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ACTA CLASSICA XXVJJJ (1985) 57-75 ISSN 0065-1141 THE DEDICATORY INSCRIPTION OF POMPEIUS MAGNUS IN DIODORUS 40.4* SOME REMARKS ON AN UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT BY HANS SCHAEFER by Ursula Vogel-Weidemann (University of South Africa, Pretoria) This paper is based on ideas first mooted by the late Professor Hans Schaefer in 1949. 1 Despite the epigraphic ring of its title, it is rather a detailed methodological exercise, although it also deals marginally with questions of policy and ideology. Diodorus Siculus of Agyrium, who wrote under Caesar and Augustus/ is better known and better studied as an informant on Greek history of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., and in particular as an Alexander-historian, than as a source for the late Roman Republic. One contributory factor to this is the unfortunate fact that books 21 to 40 of Diodorus' Library of History which cover the time from the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C., down to the author's own day3 have been transmitted ill fragments only. The particular excerpt under consideration which is listed by L. Dindorf as also by Francis R. Walton 4 among the fragments of book 40, derives from the historical anthologies compiled in the lOth century for the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Only four of these fifty odd Compilations have come down to us, and they were published in a critical edition of the Constantinian corpus by Weidmann, between 1903 and 1910. Volume 4, the Excerpta de Sententiis, which contains the fragment to be examined (pp. 405-6), was edited by Ursulus Boissevain in 1906. 5 So far, so good. Chapter 4 of book 40 reflects the contents of a tablet on which Pompey described his res gestae in Asia and also made a dedication to a godhead who is not specified. Dindorf placed the passage between a digression on the Jews, as a prelude to Pompey's operations against Jerusalem (cc. 2 and 3), and two chapters on the Catilinarian conspiracy (cc. 5 and Sa). Now both these events date to the year 63_B . C., and one would therefore surmise that he allocated our extract to the same temporal context, on the assumption that it constitutes as it were the conclusion and UKJ.!ll of Pompey's victorious campaigns in the East. 6 However, and this is the rub, the dedicatory inscription is generally dated in modem studies to the year 61 B.C., the year in which Pompey celebrated his triumph de bello piratico et Mithridatico on September 28th and 29th. 7 The nameless goddess, again, is commonly equated with Minerva to whom he dedicated a shrine 'ex manubiis' in Rome on the occasion of his triumph, as Pliny the Elder reports in the Natural History , book 7, chapter 97. 8 M. Gelzer, admittedly, also considered the possibility of a connection with Venus Victrix, 57
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ACTA CLASSICA XXVJJJ (1985) 57-75 ISSN 0065-1141

THE DEDICATORY INSCRIPTION OF POMPEIUS MAGNUS IN DIODORUS 40.4*

SOME REMARKS ON AN UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT BY HANS SCHAEFER

by Ursula Vogel-Weidemann (University of South Africa, Pretoria)

This paper is based on ideas first mooted by the late Professor Hans Schaefer in 1949. 1 Despite the epigraphic ring of its title, it is rather a detailed methodological exercise, although it also deals marginally with questions of policy and ideology.

Diodorus Siculus of Agyrium, who wrote under Caesar and Augustus/ is better known and better studied as an informant on Greek history of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., and in particular as an Alexander-historian, than as a source for the late Roman Republic. One contributory factor to this is the unfortunate fact that books 21 to 40 of Diodorus' Library of History which cover the time from the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C., down to the author's own day3 have been transmitted ill fragments only. The particular excerpt under consideration which is listed by L. Dindorf as also by Francis R. Walton4 among the fragments of book 40, derives from the historical anthologies compiled in the lOth century for the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Only four of these fifty odd Compilations have come down to us, and they were published in a critical edition of the Constantinian corpus by Weidmann, between 1903 and 1910. Volume 4, the Excerpta de Sententiis, which contains the fragment to be examined (pp. 405-6), was edited by Ursulus Boissevain in 1906.5

So far, so good. Chapter 4 of book 40 reflects the contents of a tablet on which Pompey described his res gestae in Asia and also made a dedication to a godhead who is not specified. Dindorf placed the passage between a digression on the Jews, as a prelude to Pompey's operations against Jerusalem (cc. 2 and 3), and two chapters on the Catilinarian conspiracy ( cc. 5 and Sa). Now both these events date to the year 63_B. C., and one would therefore surmise that he allocated our extract to the same temporal context, on the assumption that it constitutes as it were the conclusion and UKJ.!ll of Pompey's victorious campaigns in the East. 6

However, and this is the rub, the dedicatory inscription is generally dated in modem studies to the year 61 B.C. , the year in which Pompey celebrated his triumph de bello piratico et Mithridatico on September 28th and 29th. 7 The nameless goddess, again, is commonly equated with Minerva to whom he dedicated a shrine 'ex manubiis' in Rome on the occasion of his triumph, as Pliny the Elder reports in the Natural History , book 7, chapter 97.8 M. Gelzer, admittedly, also considered the possibility of a connection with Venus Victrix,

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Pompey's patron goddess,9 whose temple was erected at the rear of Pompey's theatre in 55 B.C. ,10 but both suggestions were rejected by Schaefer for the following convincing reasons (Ms., p. 2f.):

Beide Deutungen setzen eine Tatsache voraus: dass niimlich dieses Diodor­Fragment die griechische Kopie oder Obersetzung der natiirlich fur eine romische Gottheit nur lateinisch abgefassten Inschrift ware. Hier beginnen die ersten Schwierigkeiten gegeniiber den erwahnten Zuordnungen. Da es ausgeschlossen ist, dass einer Weihung an eine Gottheit in Rom eine griechische Kopie beigegeben wurde, konnte es sich nur urn eine ad hoc angefertigte Obersetzung handeln, die entweder Diodor selbst oder die von ihm beniitzte Quelle vermittelt hat, urn diese Dedikation auf Grund ihrer politischen Bedeutung zu publizieren. Aber Diodor diirfte fur ein solches Uriterfangen schon auf Grund seines mangelhaften Lateins nicht recht in Frage kommen; und der Ausweg, dass die von Diodor beniitzte literarische Vorlage eine Obersetzung dieser Inschrift angefertigt habe, ist zwar moglich, aber nicht recht wahrscheinlich angesichts des eindeutig griechischen Kolorits der ganzen Weihung. Aber es ergeben sich auch noch weitere Bedenken. Die Gleichsetzung des Diodorfragments mit der Weihung an die Minerva im Jahr 61 scheidet mit absoluter Sicherheit aus, da die von Plinius erwiihnte Inschrift, wie auch nur ein oberflachlicher Vergleich ohne weiteres lehrt, ganz andere Taten aus der ruhrnreichen Laufbahn des Pompeius hervorhebt, von der Zahl der wahrend seiner Kriege erbeuteten Schiffe, Stadte u.s.w. spricht, urn diese Reihe zu schliessen mit der in ihrer niichtemen Religiositat echt romischen Formel: 'votum merito Minervae'. Man sieht, es fuhrt von hier keine Briicke zum Diodorfragment; aber auch Gelzers alternative Datierung auf das zweite Konsulat des Pompeius im Jahre 55 und seine Beziehung der Gottin auf die Venus Victrix hat nichts Oberzeugendes. Wir wissen namlich iiber diese Dedikation durch ein bekanntes Zitat des lateinischen Kirchenvaters Tertullian (De spect. 10), dass, auf der Hohe des von ihm in dem gleichen Jahr unter grosstem Aufwand erbauten Theaters (die Spiele bei der Einweihung erregten wegen ihres Pompes Anstoss), Pompeius den Tempel der Venus Victrix errichtet habe und zwar so, dass die Sitzreihen des Theaters als die zu dem Heiligtum emporfiihrenden Treppen gelten konnten. Gleichzeitig habe er in der Weihinschrift an die Venus Victrix diese aussere Verbindung zwischen Theater und Tempel ausdriicklich begriindet, indem er die in dem Theater zu haltenden Spiele in eine innere Beziehung zu der zu feiemden Gottin zu setzen versucht babe. Selbstverstandlich darf man bei der Auswertung dieser Stelle die antikem Theater feindliche Tendenz des christlichen Schriftstellers nicht iibersehen, aber von ihr wird nicht beriihrt die in dem lateinischen Text der Pompeius~Inschrift festzustellende Beziehung zwischen Weihung des Tempels und des Theaterbaus. Allein dieses Ergebnis schliesst jene von Gelzer vorgenommene ldentifizierung des Diodorfragmentes mit

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der Weihung des Jahres 55 aus- ganz abgesehen von der Tatsache, dass es sich im Jahre 55 urn einen neu einzurichtenden Kult handelt, wiihrend bei Diodor zweifellos nichts darauf deutet, abgesehen auch von der dann auffallenden Erscheinung, dass zu diesem Zeitpunkt bereits eine Reihe von Jahren vergangen gewesen ware seit den Ereignissen, die den Inhalt des

(p.3) Diodorfragmentes betreffen, das andererseits seinen eigentlichen Sinn vermutlich nur in einer unmittelbaren Beziehung zu dem Orientaufenthalt des Pompeius haben kann.

