The Discovery of a Mass Grave of Napoleon’s Great Army in Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg), Russian Federation: preliminary results and interpretations

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Vers une anthropologie des catastrophes Actes des 9e journées d’anthropologie de Valbonne

Sous la direction de Luc Buchet, Catherine Rigeade, Isabelle Séguy et Michel Signoli - Éditions apdca, Antibes, 2008

The Discovery of a Mass Grave of Napoleon’s Great Army in Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg), Russian Federation:preliminary results and interpretations

Alexandra Buzhilova, Catherine Rigeade, Tatiana Shvedchikova, Yann aRdagna, Olivier dutouR

Key-words – Mass grave, Great Army, Retreat from Russia, Typhus.

Abstract – During archaeological rescue excavation in 2006 in Kaliningrad (Russia), 12 mass graves were discovered, containing remains of Napoleon’s Great Army soldiers. First analyses showed that most of the victims were young males. Preliminary study of uniform remains confirmed the presence of French regiments of the Great Army. Historical data have reported the extreme conditions of the Russian Retreat (including climate, starvation, exhaustion, epidemics such as typhus). This mass grave is dated from the late 1812-early 1813. Preliminary paleopathological observations revealed a high frequency of severe traumas and wounds, in the way of healing as well as healed amputations and freshly amputated limbs. Hypothesis of a recruitment of victims coming from an hospital has been made, as well as the presumption of an epidemic of typhus responsible for this important death toll (more than 600) in a short period of time, also based on the historical data and previous evidence of DNA of this pathogen, extracted from remains of Vilnius (Lithuania) mass grave, which was located upstream from Königsberg on the way of the Retreat, about ten days before. A multidisciplinary research program have been built to contribute to the knowledge of this major event of European history.

La découverte d’un charnier de la Grande Armée de Napoléon à Kaliningrad (Fédération de Russie): résultats préliminaires et interprétations

Mots-clés – Charnier, Grande Armée, retraite de Russie, typhus.

Résumé – Au cours de fouilles de sauvetage, en 2006 à Kaliningrad (Fédération de Russie), 12 sépultures de catastrophes ont été découvertes, contenant des restes des soldats de la Grande Armée de Napoléon. Les premières analyses ont révélé que la plupart des individus inhumés étaient des hommes jeunes. L’étude des restes d’uniformes a confirmé la présence de régiments français de la Grande Armée. Les données historiques ont apporté des témoignages sur les conditions extrêmes de la retraite de Russie (climat, famine, épuisement, épidémies telles le typhus). Ce charnier peut être situé fin 1812 - début 1813. Les premières données paléopathologiques révèlent une fréquence importante de traumatismes graves en cours de cicatrisation ainsi que des amputations cicatrisées, ou des membres fraîchement amputés. L’hypothèse d’un recrutement d’hôpital militaire est formulée et celle d’une épidémie de typhus à l’origine de cette mortalité catastrophique est avancée, sur la base du grand nombre de victimes (plus de 600), du caractère concentré dans le temps des décès, des données historiques et de l’authentification préalable de l’ADN de l’agent pathogène dans le charnier de Vilnius (Lituanie), situé une dizaine de jours en amont dans la chronologie de la retraite. Un programme pluridisciplinaire de recherche a été lancé pour contribuer à la connaissance de cet évènement majeur de l’histoire européenne.

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Introduction

As the result of building works, archaeological excavations were carried out in July-August 2006 in downtown Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg). Previously part of Oriental Prussia, Kaliningrad is now the capital of the most western district (Oblast) of the Russian Federation, an enclave in the European Union, between Poland and Lithuania.

These emergency excavations, conducted by the Russian specialists in Preventive Archaeology (Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences), identified part of the fortifications of the old Königsberg (17th-18th centuries). In the same area, 12 pits containing numerous human skeletons were also discovered. Some military artefacts (notably buttons and fragments of uniforms) associated with human remains were identified as belonging to the Napoleonic Great Army. The historical context of this discovery is thus Napoleon’s Russian Campaign of 1812.

Napoleon had chosen Königsberg as one of the cities where his Great Army wintered in 1812-1813, and as strategic post for the artillery. In this Prussian city, the Garde Impériale was quartered with the Great Army, principally its artillery regiments, as confirmed by the disco-very in the mass grave of numerous buttons of artillery regiments.

