, London.
Gabriel .E (2005): Climatic Factor as a Determinant for the choice of building Materials,
unpublished, Department of Architecture, Federal university of technology, Akure.
Givoni.B. (1969): Man, climate and Architecture, Second edition (Architectural science