So scheitern aile Versuche, diese Inschrift bei Diodor mit einer romischen Gottheit in Verbindung zu bring en, und- urn es kurz zu sag en- die Inschrift kann nicht auf eine romische Gottin bezogen werden.

Modern scholarship also lists Diodorus 40.4, together with Pliny, Natural History 7.98, among the testimonia for Pompey's triumph as witness, among others, Drumann-Groebe, 11 Attilio Degrassi12 and also, albeit somewhat obliquely, Fr. Miltner in Pauly-Wissowa.13 The questions that arise are , firstly , whether the Diodorus-text is the Greek counterpart of either or both of the Latin inscriptions recorded by Pliny in HN 7.97 and 98, and, secondly, whether a closer investigation of the passage which is cited here in full will not possibly lead to a different conclusion.

"Ott 6 ITOJl1tlito<; ta<; i8ia.<; rcpa~Et<; li<; crDYE'tEAEO"EY £rei tf\<; 'Acria.<; UYa.yp<i'l'a.<; UYE9T]KEY, cbY EO"'ttY UYtiypa.<j>oy t68c. llOjlTCTJto<; rya.fou uio<; Meya.<; UU'tOKpateop 'tTJY rca.paAtoY tf\<; OtKOUJlEYT]<; Ka.i rcacra.<; ta<; EYtO<; 'OKwYofl Yi)crou<; £A.cu9~:pci>cra.<; taG rcEtpa.nKofl TCOAEJlOU, 6 pucraJlEVO<; rcotE TCOAtopKOUJlEVT]Y 'tTJV 'Apto~a.psaYOU ~a.crtA.cia.v, ra.A.a.tia.Y 'tE Ka.i ta<; UTCEpKEtjlEYU<; xropa.<; Ka.i £rca.pxia.<;, 'Acria.v, Bt9UYta.Y, UTCEpa.crrcicra.<; 8£ ITa.<j>A.a.yoYia.Y tE Ka.i tov ITovtoY, 'ApJlEYta.Y tE Ka.i 'Axa.ta.Y, lht 8£ 'l~T]pia.v, KoA.xi8a., MccrOTCO'tUjltUY, 1:ro<j>T]YTJY, rop8UT]VTJY, urcota~a.<; 8£ ~a.crt"-Ea.

Mi)8roY Lla.pc\:ov, ~a.crtA.Ea. 'AptcOATJY 'I~i)prov, ~a.crtA.Ea. 'Aptcrto~ouA.ov

'Iou8a.iroY, ~a.mA.ea. 'Apeta.v Na.~a.ta.irov 'Apa~rov, Ka.i tl)v Ka.ta KtA.tKia.v 1:upia.Y, 'Iou8a.ia.v, 'Apa.~ia.v, KupTJYa.i:Kl)Y £rca.pxia.v, 'Axa.wu<;, 'Iosuyou<;, 1:oa.vou<;, 'HYtoxou<;xa.i ta A.oma <j>GA.a. ta JlEta.~u KoA.xi8o<; Ka.i Mmci>n8o<; AtjlYT]<; 'tTJV rca.paAtoY 8ta.KU'tEXOYta. Ka.i 'tOU<; 'tOU't(I)Y ~a.crtA.ct<; EVVEU 'tOY apt9jlOY Ka.i TCUYta. ta i:9YT] ta EYtO<; tf\<; lloYttKf\<; Ka.i tf\<; 'Epu9pii<; 9a.McrcrT]<; KU'tOtKOUY'tU, Ka.i 'tU opta. tf\<; TJYEJlOYta.<; tOt<; Opot<; tf\<; yf\<; rcpocr~t~acra.<;, Ka.i ta<; rcpocr68ou<; 'ProJla.troY <j>uM~a.<;, li<; 8£ rcpocra.u~i)cra.<;, taU<; 'tE av8ptavta.<; Ka.i ta AOtTCU a<j>t8pujla.ta. t&Y 9c&Y Ka.i tOY AOtTCOY KOO"JlOV t&Y TCOAEjlt(I)Y a<j>EAOjlEVO<; UYE9T]KE tfl 9~:4> xpucroO<; JlUpiou<; Ka.i 8tcrxtA.iou<; E~TJKOYta., apyupiou taAa.Yta. tpta.Kocrta. ETC'tU.

(Canst. Exc. 4, pp. 405-406.)

To begin with Pliny's inscriptions. We first find the dedication proper in Natural History 7.97, which reads as follows:

'Gnaeus Pompei us Magnus imperator, having completed a thirty years' war, routed, scattered, slain or received the surrender of 12 183 000 people, sunk

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or taken 846 ships, received the capitulation of 1 538 towns and forts, subdued the lands from the Maeotians to the Red Sea, duly dedicates this offering vowed to Minerva- "votum rrierito Minervae".' After an explanatory phrase 'hoc est breviarium eius ab oriente' - 'this is the

summary of his exploits in the east', Pliny goes on to give the praefatio of the triumphal acta in Natural History 7.98:

'After having rescued the sea coast from pirates and restored to the Roman people the command of the sea, he triumphed over Asia, Pontus, Armenia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, the Scythians, the Jews, the Albanians, Iberia, the island of Crete, the Bastamae, and, in addition to these, over King Mithridates and Tigranes.' It may now well be asked whether what we have here are authentic in­

scriptions in a literary context. The answer is undoubtedly in the affirmative, since they have about them the same formulaic ring as the tituli listed by Dessau under the 'Monumenta historica liberae rei publicae' 14 or, for that matter, the entries in the Fasti triumphales. 15 Examples which readily come to mind are the so-called tituli Mummiani of L. Mummius, cos. 146 B.C. 16 or, better still, the elogium of C. Marius, cos. 107 B.C. 17 In both cases we find the res gestae of a victorious commander-in-chief in conjunction with a dedication de manubiis to some or other specific godhead, and in both cases the form is sober, unadorned and dignified. What does a comparison of the data in Pliny with those in other surviving records of Pompey's triumph yield? The main sources here are Plutarch's Life of Pompey (c.45) and Appian's Mithridatic Wars (cc. 116-117). Plutarch restricts himself to giving the contents of the inscriptions on tablets which were carried before the triumphal procession, while Appian purports to give the actual words of at least one inscription: 'Ships with brazen beaks captured, 800; cities founded in Cappadocia, 8; in Cilicia and Coele-Syria, 20; in Palestine the one which is now Seleucis. Kings conquered: Tigranes the Armenian, Artoces the Iberian, Oroezes the Albanian, Darius the Mede, Aretas the Nabataean, Antioch us of Commagene.' According to Appian 'these were the facts recorded on the inscription' and, as a detailed analysis of all the available sources shows/8 the tablets carried in Pompey's 'pampa triumphi' (thus Eutrop. 6.16) in Rome not only named he pirates, the kings and the nations over which he had won a triumph, but they also enumerated the strongholds and cities captured, the ships taken and the cities founded. In addition they proclaimed the increase in public revenues due to Pompey's conquests and the enrichment of the public treasury through the contribution of objects in silver and gold and also of coined money. 19

To return now to Diodorus 40.4 and the relation between this passage and what is known of Pompey's triumphal inscriptions. Firstly, it is explicitly stated in Diodorus 40.4 that the copy or avriypa<j>ov given there is that of a public record ( avaypa<j>ij, vide avayp<ilva~) of Pompey's own deeds which he accomplished in Asia ( •a~ ioia~ 1tp<i~Et~ a~ cruv~::•sN::cr~::v f:1ti •fi~ 'Ama~) and that he set up this record as a votive gift ( av<i9ru.ta, vide av€9T]KE). It therefore forms part and parcel

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of the same votive offering to 'the goddess' ( tft 8E(j)) as the twelve thousand and sixty pieces of gold and three hundred and seven talents of silver mentioned later. Secondly, the text itself gives no indication whatsoever that Pompey did, in fact, triumph over the kings and nations listed; rather it is stressed that he 'by taking away statues and the rest of the images set up to the gods as well as other valuables from the enemy' was able to dedicate the sum in question to the godhead. It would seem therefore that the whole of Diodorus 40.4 is not a triumphal but a dedicatory inscription, of which the 'Leistungsbericht', the res gestae, forms an integral part.

Now Miltner has claimed that this 'Leistungsbericht' was in fact deposited ('hinterlegt') in the temple of Minerva but that it should not be confused with the dedicatory inscription transmitted by Pliny the Elder. 20 And, indeed, the degree of correspondence between the dedications of Pliny and Diodorus, respectively, is very little indeed. Apart from the fact that the votive gift in Pliny is a temple to Minerva and that in Diodorus is a gift of gold and silver tft 8E(j), the inscriptions differ considerably in content and, especially, in style.