Preliminary study (Vette, 2006) proved that the buttons discovered in the pits belonged indeed to the 5th, 7th and 9th artillery regiments, but some buttons of line infantry (4th, 7th, 14th, 21th, 72th, 92nd and 113th regiments) and light infantry (15th), as well as of the Garde Impériale were also identified. Buttons of foreign regiments were also detected, such as the 2nd Swiss infantry regiment, the 2nd infantry regiment of Dutch line (which was integrated into the French 123rd régiment d’infanterie de ligne), buttons of Grenadiers and Chasseurs of the Westphalian Royal Guard, one shako of the 4th regiment of Westphalian line infantry, buttons of an officer of Prussian Chasseurs and buttons from the Italian Bataillon du Train.

This introduction of archaeological and anthropological methods into the field of modern historical periods represents a unique opportunity to increase our knowledge of such histo-rical events (which, in this case, were catastrophic), by using fragmentary but direct sources. A large mass grave, attributed to the same historical context, had already been discovered in 2002 in Lithuania in Vilnius (formerly Wilna) and was studied by using a multidisciplinary approach (Signoli et al., 2004; Palubeckaite et al., 2006; Raoult et al., 2006).

The discovery of the Kaliningrad mass grave offered a new opportunity, by using both archaeological and anthropological methods and data, to obtain original and direct informa-tion about the condition of the Russian Campaign and Retreat. Contrarily to the Lithuanian mass grave whose remains were hastily reburied, the remains uncovered in Kaliningrad will be extensively analyzed, and enough time will be given to the scientific teams to perform extensive studies and analyses under the joint supervision of the CNRS and the Russian Academy of Sciences, within the framework of a four-year research program. Significant results are expected. Palaeopathological analyses of the human remains can provide informa-tions on the effects of the extreme conditions of the Retreat (including climate, starvation, exhaustion, epidemics such as typhus) leading to this catastrophic event, as well as general standards of health in Western Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. One must keep in

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mind the selection bias of the healthiest and strongest young males in the conscription policy of the Great Army. Morphological analysis of the skeletal material will also allow us to study the diversity of European populations, to evaluate growth processes, to interpret different lesions, traumas and markers in the context of military life, to diagnose diseases of bone, joint and teeth, including infections, notably syphilis. Human remains may also confirm louse-borne infections such as typhus. Ancient DNA of the typhus pathogen has been identified in the material coming from Lithuania (Raoult et al., 2006). The epidemic is attested historically for Königsberg at this time (Larrey, 1817). The exceptional preservation of desiccated brain material in the skulls provides a unique opportunity for molecular genetics and histological studies. This multidisciplinary program is expected to bring new data to the knowledge of this major historical event in Europe, considered as one of the biggest military catastrophes of modern history.

Materials and methods

The excavation, recording and analytical methods followed had been developed previously in the study of mass graves in connection with plague epidemics in Marseilles and its environs (Dutour et al., 1994; Signoli et al., 2002), military disasters such as the Retreat from Russia in Vilnius (Signoli et al., 2004) and genocide, as in Mediaeval Yaroslavl in Russia (Engovatova et al., 2008 ; Buzhilova, Goncharava, dans cet ouvrage).

The skeletal material, represented both by individuals in situ and scattered bones, was examined first in September 2006, at the Kaliningrad History and Art Museum, in order to determine for part of the collected sample, number, age and sex of the victims. Classical anthropological methods based on growth and maturation processes and on sexual dimor-phism of coxal bone and skull were used1. Palaeopathological investigations scored dental status, skeletal markers of activity, war traumas and results of war surgery, as well as dege-nerative and infectious patterns. A set of anthropometric measurements of skull and long bones was taken.

First Results and discussion

Archaeological records

Historical maps of Königsberg indicate that the excavated area was located on the summit of the hill of the fortification line in the western part of the old city. The 12 pits were organized in two rows, one pit next to the other: a first short row of 4 pits (labelled D, A, B, C) and a second parallel row (from E1 to L) slightly forward from the first one, the first pit (E1) facing the third pit (B) of the first row. The mean size of pits was about 4 metres long and 2,50 metres

1. The methods used by the two teams are the most consensual and are similar to those previously carried out by Lithuanian and French teams on Vilnius material. They do not differ from the classical standards (Buikstra, Ubelaker, 1994).

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wide. Some pits in the northern rows were destroyed by construction engines just before the excavation and consequently produced mixed skeletal material. If such organization in two rows represents two stages in burying the victims, undoubtedly all the pits were connected with the same event, this suggesting a short time interval between burials. These aspects thus indicate that numerous deaths occurred in a short period of time and clearly illustrate an abnormally increased mortality rate, related to a special event, responsible for “catastrophic” mortality of a possible infectious origin such as typhus epidemic (Rigeade, 2006; 2007).