On this point Schaefer had the following remarks to make (Ms., p. la):

Der Inhalt der Inschrift -sc. Diodorus 40.4-ist eine Wdhung an eine nicht genannte Gottin und zwar aus Anlass des grossen Orientfeldzuges, den Pompeius in den Jahren 67-63/2 durchfiihrte und der die Folge des Mithradatischen Krieges, jenes letzten grossen Aufstandsversuches gegen die romische Herrschaft im Osten, war. 1m Verlauf dieser Jahre hat Pompeius ein ungeheures und von der romischen Herrschaft bis dahin nicht oder nur sehr indirekt beherrschtes Gebiet zwischen Schwarzem und Kaspischem Meer bis an die Grenzen Agyptens in mannigfachen Formen der Abhangigkeit befriedet - eine ungeheure Leistung, die fiir die weitere Geschichte des Imperium Romanum aus mannigfachen Griinden von grosster Bedeutung geworden ist. Von diesen Dingen berichtet die Inschrift, aber nicht mit der ni.ichtemen Priizision der Kategorien des romischen Staatsrechtes, sondem in einem stilistischen Versuch, den Ereignissen dadurch gerecht zu werden, dass unterschieden wird zwischen solchen Uindem, zu denen Pompeitis als Retter gekommen ist, solchen, die er beschi.itzt, und solchen, die er seiner Macht unterworfen hat; diese Aufzii.hlung schliesst mit der hochst interessanten Feststellurig, dass Pompeius durch die Tat die Grenzen der romischen Herrschaft den Grenzen der Erde angenahert hat; urn dann zu dem letzten Teil iiberzuleiten, niirnlich dem Weihgeschenk selbst, das sehr betriichtlich ist (vgl. die 307 mit den 50 Talenten, die er in Athen spendete).

As we have seen, Pliny's record is factual and concise. That ofDiodorus, on the other hand, is ornate and sweeping. Pompey is named as the man who liberated (€A.w8Epmcruc;) the seacoast of the inhabited world and all islands within Okeanos, the great Outward Sea, from the war with the pirates and who delivered ( 6 (mcr6.J..i£voc;) kingdoms and lands from siege; as one who gave

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protection ( um::pacrrciaac;) or subjected ( urconi~ac;) regions, kings and peoples; as having advanced (rcpocr~t~acrac;) the bounds of Roman supremacy to the limits of the earth, and, finally, as having secured and augmented (<j>uAci~ac;, <'ic; OE rcpoaau~iJcrac;) the revenues of the Roman people. It can hardly be maintained that statements such as these are a transliteration and even less the translation of a Latin original;21 their very phrasing belongs squarely in the context of the Greek-speaking world and, more specifically, in that of the Greek East, as a survey of Dittenberger's Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae will confirm. 22 The most striking examples in this regard are inscriptions which celebrate the lineage and achievements of Antiochus I of Commagene,23 Pompey's erstwhile enemy24

with whom he later entered into friendly relations. 25 If the question were to be raised, what the common denominator of all these tituli is, the catchword 'Asianism' might come to mind in the sense of the rhetorical style which was, in essence, that of the Hellenistic age rather than that of Asia. This is not the place to examine the nicer points of the art of rhetoric in the Roman world of the mid­first century B.C. Suffice it to say that the so-called 'Asiatic' style is elaborate and over-rhythmical and that it is characterised by an ornamental type of diction26 or, as Augustus put it, by 'a flow of words without meaning' (Suet. Aug. 86).

On the basis of all these considerations it may be accepted with impunity that Diodorus 40.4 is the transcript of an inscription in Greek27 deriving from the Greek East which was distinct and separate from the Latin inscriptions transmitted by Pliny.28 Since Diodorus was not so much a creative writer as rather a diligent compiler, 29 we may furthermore subscribe to the accepted opinion that the dedication he has preserved 'appears to be one of the more authentic in detail of all the inscriptions and claims which our sources preserve'.30

The most tantalising question is the identity of the nameless goddess to whom Pompey made his votive gift. An inscription from Ephesus in which Antiochus I of Commagene is honoured for his piety rcp(Jc; 1:l']v fl!::ovl1 furnishes an important clue. iJ 9Eoc; here is none other than Artemis of Ephesus and, indeed, it is not unusual for this goddess to be named in Ephesian inscriptions and even in literary texts as iJ 9Eoc; without any qualifying epiklesis. 32 Admittedly Artemis of Ephesus was but one of many female deities in Asia Minor. There can, however, be no doubt that her temple was and contmued to be the most esteemed cult centre of Asia Minor right into early Christian times. The famous account of St. Paul's sojourn at Ephesus here comes most immediately to mind. In Acts 19.27f. we read that 'all Asia and the whole world worshippeth the great goddess Diana'­~YMTJ iJ "Ap't:Efltc; 'E<j>Ecrirov. Though this testimony dates to the first century A.D., it is valid from the sixth century B.C. onwards, when Croesus presented columns and some golden cows for a new and splendid rebuilding of the Artemision. 33 We may thus conclude with some measure of justification that the godhead whom Pompey honoured so conspicuously was in fact the great Artemis of Ephesus, a conclusion at which Schaefer also arrived, on the basis of the following considerations (Ms. p. 3):

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Von dem schon erwaimten allgemeinen griechischen Tenor der Inschrift abgesehen, stiitzt sich die Betrachtung auf die Ausdrucksweise Tj esoc;, die in dieser Allgemeinheit in Hunderten von griechischen Weihungen und sonstigen Inschriften aller Art seit der klassischen Zeit begegnet und die eine typische, auf tiefe Wesensunterschiede zwischen griechischer und romischer Religiositat hindeutende Ausdrucksweise ist. Dennin Abweichung von dieser griechischen Gepflogenheit sind in den offiziellen Kultdoku­menten die romischen Gotter ausdriicklich und aufs genaueste benannt. Letzten Endes geht die romische Besonderheit der Ausdrucksweise auf die romisch-italische Gottesvorstellung zuriick, die das Gottliche vorwiegend in seiner konkreten Einzelmanifestation erfasst. Ich begniige mich mit diesem Himyeis, gebe bewusst keine Belege fiir den griechischen Bereich von Tj esoc;, sondem frage, welche Gottin in der Weihinschrift des Pompeius gemeint sein kann. Da es sich urn eine weibliche Gottheit handelt, da ausserdem Pompeius nur Kleinasien beriihrt hat und das iibrige Griechen­land im Verlauf der Orientfeldzuges niemals betreten hat, da es sich endlich urn sehr betrachtliche Geschenke gehandelt hat, wird man eigentlich von selbst auf den beriihmtesten Kult des griechischen Kleinasiens, den Kult der Artemis von Ephesos, gefiihrt. Und in der Tat, wir wissen aus Appian, Mithr. 116.565., dass Pompeius nach Abschluss seiner grossen Aufgabe der Neuordnung des Vorderen Orients in romischen Rechts- und Herrschafts­formen im Friihjahr 62 nach Ephesos gegangen ist, dort die Belohnung der Soldaten mit der ihnen zugefallenen Beute zu Ende gebracht und von dort die Riickkehr nach Brundisium angetreten hat. Auf diesen Aufenthalt trifft die Voraussetzung der Inschrift, der Abschluss der organisatorischen Massnahmen des Pompeius, zu. Und es kommt als Stiitze dieser Annahme hinzu, dass der Sprachgebrach Tj esoc; in iiberraschender Weise gerade fiir die Artemis von zutrifft. Und noch etwas Anderes weist auf eine Verbindung hin: Nach Ciceros Briefwechsel hat Pompeius, als im Jahre 50 der Biirger­krieg drohte, zur Finanzierung der Riistungen eine Anleihe aus dem Tempelschatz der Artemis von Ephesos erhalten. In der Tat ist ja die Weihung dieser Inschrift nur sinnvoll in dem nicht seltenen Fall, dass wie in Ephesos mit dem Heiligtum eine seit alters beniitzte Bank verbund~n war.

So ist man, glaube ich, berechtigt, die Weihung des Diodorfragments mit dem grossten Heiligtum des vorderasiatischen Kleinasien in Zusammen­hang zu bringen. 34

Nevertheless, it is known that Pompey did actually make a gift to Ma, the goddess of Comana in Pontus, and it may thus be asked whether she cannot have been the deity in question. In this particular case the gift to the sanctuary consisted, however, of an extra piece of land, and at the same time Pompey took care to appoint his own man, Archelaus, the son of one of Mithridates' generals, as both high priest and ruler of the temple state, 35 measures which would seem to preclude the possibility of identifying the godhead of the Diodorus-inscription

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with Ma of Comana. 36 These latter arrangements were made in the winter of 63/62 B.C./7 prior to Pompey's return to Rome via Mytilene, Ephesus, Rhodus and Athens, and it was before his embarkation at Ephesus that Pompey distributed lavish rewards to his troops, sixteen thousand talents in all. 38 1t would therefore seem plausible that it was on the same occasion, in the early summer of 62 B.C., that he also presented the Artemision with his liberal donation,39 in . comparison with which the fifty talents granted to Athens towards the restoration of the city'"' seem a comparatively paltry sum.

What may have been the reason for Pompey's extraordinary munificence? Several explanations may be offered, none of which need necessarily be the only or even the correct one.

Firstly, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus had from remote antiquity been one of the most important temple-banks in Asia Minort' and the monies deposited for safe-keeping under the divine protection of the goddess had been a frequent source for loans both to communities and to individuals.42 Now it has been stressed by E. Badian that Pompey's personal profits of the eastern campaign were enormous. 'Naturally, investments on this scale could not go into Italian land: there was not enough of it' .43 One may just wonder whether the donation to Artemis of Ephesus was likewise a kind of investment, such as the sums which Pompey loaned to Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia or the cities of Mylasa, Alabanda, Carian Heraclea, Bargulia and Caunus. 44

If this sounds rather mundane and even somewhat cynical, we may consider as a second possibility the idea advanced by Schaefer in this connection: he regarded Pompey's arrangements in the East as a deliberate and well-considered reversal of Rome's previous policy of exploita_tion and extortion of the provinces. 45 After the incredible sufferings which Sulla, especially, had inflicted on the provinces in the East, a different approach was already evidenced by L. Licinius Lucullus in his fair and reasonable settlement of Asia, which he effected in the winter of 71/70 B. C. 46 According to Schaefer the policy pursued by Pompey was motivated not only by considerations of practical politics centering upon the consolidation and safeguarding of the imperium Romanum but also by a certain 'Welt­anschauung', which Rome's governing class had begun to develop with regard to her imperial obligations.47

Sieber ist jedenfalls, dass die Nachfolger des Sulla in der Orientpolitik, Lucullus und dann entscheidend Pompeius, vollig neue Methoden und Formen der romischen Provinzialpolitik eingefiihrt haben. Ich erwahne zwei Prinzipien, die man dem grossen Werk der Neuordnung des Ostens durch Pompeius ablesen kann: Die Forderung des Griechentums und die ausdriickliche Bestatigung des Besitzstandes aller nicht-griechischen Tempel und Tempelstaaten, an denen dieses Gebiet so reich ist. Was hier zum Durchbruch kommt, ist etwas Neues in der romischen Politik: Wenn ich so sagen darf, ein Gefiihl fiir die Volksindividualitat der Unterworfenen, das sich fruchtbar verbindet mit einem imperialen Bewusstsein bei den grossen

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. I

Staatsmiinnem der spiiten Republik. Man muss wissen, dass Pompei us seine Riickkehr nach Italien zu einer grossen Kundgebung in diesem Sinn gestaltet hat. Auf Lesbos hat er der alten griechischen Stadt Mytilene urn eines Freundes willen die Freiheit wiedergegeben, obwohl diese Stadt im Mithradatischen Krieg sehr gegen die Romer gewiitet hatte, und nahrn dart im griechischen Theater an einer dichterischen Auffiihrung seiner eigenen Taten teil; auf Rhodos hat er dem grossen Poseidonios seine Reverenz bezeugt und schliesslich in einem letzten Besuch durch betriichtliche Spenden dem Genius Athens gehuldigt. In diese Reihe mochte ich diese Inschrift stellen, deren materieller Gehalt ja auch fiir das verarmte Heiligtum eine betriichtliche Forderung bedeuten musste (Ms. p. Sa).

Now Pompey had met and become friendly with the great Stoic philosopher Posidonius, perhaps as early as 87/6 B.C., and Posidonius exercised a definite influence on Pompey's outlook in the years to come. 48 His likewise well-known that Posidonius held Pompey in high regard and considered him to be an exemplary Roman. 49 It may thus well be so that Pompey's splendid generosity to Artemis was not only in marked contrast to the treatment which Sulla had meted out to Ephesus50 but that it was also symptomatic of the 'humane and at the same time politically far-sighted' spirit in which he effected his large-scale organization ofthe eastern world , as H. Strasburger (op. cit. p. 51) puts it. However, a niggling doubt subsists: 'Vectigalia- sc. for the Roman treasury- were clearly a prime concern of Pompey, as they had been of C. Gracchus' ,S1 and when everything is said and done, Pompey himself was 'the greatest of the owners of the captive world'. 52

A third and last point may yet be raised. In the words of Pliny the Elder the victories and triumphs of Pompey the Great matched in splendour the exploits not only of Alexander the Great but almost of Hercules and father Bacchus,S3 and a relatively recent monograph on Pompey, by P. Greenhalgh, bears the significant title of Pompey. The Roman Alexander. Both ancient sources and modem scholars have justly made much of Pompey's Alexander-imitatio,54 and I am inclined to place our passage in precisely this context. According to Arrian (Anab.l.l7.l0) Alexander provided in 334 B.C. that the <j>opo<; (tribute) which had previously been paid to the Persians should henceforth be contributed to the coffers of Artemis, and according to an account preserved by Strabo (14.1.22, p. 641), Alexander also offered to restore the temple, 'on condition that he should have the credit therefor on the inscription'. Though the Ephesians rejected the offer on the ostensible grounds that it was inappropriate for a god to dedicate offerings to gods, 55 this generous gesture by Alexander Magnus may well have served as a precedent for a similar gesture by Pompeius Magnus56 who was, fortunately, human. The inscription in which Pompey commemorated his grant seems to furnish a measure of proof: not only did he liberate the seacoast of the inhabited world and all islands within Okeanos from the war with the pirates but he advanced ( npocr~t~<icm.<;) the bounds of Roman supremacy to the limits of the

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earth- these concepts that imply a claim to the mastery of the world, 01 in imitation of Alexander, are an unmistakable echo of the Alexander phraseology current at the time58 and link up well with the report that Pompey allegedly wore a cloak of Alexander the Great on the occasion of his triumph. 59

Plutarch ends off his account of Pompey's triumph in 61 B.C. by remarking 'How happy would it have been for him if he had ended his life at this point, up to which he enjoyed the good fortune of Alexander!', but he disparages the attempts of other writers to compare Pompey in all points to Alexander and even force the parallel (Pomp. 46.1). Where did the idea originate that Pompey should exploit the cult of Alexander the Great in order to celebrate his own deeds in the East? In all probability it may be ascribed to Theophanes ofMytilene,60 Pompey's trusted friend and confidant who acted as his adviser on Eastern matters,61 and remained with him up to the very end. 62 Since Theophanes earned the Roman citizenship which Pompey awarded him prior to his return to Rome63

, by being the historian and propagandist of Pompey's exploits ('scriptorem rerum suarum') or thus Cicero alleges,64 it may well be that he also drafted the inscription preserved by Diodorus.65 On this Schaefer had the following to say (Ms. pp.6-8):

Aber es bleiben noch zwei Punkte offen: Zuniichst: Es bedarf keines Beweises, dass ein grosser Herr wie Pompeius eine solche Inschrift nicht selbst verfertigt haben kann. Aber von wem stammt sie dann? Und zweitens: Wie ist sie zur Kenntnis des Diodor gekommen, von dem wir bereits erwiihnten, dass er nur griechische literarische Werke benutzt hat, dass er kaum gereist ist und schon aus diesem Grunde keine Urkunden­studien an Ort und Stelle hat machen konnen?

Urn die Beantwortung der ersten Frage zuniichst zu versuchen, so wissen wir, dass Pompei us zeit seines Lebens von einer grossen Schar Gehilfen und Ratgebern verschiedener sozialer Herkunft und wechselnden Einflusses umgeben gewesen ist. Es waren zuniichst griechische Freigelassene, - der bekannteste unter ihnen hiess Demetrius-, die ihn iiberall begleiteten und deren grosse Kenntnisse und Fiihigkeiten ihm oft grosse Dienste geleistet haben; es kiindigt sich hier ein fast monarchisches Gebaren an, wie es dann unter dem Freigelassenenregime des Kaisers Claudius und seiner Nachfolger zur Ausbildung einer kaiserlichen Bureaukratie gefiihrt hat. Gewissermassen auf einer hoheren Ebene wurde ihm fur die innerromischen Probleme zeit seines Lebens eine iihnliche Hilfe von ihm nahestehenden Politikern geleistet, die ihm in allen Stadien seiner Laufbahn zur Seite standen. Der bekannteste Fall ist der des als Gelehrter und Schriftsteller beriihmten M. Terentius Varro. Dieser Mann, der ihm schon in Spanien als Legat Dienste geleistet hatte, hat Pompeius auf dessen Wunsch einen sog. 'commentarius EicraycoytK6~' vor Antritt seines ersten Konsulats verfertigt, 'ex quo disceret, quid facere dicereque deberet, cum senatum consuleret' (Gell. NA 14.7.1). Pompeius war niimlich nicht auf dem Wege der iiblichen Amterlaufbahn zum Konsulat gelangt, so dass ihm jegliche politische Praxis fehlte.