At first glance, the mass graves from both ancient cities of Wilna and Königsberg2, even if they are contemporaneous and both dated to the Retreat from Russia (winter 1812-1813), are markedly different. In Vilnius a single trench (previously belonging to the fortification of a redoute) contained more than three thousand victims (Signoli et al., 2001), while in Kaliningrad, several small pits each contained from a few dozen skeletons to more than a hundred. In some pits, the funerary space was obviously not optimized. In rectangular Pit C, which was very well preserved, the bodies had been laid head-to-head. The position of the corpses in the bottom of the pit (those buried first) evidenced the care taken by the grave-diggers for opti-mizing space (Rigeade, 2006; 2007). In pits G and L, numerous broken medical flasks and some civilian buttons were found.

The observations above and the presence of some women and few young individuals (12-15 years old) in the pits, led to the question of the nature of the catastrophic event at the origin of this mass grave containing Napoleonic soldiers and perhaps some civilians, possibly Prussians. Hypotheses of a collective execution or a famine are not compatible with historical records (Pigeard, 1998; Tulard, 1999), but according to several direct witnesses (among them Baron Larrey and Colonel Noël) Königsberg was struck by an epidemic of typhus in late 1812-early 1813, which had infected ill and wounded soldiers treated in the hospitals of the city, but also contaminated Prussian citizens. According to these witnesses, it seemed clear that this epidemic was introduced into the city by infected French soldiers, precisely those who arrived from Wilna in mid-December 1812. It should be noted that the presence of the pathogen responsible for typhus (Rickettsia prowazecki) among victims from the Vilnius mass grave, has been already confirmed by molecular biology (Raoult et al., 2006). At the beginning of December 1812, about 40,000 soldiers died from exhaustion and extreme cold when they arrived at Wilna, while some of the survivors, harassed by Russian troops, continued their retreat to Königsberg. The hypothesis of an epidemic of typhus as the cause of theses mass graves thus still holds; biomolecular investigations will be of some assistance in solving this problem.

As for the period when this mass grave was used, buttons from the 113th regiment of line found in pits A, B and D are useful for dating the pits. This regiment only arrived in Russia at the beginning of November 1812 (Vette, 2006). Thus, at least pits A, B and D in the first row, were probably dug in late 1812-early 1813, as the French troops left the city on the first days of January 1813, abandoning those of the soldiers who were unable to follow their regiments (ill and wounded) in the hospitals of Königsberg, under the supervision of military surgeons

2. In refering to the two cities at the time of the catastrophic events, we use their historical names, while their modern names refer to them in their present state.

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and nursing officers (according to the Memoirs of Colonel Noël). A plausible conclusion is that these victims died in this short period of time. As the death toll seems to be higher than 600, mortality can be considered as due to a “catastrophic” event.

Among the coins found on the site, most of them date to 1811. Most of the artefacts found in the pits were buttons of uniforms. Their identification provides interesting historical infor-mation on the withdrawal of regiments during the Retreat. Although artillery buttons were very frequent, as mentioned above, no cavalry buttons were found up to now. This contrasts both with historical records, which mention the presence in Königsberg of Westphalian Royal Army cavaliers, and with palaeopathological observations (see below). As regards infantry, some French line infantry buttons found in these mass graves in Kaliningrad belonged to the same regiments identified in the Vilnius mass grave. Wilna was one of the points de passage obligés during the Retreat. For most of the soldiers who went through Wilna and survived the catastrophic crossing of the city, Königsberg was their second hope for survival, and it really was! Königsberg military hospitals welcomed and took care of the wounded, starved and ill soldiers (Larrey, 1817).

Anthropological records

Sex and age distribution available from the studied sample revealed a high percentage of young males (two thirds belong to the 18-25 age categories). 94% of the skeletons were male. At this preliminary stage, the percentage of females and young teenagers appeared to be very low in this 1812-1813 Königsberg mass graves, when it is compared to the sex and age distribu-tion of plague or genocide mass graves (Signoli et al., 2002; Engovatova et al., 2008) that are similar to those of living populations. However this percentage seems to be higher than the one observed in the Vilnius sample (Signoli et al., 2004), taking into account the fact that the results presented here concern only part of the sample and that it must await the end of the study before being fully interpreted. The demographic structure of the whole sample will indeed provide relevant information on its real nature, which can be interpreted as military mass graves only or as collective graves, where both soldiers and citizens were buried together.