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Die menschlich interessanteste und politisch wohl folgenreichste Beziehung dieser Art hat Pompeius jedoch zu einem Griechen gehabt, und zwar handelt es sich urn einen in seiner Heimatstadt einflussreichen Politiker a us der Stadt Mytilene auf Lesbos namens Theophanes. Dieser Theophanes ist wohl ein naher Verwandter jenes gleichnamigen Politikers aus Mytilene auf Lesbos, der in der Geschichte des alteren der beiden Gracchen eine verhiingnisvolle Rolle gespielt hat, da er diesen durch den Hinweis auf bestirnrnte Vorstellungen der griechischen Demokratie zu einer gefiihrlichen Radikalisierung veranlasste. Offen bar stammt der jiingere Theophanes also aus einen jener adligen Familien seiner Heimatstadt, die seit langem sich mit der romischen Herrschaft zu arrangieren versuchten und ehrgeizig genug waren, ihren politischen Aufstieg in Rom dadurch zu ermoglichen, dass sie sich einer fiihrenden Personlichkeit anschlossen. Theophanes nun, der nach der Daten seines Lebens etwa ein Altersgenosse des Pompeius gewesen sein muss, hat auf Mytilene eine politische Rolle gespielt, bis er im Zusammenhang des grossen Orientfeldzuges des Mithradates zu Pompei us in Beziehungen getreten ist, die bis an das Ende des Pompeius gedauert haben und die anscheinend ihren Ursprung batten in der Kenntnis des Theophanes von den Verhiiltnissen Vorderasiens. Er hat Pompeius in den Jahren 67-62 stets begleitet, bis in die entlegensten Gebiete und bei den verwegensten Untemehmungen, hat iiber diesen Feldzug und die Neuordnung des Ostens in griechischer Sprache ein. Geschichtswerk veroffentlicht, ist noch vor der Beendigung des Krieges von Pompeius in einer Versammlung des Heeres demonstrativ mit dem romischen Biirgerrecht ausgezeichnet worden und hat endlich seit der Riickkehr des Pompeius nach Rom im Jahre 62 auch selbst dort seinen Aufenthalt genommen. Wir wissen nun, dass in den ganzen Schwierigkeiten der innerromischen Politik bis zum Ausbruch des Biirgerkrieges Theophanes der engste Berater und Mitarbeiter des Pompeius gewesen ist. Aus gelegentlichen Ausserungen in Ciceros Brief­wechsel geht hervor, dass auf Pompeius Einfluss zu gewinnen ist iiber den Graecus, wie er dort auch genanD.t wird, und Caesar hat in der Darstellung des Biirgerkrieges (3.18) bekannt, dass Pompei us drei Manner gehabt habe, 'quibuscum communicare de maxirnis rebus ... consueverat'- Theophanes ist der eine von ihnen. Nach der Katastrophe des Pompeius ist Theophanes von Caesar wie viele, die auf der anderen Seite gestanden batten, zwar in Gnaden aufgenommen worden, aber im Unterschied zu den meisten war er zu stolz, zu unabhiingig und auch politisch zu klug, urn mit dem Caesarischen

(p. 7) Regime einen Scheinfrieden zu schliessen, und hat sich deshalb in seine Vaterstadt Mytilene zuriickgezogen; sein Sohn ist spiiter zu hohen Wiirden in der romischen Politik gelangt und hat zum engsten Freundeskreis des Kaisers Tiberius gehort.

Das Geschichtswerk dieses interessanten Mannes iiber den Orientfeldzug des Pompeius ist wie die meisten Originalwerke der historischen Literatur verloren, aber wir wissen auf Grund eigener Angaben der Verfasser in ihren

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uns vorliegenden Werken, dass der Geograph Strabo, der Darsteller der Biirgerkriege Appian, Plutarch in seiner Biographie des Pompeius und last not least Diodor sein Werk beniitzt haben. In seinem grossartigen wissen­schaftlichen Werk Fragmente der griechischen Historiker hat F. Jacoby (Nr. 188) die Zeugnisse und die zu erschliessenden echten Fragmente zusammen­gestellt. Auf Grund dieser Vorarbeit ergibt sich folgender Befund iiber Anlage und Tendenz des Geschichtswerkes des Theophanes. Es handelt sich urn eine sehr detaillierte Darstellung der Ziige des Pompeius im Osten, deren Interesse auf geographische Einzelheiten, bis zur Mitteilung der Masse genau, sich richtet und damit der westlichen Welt, Griechen wie vor allem Romero, Kenntnisse von fremden Volkem und exotischer Fauna und Flora vermittelte, iiber die man damals entweder iiberhaupt nicht oder nur unvollkommen verfiigte. Aber dieses Geschichtswerk enthielt iiber diese Mitteilungen hinaus eine These: Es verbindet die Konstruktion, dass Pompeius durch seinen Einbruch in das Gebiet zwischen Schwarzem und Kaspischem Meer den Grenzen der oiKOUJ.LEVTt dart sich genahert babe, wiederum ein wenig kiinstlich mit der Tatsache, dass er in seinen friiheren Feldziigen in Afrika und Spanien ebenfalls mit dem Erreichen des Ozeans die Grenze der Erde erreicht babe und dass seine letzten grossen Eroberungen die Grenzen der otKOUJ.LEVTt mit den Grenzen des Imperium Romanum identifiziert babe. Es ist ganz deutlich, worauf diese Darstellung, vielleicht nur unausgesprochen, zielt: auf einen Vergleich des Pompeius mit Alexander. Aber damit kam sie Pompeius' geheimen und offenen Wiinschen entgegen, der anscheinend schon in friiher Jugend diesen Vergleich mindestens sehr geme gehort hat. Hofische Geschmacklosigkeit ging so weit, dass man urn der grosseren Uberzeugungskraft dieses Vergleiches willen sogar das Lebensalter des Pompeius verfiilschte und behauptete, er sei auf diesem Hohepunkt seines Lebens nicht alter gewesen als Alexander im Augenblicke seines Todes- in Wirklichkeit war er zehn Jahre iilter. Aber immerhin war man sich in dieser Zeit der Riickkehr des Pompeius aus dem Osten der auch von anderen, vor allem aber von Theophanes literarisch vertretenen Parallele bewusst. Sie hat sogar zu der eigentiimlichen Konsequenz gefiihrt, dass Cicero in einer noch vor der Riickkehr des Pompeius aus dem Osten gehaltenen Rede den Beinamen 'Magnus', den sich Pompeius im Anschluss an hellenistische Vorbilder beigelegt hat, in einem Vergleich zwischen den heiden auf Alexander anwandte. Da es sich urn den ersten Beleg der literarischen Dberlieferung handelt, liegt die Verrnutung mindestens nahe, dass iiber Pompeius Alexander zu diesem uns selbstverstandlichen Beinamen gekommen ist. Aber wie dem auch sei- vergleicht man nun das, was iiber den Inhalt des Geschichtswerkes des Theophanes auszumachen war, mit der Inschrift bei Diodor, so ist die Verwandtschaft deutlich: Eine genaue Kenntnis selbst der entleg~nsten Stamme, ein von der Vorstellung der oiKouJ.!Evrt und ihren ozeanischer Grenzen hestimmtes geographisches

(p.8) Weltbild und endlich die Identifizierung der Grenzen des Imperium mit

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denen der Erde als Leistung des Pompeius. So drangt sich die Vermutung beinahe von selbst auf, in Theophanes von Mytilene den Verfasser jener Inschrift zu sehen, die er in den Schluss seiner literarischen Darstellung iibemommen hat und die auf diesem Wege zur Kenntnis des Diodor gelangt ist.

It is, however, a debatable point whether Theophanes' history was the actual source from which Diodorus drew his information, as Schaefer posited and, similarly, R. Laqueur. 66 Obviously the potential authorship of Theophanes cannot be wholly excluded, since his history was the most important source for Pompey's campaigns in the East, but all the extant fragments refer only to the Mithridatic War and Theophanes does not" seem to have carried his account further than the year 63 B.C.67 A stronger case can possibly be made out for Posidonius: according to the consensus of modem scholarship Diodorus seems to have based his universal history on Posidonius' icnopim continuously from book 32, where his former source Polybius left off, to the end,68 and Strabo mentions a history which Posidonius wrote about Pompey.69 For the purposes of our investigation it is immatenal whether this history of Pompey was a monograph or whether it was a continuation of the main work of the histories.70 To quote H. Strasburger on this matter: 'I do not think it necessary to decide this formal question. It is sufficient to notice that Pompey was the Roman who not only had the most conspicuous personal relationship with Poseidonios, but was also historically appreciated by him in a particular manner' (op. cit. p.44).71 It could thus seem reasonable to assume, pace Schaefer, that the Diodorus-excerpt originated with Posidonius of Rhodes rather than with Theophanes of Mytilene, though both of them played a significant part in Pompey's life.

To sum up: although certainty is not to be had, as in most things mortal, it would seem that Diodorus 40.4 cannot be adduced as a testimony for Pompey's triumph in 61 B.C. and is in fact the authentic rendering of an inscription in Greek which Pompey dedicated to iJ 9~:6~, the Artemis of Ephesus, in the summer of 62 B.C. Its wording reflects the extent to which Pompey or his close adviser Theophanes of Mytilene sought to suggest real or assumed parallels between the exploits of Pompeius Magnus and those of Alexander Magnus.72

Since the later books of Diodorus, even those preserved only in the Byzantine excerpts, are one of our richest sources of original fragments from Posidonius' Histories, we may perhaps have retrieved another fragment of this work in the passage we have considered. 73

But what, we may finally ask, is the historical significance of the passage? The central theme of a previous conference of the Classical Association of South Africa was 'Imperialism in the Greek and Roman world', and it is in this wider context that the inscription transmitted by Diodorus belongs. Not only is it an important 'Selbstzeugnis' of Pompey the Great/4 but it is also one of our earliest explicit Roman testimonies to the gradual assimilation of the concepts of oecumene, that is, the whole world in contemporary terms, and imperium

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;, .. •.

Romanum, that is, the whole extent of Roman supremacy ,75- an indication, thus ,

that the 'orbis terrarum' was well on the way to being transformed into an 'orbis Roman us'. 76 As such a testimony Diodorus 40.4 is of more than peripheral interest, because it leads us straight to one of the most fascinating topics in the field of Roman history, namely that of 'laus imperiim in the late Roman republic.

In conclusion we may quote Schaefer's final remarks (Ms. p. 8):

So gewiss Pompeius diese zugespitzte Forrnulierung von der Einheit von Imperium und Erdkreis als seine geschichtliche Leistung und das bleibende Resultat seiner Orientfeldziige gem gehort und angenommen haben diirfte - er ist klug genug gewesen, in Rom selbst von dieser Forrnulierung keinen amtlichen Gebrauch zu machen. Sie ist denn auch vollig singular und begegnet meines Wissens nur noch einmal in der Dberschrift des Taten­berichtes des Kaisers Augustus, also bezeichnenderweise in der nicht von ihm stammenden Praambel ('Rerum gestarum divi Augusti, quibus orbem terrarum imperio populi Romani subiecerat'). Wir wissen (durch Plin. HN 7.98 f.), dass Pompeius seine Leistung im Seerauberkrieg als die 'restitutio' des 'imperium maris' fiir das romische Yolk bezeichnet hat, und fiir die Beendigung des Mithradatischen Krieges und die Neuordnung des Ostens fand er in der Volksversammlung die sehr pragnante Forrnulierung, es sei sein hochster Ruhm, dass er die Provinz Asien als die entfemtest gelegene romische Provinz iibemommen, als eine in der Mitte zwischen anderen liegende dem Vaterland wiedergegeben babe. Es ist deutlich, wie diese Ausserungen in ihrer konkreten Niichtemheit und in ihrer Einordnung in die unpersonliche Tradition romischer Staatspraxis sich unterscheidet von dem bombastischen Ton der griechischen Weihinschrift. In ihr tritt ein Unterschied zutage, der im Handeln des Pompeius wie in der Situation des romischen Imperiums in dieser Zeit tiefbegriindet war. Derselbe Pompeius, der mit dem Jahr 62 auf der Hohe seiner Macht und seines Ruhmes stand und im Osten souveran schaltete und waltete und als Souveran enthusiastisch gefeiert wurde, vor dessen Riickkehr nach Rom alle Welt zitterte, weil man einen emeuten Marsch auf Rom und ein monarchisches Regiment mindestens bis zur Anerkennung seiner im Osten getroffenen Massnahmen und der Versorgung seiner Soldaten fiirchtete, entliess sofort nach seiner Landung in Brundisium das Heer und kehrte als Privatmann nach Rom zuriick - jeden Zweifel dadurch an seinem Entschluss beseitigend, die traditionellen Forrnen romischer Staatsforrn als verbindlich zu anerkennen. Es scheint notwendig, diese Tatsache zu betonen, da eine seit Mommsen bis zur Gegenwart verbreitete Dberzeugung den mit Caesar entschiedenen Dbergang Roms zur Monarchie als notwendig hinzustellen sich gewohnt hat; als ein wesentliches Argument gilt dabei die Voraussetzung, dass die steigende Bedeutung der Provinzen und Reichsaufgaben einzelnen Person­lichkeiten eine Macht und Stellung verleihe, die diesen eine Einordnung in die iiberpersonlichen Forrnen der romischen Adelsrepublik unmoglich

70

.... .. .-

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. ,

mache. Das Verhalten des Pompeius im Jahre 62/61, das hier jedoch stellvertretend fiir manchen anderen Fall steht, spricht eher gegen den historischen Positivismus dieser These, dessen Schatten noch auf die in ihrer VollsHindigkeit und Zuverlassigkeit wie immer ausgezeichnete Biographie von Gelzer gefallen ist. So fiihrte die Besprechung dieser Inschrift an historische Fragen von weittragender grundsatzlicher Bedeutung heran. Aber zugleich hoffe ich, dass noch etwas Anderes deutlich geworden: Niimlich jene eigentiimlich fruchtbare und zugleich sehr eng begrenzte Wechselwirkung, die zwischen griechischem Geist und romischer Staats­praxis in dieser spaten Zeit der Republik besteht .

NOTES

A shorter version of this paper was read at the 16th biennial conference of the Classical Association of South Africa on January 24, 1985. I am indebted to Professors W. Schmitthenner, J. Malitz and J .E . Atkinson for helpful criticism as also to Professor D . Saddington for points of detail.

1. Eine Inschrift des Pompeius. Unpublished lecture delivered in the Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse, on 19 November 1949, cf SB Heid. AdW, Jh. 1943/ 55 (Heidelberg 1959), 67; H . Schaefer, Probleme der A/ten Geschichte, 1963, 10. The manuscript of 8 handwritten pages, of which pertinent passages are incorporated in full in the text above, was kindly put at my disposal by Mrs. Charlotte Schaefer.

2. See E. Schwartz, 'Diodoros', RE 5, 663, nr. 38. 3. For a discussion of the conflicting evidence on the terminal date of Diodorus' work see, e.g. ,

C .H. Oldfather, Diodorus of Sicily, vol. 1,1933, pp. xiv-xv.xvii-xix, as also of late M. Sartori , 'Note sulla datazione dei primi libri della Bibliotheca Historica di Diodoro Siculo' , Athenaeum 71 (1983) 545-552 ..

4. L. Dindorf, Diodori Bibliotheca Historica, vol. 5, 1868, and Francis R. Walton, Diodorus of Sicily, vol. 12, 1967, Loeb Classical Library.

5. For valuable observations on the Excerpta de Legationibus, the Excerpta de Virtutibus et Vitiis , the Excerpta de Insidiis and the Excerpta de Sententiis, which were edited by C. de Boor (1903), T. Biittner-Wobst (1906), C. de Boor (1905) and U .P. Boissevain (1906) , respectively, under the general title of Excerpta historica iussu Imp. Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta, see P.A. Brunt, 'On historical fragments and epitomes' , CQ 30 (1980) 483-485.

6. Cf also L. Dindorf, op. cit. p.xxx: 'Pompeii rerum in Asia gestarum tabula' . 7. See e.g. CIL 1', p.179; lit 13,1 p.566; Fr. Miltner, 'Cn. Pompeius Magnus' , RE21, 2124f. 8. See e.g. M. Gelzer, Pompeius, 19592

, 123 (= Nachdr. d. auf d. 2.iiberarb. Aufl . von 1959 basierenden Paperback- Ausg. von 1973, erg. urn d . Nachlass von Matthias Gelzer, durchges. u. mit e. Bibliografie ausgestattet von Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto, 1984, 108, cf.247); Fr. Miltner, RE 21 (1952) 2124f.; P . Greenhalgh, Pompey. The Reman Alexander, 1980, 176.

9. Op. cit. p.123 (= p.108). Gelzer's conjecture was taken up by R. Seager, Pompey: a political biography , 1979,77, without any further comments.

10. Plin. HN 8.20; Tert. De spect. 10, cf Plin. HN 36.41; Suet. Claud. 21; Nero 46. For a detailed . description of the whole theatre complex see J. Leach, Pompey the Great, 1978, 146f., who remains however, non-committal on the alternative Minerva or Venus Victrix as regards the attribution of Diod. 40.4. J.A. Hanson, Roman Theatre Temples, 1952, and D .K. Hill, 'The temple above Pompey's theatre' , CJ 39 (1943-1944) 360-365, were unfortunately not available to me.

11. W . Drumann-P. Groebe, Geschichte Roms in seinem Obergang von der republikanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung, vol. 42

, 1908/10, 494. 12. lit 13,1, p.566. 13. RE 21 , 2124: 'Mag in den Triumphalakten selbst (CIL P p.179) Kreta nicht aufgefiihrt worden

sein, wofiir auch der von P. in dem von ilun aus der Beute errichteten Minervatempel (Plin . n.h. Vll 97) hinterlegten Leistungsbericht (Diod. XL, 4) spricht, der nicht mit der bei Plin. a.O. erhaltenen Weihinschrift verwechselt werden darf, .. .'.

71

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14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20. 21.

22.