Reconstruction of stature from the measurements of long bones by using the humerus and femur formulae of Olivier (Olivier et al, 1978) may be of some assistance in answering this question. It was possible for one third of the studied sample. Male stature ranged from 156 to 184 cm and female statue from 155 to 165 cm. The high stature of most of the males, in comparison with mean European male stature in the late 18th- early 19th century (Weir, 1997; Woitek, 2003), can be explained by recruitment criteria based on stature. High stature was generally required: according to Weir (1997) mean stature of the recruits serving in 1812 in Great Army and born at the end of the 18th century was close to 164 cm, which was higher than the male average for civilians. Some regiments had higher standards, such as heavy cavalry (over 178 cm), young Imperial Guards (173–178 cm) and artillery (165–169 cm). Stature of recruits for infantry and other troops was generally below 169 cm (Vette, pers. com.). The buttons of the Garde Impériale and of the Westphalian Royal Guard discovered in the pits, confirm the presence in Königsberg of some of these troops with the high stature

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standards of the Great Army. Distribution of the male stature among the whole sample from the pits may be of potential interest, moreover, to assess the number of male civilians buried in these mass graves.

Some healed or partially healed trauma such as sword wounds, craniofacial traumas and long bone traumas were to be expected in view of the particular selection of this sample (fig. 1). Surgical amputations as the result of weapon wounds, complications of fractures, gangrene and cold bites amputated limbs (without corresponding body) as well as healed or partially healed amputated skeletons (without corresponding limbs) speak in favour of recruitment from one or several hospitals of the city that could have been under the supervi-sion of military surgeons, French or Allied, but placed under the command of the Chief Surgeon of the Imperial Guard (according to his memoirs: Larrey, 1817).

Numerous cases of stress fracture of metatarsal foot bones were identified (fig. 2) – the consequence of long-distance forced marches by the infantry during the Russian campaign.

Horse riders were indicated by lesions observed on femora and acetabula, such as a high frequency of pathological contacts between femoral neck and the upper part of the acetabulum (which results from sitting on a horse). Also connected with horse-riding were healed frac-tures of the humeri (jerk of horse) healed fractures of the 5th fingers (due to the bridle being

Fig. 1. Palaeopathological cases: traumas of skull and long bones; surgical amputation of femur.

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yanked out when curbing a horse), spinal traumas and possibly spondylolysis, as well as Scheuermann’s disease.

As mentioned above, these observations contrast with the fact that up to now, no buttons of Calvary regiments were identified among the artefacts from the pits.

Other palaeopathological observations of a secondary importance in the identification of these mass graves resulting from a catastrophic event will be analyzed more extensively in further studies.

At first glance, palaeopathological observations showed that wounds and traumas cannot explain massive deaths by themselves: on the contrary, most of them were healed or in the process of healing. However, the presence of freshly amputated limbs and broken medical flasks strongly suggest that the victims had been recruited from a hospital. The only plausible explanation for this toll of victims could be an acute epidemic, most probably of typhus, which, during the 19th century, was one of the greatest causes of death (Ozanam, 1835), with a mortality rate reaching 70%. This epidemic, brought to Königsberg by the French troops, occurred and spread among soldiers who were under treatment in one or several hospitals of Königsberg, under the Command of military surgeons of the Napoleonic army (Larrey, 1817). Giving the facts that this epidemic struck the city in the late December 1812 according to historical records and that typhus epidemic is an acute disease with high mortality rate, it is highly possible that these mass graves are the consequence of this epidemic outbreak that mainly occurred during December 1812 and January 1813. Molecular biology performed on desiccated brain tissues is expected to confirm the infectious origin of this catastrophic event. A complete study of the material will allow us to say, whether or not, Prussian citizens who are historically known to have been also victims of this severe epidemic, were also interred in these military burials.

Conclusion

The discovery of the 1812-1813 mass graves of Königsberg offers a unique opportunity to study directly a short episode of the history of the Retreat from Russia. This can be inter-

Fig. 2. March fracture of metatarsals.

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preted as one of the catastrophic events that decimated the Great Army during the Winter of 1812 and could be related to the typhus epidemic that occurred in Königsberg in late 1812-early 1813, by using multidisciplinary collaboration between anthropologists, archaeologists, microbiologists and biochemists as well as historians.

At a later stage, the data from these mass graves will provide information on health condi-tions, both of the Napoleonic Great Army and of European populations represented by these soldiers at the beginning of the 19th century. The present study opens stimulating perspec-tives on a new field of research devoted to the “Bioanthropology of Modern History”.

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to the members of the Archeological team, in particular, Alexander Khohlov, Alexander Kozlov and Asya Engovatova, who conducted excavations in Kaliningrad.

We honour the memory of the Alexander Kozlov who recently passed away most tragically.We thank Tatiana Volkova, Pavel Yablonsky and Nikolai Cheburkin, who were volunteers for

processing the osteological material prior to laboratory examination. The present study was supported by the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Russian Science Support Foundation and by the CNRS. We are grateful to all the above individuals and institutions.

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