23.

24.

25. 26.

27.

ILS, vol. 1, 1-21; for the relevant 'comparatio numerorum' between Dessau, ILS and A . Degrassi. ILLRP see ILLRP, vol. 2, p. 530. Cf CIL l', p.168ff.; lit 13,1 p .535ff. ILS no. 's 20-23; see especially no. 20 ( = CIL 6, 331, cf ILLRP 122). ILS 59(= CIL 11, 1831, cf CIL 1', p.195; lit 13,3, p.65). See Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. p.494f. For details and also some unflattering remarks on the 'Rechenkunststiicke' (arithmetical juggling) involved in the computations see, among others, Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. p.494f., and Fr. Miltner , R£21, 2124f. R£21, 2124. Cf. also Schaefer (Ms. p. 1a): 'Die ganze Inschrift hat in der Weise hellenistischer Inschriften einen feierlichen Charakter; das iiussert sich nicht nur in der Steigerung des Inhalts, sondem auch in der Wortwahl, die z. T. nicht nur die iiblichen Termini des hellenistischen Griechisch veiWertet (z.B. um:pacrrril;;ro, rrpocr~t~ci/;;Etv). Wenn man das alles in EIWiigung sieht, vor allem auch die Tatsache dass- vielleicht gartz bewusst- die Unterscheidungen des romischen Staatsrechtes nicht angewandt worden sind, kann man sich schwer vorstellen, dass es sich urn die griechische Kopie eines romischen Originals handelt. ' For points of detail see e .g. £A.w9Ep6ro in OGIS 383, 128 (Antiochus I of Commagene) , urrEpacmil;;ro in OGIS 441,78 (Sulla), urr01:cicrcrro in OGIS 654,7 (Cornelius Gallus). See especially OGIS 383 and 404; for further references see, e.g. M. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, volume 2', 1961, 170f. According to Appian, Mithr. 117, Antioch us I of Comrnagene was named among the kings over whom Pompey triumphed. See App. Mithr 106 and also Caes. BCiv.3.4; App. BCiv.2.49. See e.g. M.L. Clarke, Rhetoric at Rome. A Historical Survey, 19684,80, or G . Kennedy, The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World, 1972,97-100. Although Dio claims to have gained through his contact with the Romans in Sicily 'considerable familiarity' (rro/.A.i] EJ.lrrEtpia: 1.4.4) with their language, it is a debatable point whether he would have taken the trouble to translate a Latin inscription into Greek. It also stands to reason that inscriptions erected in Rome- unlike Latin inscriptions erected in the East- would not have been accompanied by a Greek translation. For the use made by, e.g. Plutarch of Latin sources, for which he used translations or the advice of others, see C.P. Jones , Plutarch and Rome, 1971 , 86f., who remarks in this context upon the availability in Latin and in Greek of Augustus' Res Gestae and, possibly, of his Autobiography as also upon 'the multiplication of histories commemorating Pompey's exploits' (p. 86 and n. 32).

28. This is also the conclusion at which Schaefer arrived, although along different lines of argumen­tation (see pp. 58f. and 63, as also n. 21) .

29. See e.g. E. Schwartz, RE 5, 663, no. 38; N.G.L. Hammond, Three Historians of Alexander the Great, 1983, 50.

30. Thus P . Greenhalgh, op. cit. p.176. 31. OGIS 405 (between 69 B.C. and 38 B.C.): EUcrE~~ OtaKEiJ.lEVOV npo~ ti]v 9EOV. 32. Cf Syll.' 353: rrpEcr~Eia urr€p tfj~ c'ttEA.Eia~ tfjt 9Eon; ILS 97: ex reditu Dianae fanum et

Augusteum muro muniendum curavit - EK tffiv iEpffiv tfj~ 9wii rrpocroorov tov YEW Kai to LE~amflov nxlCJ9fjvatnpovori91lt; AE 1966, 425: ex rediti[bus] agrorum sacror[um] quos is Dianae [dedit] - EK tffiv iEpffiv rrpocroorov ii~ auto~ tfl 9E[~ itoroKEv]; App. BCiv. 5.4: 6 o€ 'AvtciJVlO~ f;v 'E<j>rjcr(!l YEVOJ.IEVO~ tfl 9Eifl JlEYUAO!tpErrffi~ E9UE.

33. Cf. P.N. Ure , CAH 4, p. 94f. 34. If one shares Schaefer's conviction that the sanctuary to which Pompey made his dedication can

only have been located in Asia Minor, that of the Athena at Lindos could also come to mind, since it is known that Pompey twice visited Rhodes , in 66 B.C. and 62 B.C., respectively (cf. Strabo 11.1.6, p. 492; Plin HN7 .112; Plut. Pomp . 42.4; Solin. 1.121) . However, since the sources report in some detail that he paid his respects to Posidonius on both these occasions and since they also do not omit to mention the present of one talent which he made to each of the sophists on his second visit, it is hardly likely that a splendid gift to the Lindian Athena would have been left unrecorded. In the same context Plutarch (Pomp. 42.5) also mentions that Pompey at Athens 'not only treated the philosophers with like munificence, but also gave fifty talents to the city towards its restoration. ' This explicit statement would seem to discount any likelihood of a grant of 307 talents and more having been made to Athena in Athens, though the idea that Pompey

. might have wished to parallel his generosity to Minerva in Rome with a similar gesture to Athena

72

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in Athens is admittedly an intriguing one. 35. Strabo 12.3.34, p.558; 17.1.1, p.796; App. Mithr. 114, cf. D . Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor,

vol. 1, 1950, 371 . That Pompey also enlarged the area of the sacred grove of Apollo Daphneios near Antioch on the Orontes (Eutrop. 6.14.2) may be mentioned in passing.

36. Thus also Schaefer (Ms. p. 4): 'Es gibt zwar in Kleinasien noch andere weibliche Kulte , aber von weit geringer Bedeutung; und nur von einem wissen wir, dass Pompei us mit ihm wiihrend seines Orientaufenthaltes in Beriihrung gekommen ist , dem Kulte derMa in Komana (an der Grenze zwischen Pontos und Kappadokien, im innersten Kleinasien gelegen); und hier hat er sehr riicksichtlos in den Anfangen seines Orientaufenthaltes im Sinn einer Sicherung der ri:imischen Herrschaft in diesen eigentiimlichen Tempelstaat eingegriffen, indem er einen ihm ergebenen Dynasten als Priester einsetzte und zugleich weitgehende Veranderungen in den Besitz­verhii.ltnissen dieses Tempels vornahm- gewiss keine sehr wahrscheinlich wirkende Voraussetzung fur die Beziehung der Inschrift auf diesen Kult , zumal dessen ungeheurer Reichtum den Pompeius zu Anleihen veranlasst hat' .

37. Cf. Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. p.478. 38. Thus App. Mithr. 116f. For further details see Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. p.486 with notes, and

Fr. Miltner, RE 21 , 2117f. 39. This probability was also suggested by Schaefer (see p.OO above) . 40. Plut. Pomp. 42.5. The sum seems to have been used for the rebuilding of the Deigma in the

Peiraios which was destroyed by Sulla (see Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. p.487, n.1). 41. See D. Magie, op. cit. p.142 and n.67 on p .1021. 42. Schaefer claimed (seep. 00, above) that Pompey actually borrowed money from the Artemision

in anticipation of the Civil War, and in doing so he referred to Cicero's correspondence. This statement cannot stand without some modification. According to his letters Cicero placed a large portion of the 2 200 000 sesterces, which remained in his hands after his Cilician governorship, at the disposal of Pompey in 49 B.C., and Pompey then ordered the money to be lodged in a temple (see Tyrrell-Purser, The Correspondence of M. Tullius Cicero, volume 4', 1918, xlvif. and Epp . 302.5.9; 406.2; 407.3; 411.3; 428.4) . Since Cicero had formerly deposited all his money with the publicans at Ephesus (see Tyrrell-Purser, op. cit. Epp . 302.9; 407.3 and note on p.266f.), it can plausibly be suggested that the place which Pompey selected for the temporary safe-keeping of his loan from Cicero was indeed the temple of Artemis, but further than this we cannot go . In passing it may, however, be mentioned that Q. Metellus Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, had already given orders in 48 B.C. to seize money from the Arternision, when he received a message from Pompey, bidding him hurry to Greece, since Caesar and his army had crossed the Adriatic ( Caes. BCiv .3.33), and after the battle of Pharsalus another of Pompey's adherents, T . Am pius Balbus, is said to have been thwarted in a similar attempt by Caesar's arrival in Ephesus ( Caes. BCiv.3.105) .

43. Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic', 1968, 81f.; quotation from p. 82. On Pompey's investments outside Italy see also I. Shatzman, Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics, 1975, 391f.

44. For the details, with evidence, see Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. p.478f. ; E . Badian, op. cit. p.82ff. 45. Ms. p . Sa, cf. p. 64f. For a different view see E. Badian, op. cit. ch. VI. 46. For Lucullus' reforms in Asia see D. Magie, op. cit. pp.252. 338; for the consequences they had

for his career see E . Badian, op. cit. p.63 . 47. For remarks on this, with references , see U. Vogel-Weidemann, 'Review E . Badian . Roman

Imperialism in the Late Republic', A Class 13 (1970) 163. 48. Cf. Strabo 11.1.6, p.492, as also J. Leach, op. cit. pp.23.72.78f . 49. For references see J . Malitz, Die Historien des Poseidonios, 1983, 96.406f. 426; for further

remarks on Pompey and Posidonius see H . Strasburger, 'Poseidonios on problems of Roman empire', JRS 55 (1965) SOf.

SO. On this see App. Mithr . 61-63 and also D . Magie, op. cit. p.237. 51. E. Badian, op. cit. p.79. 52. E . Badian, op. cit. p.84. 53. Plin. HN7.95. 54. See, e.g. , D. Michel , Alexander als Vorbildfiir Pompeius, Caesar und Marcus Antonius, 1967,

3Sff.; 0. Weippert, Alexander-Imitatio und romische Politik in republikanischer Zeit, 1972, 56ff., as also E . Badian, Alexandre le Grand, Fondation Hardt 22, 1976, 216: 'It is fair to say that attested imitatio Alexandri in Rome was born only when young Cn. Pompeius was told that he bore a resemblance to the great Macedonian and liked the idea'.

55. See on this E . Badian, 'Alexander the Great and the Greeks of Asia' in: Ancient Society and

73

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56.

57.

58.

59. 60.

61. 62.

63. 64.

65.

Institutions. Sn1dies presented to Victor Ehrenberg on his 75th birthday, 1966, 45f. On Alexander Magnus in Rome see 0. Weippert, op. cit. p.19f.; on Pompeius' cognomen Magni see 0. Weippert , op. cit. pp.63ff. Cf. also SIG' 751 from Mytilene, of date 62 B.C., which honours Pompey as Ka-raMcrav-ra 1oi<; KU1UCJXOV1U<; 1UV oiKl]J.U\VaV 7tOAeJ.IOI<; Kai KU1U yfJ.v Kai KU1U 8aA.acrcrav. For details, with evidence, literature and discussion, see 0 . Weippert, op. cit. pp.75.83f. 92 (with special reference to Diodorus 40.4 and Plin. HN 7.97).87ff. Cf. App. Mithr . 117. On the significance of this passage see 0. Weippert, op. cit p.89f. Thus W.S . Anderson, Pompey, his Friends and the Literature of the First Century B.C. , 1963,86 as also 0. Weippert , op. cit. p.79. Cf. Strabo 13.2.3, p .617. On Theophanes of Mytilene see Drumann-Groebe, op. cit. pp. 557-9; R . Laqueur, 'Theophanes. 1', RE SA, 2090, no. 1; W.S. Anderson, op. cit. p.29f. and, especially, pp.34-41. Cf. R. Laqueur, op. cit. 2094. Cic. pro Archia 24; cf. also Val. Max. 8.14.3; S.H.A . 21.7.3. For a different opinion which emphasizes Theophanes' role as political adviser see 0 . Weippert, op. cit. 78f., with reference to the views expressed previously by J. van Ooteghem, M. Gelzer, R. Laqueur and W .S. Anderson; cf. also more recently A.N. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East, 1984, 254. Thus Schaefer (p.OO, above) and also , by implication, 0 . Weippert, op. cit. p.81f. and n .1 on p.82. The rather anomalous position of Cn. Pompei us Thea panes (thus SIG 3 755 from Mytilene) between the Greeks and the Roman establishment may account for two peculiarities in the inscription, viz the reference to the revenues of the Roman people on the one hand, which seems to be somewhat inappropriate in the local Greek context, and the accurate Greek rendering of Pompey's name and title on the other. For Cn. Pompeius Cn. f. Magnus imperator see ILS 877; for extant inscriptions dating to between c. 67 B.C. and 63 B.C. in which Pompey is termed rvaio<; IlOJ.17trjtO<; rvaiou u!o<; M!lya<; auwKpanilp see SIG' 749 (Delos and Samos) and 752 (Mytilene); for auwKpanilp as the general Greek equivalent of the Latin 'imperator' see D. Magie, De Romanorum iuris publici sacrique vocabulis sollemnibus in Graecum sermonem conversis , 1904, 13.

66. Cf. Der jiidische Historiker Flavius Josephus, 1920, reprint 1970, 152, n.l. The few surviving fragments of Theophanes' work have been published by F. Jacoby, in FGrHist 2B, no. 188. As there is no other testimony on the extent of his work, it is best to keep in mind what Jacoby had to say in his commentary on FGrHist 188 (p.616): 'Diad. 40,4 als beweis dafiir anzufiihren, dass Pompeius' riickkehr den schluss des buches gebildet haben miisse (with reference toR. Laqueur, op. cit. p.151f. ), ist das muster eines zirkelschlusses, wie sie in der quellenkritik Ieider hiiufig sind' .

67. Thus F. Jacoby, FGrHist2B, Comm. on FGrHist 188, p.614. For a different view which Schaefer seems to have shared, seeR. Laqueur, RE SA, 2125f., but his arguments cannot be considered conclusive.

68. See H . Strasburger, op. cit. p. 42, with references; for a different view see J . Malitz, op. cit. p. 37: 'Diodors Quell en in den letzten drei Biichern sind wohl nicht mehr zu errnitteln'. Although we cannot be certain where Posidonius' history ended, we may perhaps do well to keep in mind that Diodorus was inclined to follow one source at a time. This was shown recently for books 18-20 by J. Hornblower, Hieronymus of Cardia, 1981, and the point has been reiterated by L. Pearson, 'Ephorus and Timaeus in Diodorus. Lacqueur's thesis rejected', Historia 33 (1984) 1-20.

69. Bk. 11. 1.6, p . 492. For rather disparaging remarks on this passage see J. Malitz, op. cit. p.71f. 70. See on this contentious question H . Strasburger, op. cit. p.44 and, more recently, G .P. Verbrugge,

'Narrative pattern in Posidonius' History; Historia 24 (1975) 203, n. 29 ; J . Malitz, op. cit. p.71ff. , as also A .N. Sherwin-White, op. cit. p.l17 , n. 77: 'the 'history of Pompeius' mentioned only in Strabo 11.1.6 (492) is clearly a special biography'.

71. For a detailed exposition of the relationship between Pompey and Posidonius see also J. Malitz, op. cit. pp.24-27.

72. Thus also 0 . Weippert, op. cit. p.92, with reference toILS 9459 (Miletopolis); R . Syme, The Roman Revolution, 1939, 30 and M. Gelzer, Pompeius' p.llO.

73. Ideally 'the reliability of ancient citations and summaries should in any case be tested by reference to the author's practice in handling texts that still survive' (P.A. Brunt, op. cit. p. 478). From the material presented by J. Malitz, op. cit. pp. 75-408 and 429-437 it would appear that the 'reliquiae' ofPosidonius' history offer only one other instance of 'archival' source material, viz the oath of the Italians toM. LiviusDrusus (Diod. 37.11, cf. J. Malitz, op. cit. p. 389f.), though this is

74

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of uncertain authenticity and even historicity. For more recent discussions see L.R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar, 1949, 46, who considers the oath to be genuine, and P. Herrmann, Der romisclze Kaisereid. Untersuchungen zu seiner Herkunft und Entwicklung, 1968, 55-58, whose scepticism is indicated in his superscription 'Der angebliche Eid der ltaliker fiir M. Livius Drusus'.

74. Cf. H . Schaefer, Probleme der A/ten Geschichte, p. 167, n. 1, and J. Malitz, 'Caesars Partherkrieg' , Historia 33 (1984) 53, n. 174.

75. See, e .g. , the testimonia adduced by P. van Ooteghem, Pompee /e Grand. Batisseur d' Empire, 1954, 285, with special reference to M.E. Deutsch , 'Pompey's three triumphs', CPh 19 (1924) 277-279, and 0 . Weippert, op. cit .. p. 90f.

76. On this see, among others, J. Vogt, 'Orbis Romanus' in: Vom Reichsgedanken der Romer, 1942, 170 ff. = Orbis , 1960, 151 ff.; M. Gelzer, 'Gemeindestaat und Reichsstaat in der romischen Geschichte' in: Vom Romischen Staat 1, 1943, 6 ff. = Kleine Schriften 1, 1962, 232 ff.; H. Schaefer, 'Das Problem der Entstehung des romischen Reiches' in: Probleme der A/ten Geschichte, pp. 167-177.

77. For 'imperii laus' see Cic. Pro Sestio 98; for 'laus imperii' see the title ofP. Brunt's contribution to Imperialism in the Ancient World, edited by P.D.A. Garnsey and C.R. Whittaker, 1978, 159 ff. In this thought-provoking study Brunt also cites Diod. 40.4 as evidence for Pompey's boastful claim to having achieved world empire (p. 162, cf. alsop. 171 and pp. 178 f.).

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