The crisis of nation building in the case of lebanon11

Introduction to Introduction to Political SciencePolitical Science

LIULIUInstructor: Abir Instructor: Abir

ChaabanChaabanThe Crisis of Nation Building The Crisis of Nation Building

in the Case of Lebanonin the Case of Lebanon

The Crisis of Nation-The Crisis of Nation-BuildingBuilding

Identity: All citizens have a common identity Identity: All citizens have a common identity that reflects loyalty to the statethat reflects loyalty to the state

Legitimacy: All citizens recognize their Legitimacy: All citizens recognize their government as legitimate and consequently government as legitimate and consequently obey the law.obey the law.

Participation: All citizens participate in Participation: All citizens participate in politics. They have equal rights to vote and to politics. They have equal rights to vote and to be a candidate.be a candidate.

Penetration: Government laws reach all Penetration: Government laws reach all geographical areas.geographical areas.

Distribution: Distribution of wealth.Distribution: Distribution of wealth.

The National PactThe National Pact The institutionalization of Lebanon as a sovereign The institutionalization of Lebanon as a sovereign

and territorial state was concluded based on an and territorial state was concluded based on an unwritten agreement known as the National Pact unwritten agreement known as the National Pact الوطني ) ) الوطني الميثاق .( .( الميثاق

The National Pact is a verbal agreement. The The National Pact is a verbal agreement. The negotiations over the agreement was done by negotiations over the agreement was done by Egyptian and British actors with the support of Egyptian and British actors with the support of General Edward Spears.General Edward Spears.

Bechara al-Khuri and several prominent members of Bechara al-Khuri and several prominent members of the Sulh Family advocated the National Pact as a the Sulh Family advocated the National Pact as a method of governing the Christian and Muslim method of governing the Christian and Muslim Communities of Lebanon. The Agreement defines the Communities of Lebanon. The Agreement defines the executive positions of Christian to a Maronite and executive positions of Christian to a Maronite and the Prime Minister to a Sunni.the Prime Minister to a Sunni.

The Lebanese Confessional The Lebanese Confessional SystemSystem

The confessional system of Lebanon The confessional system of Lebanon is set in article 95 of the Constitution is set in article 95 of the Constitution of Lebanon.of Lebanon.

Article 95 defines the sectarian Article 95 defines the sectarian mechanism according to which mechanism according to which public office is allocated to public office is allocated to parliament members by confession. parliament members by confession.

U.S. Policy after WW II and the Cold U.S. Policy after WW II and the Cold War:War: [1][1]

Before World War II, the U.S. had not moved Before World War II, the U.S. had not moved fully onto the world stage. Americans developed fully onto the world stage. Americans developed commercial ties with the Middle East. commercial ties with the Middle East.

With regard to Lebanon, American interest was With regard to Lebanon, American interest was limited to the activity of American Protestant limited to the activity of American Protestant missionaries who had come to Lebanon in the missionaries who had come to Lebanon in the mid-nineteenth century and built several mid-nineteenth century and built several educational institutions, most notably the educational institutions, most notably the American University of Beirut (established American University of Beirut (established originally as the Syrian Protestant College). originally as the Syrian Protestant College).

[1][1] Salem Paul, Super Powers and Small States: An Overview of American Salem Paul, Super Powers and Small States: An Overview of American Lebanese Relations Lebanese Relations

http://www.lcps-lebanon.org/pub/breview/br5/psalembr5pt1.htmlhttp://www.lcps-lebanon.org/pub/breview/br5/psalembr5pt1.html

US Foreign Policy After the US Foreign Policy After the Cold War Cold War

America's entry into world politics in World War II, America's entry into world politics in World War II, accompanied by the collapse of British and French accompanied by the collapse of British and French power, the establishment of Israel, and the power, the establishment of Israel, and the emergence of the Cold War, propelled the U.S. into emergence of the Cold War, propelled the U.S. into the arena of Middle Eastern politics. the arena of Middle Eastern politics.

The U.S.'s first objective in this phase was to The U.S.'s first objective in this phase was to consolidate the still generally pro-Western regimes of consolidate the still generally pro-Western regimes of the Middle East into a regional alliance system the Middle East into a regional alliance system against Soviet expansion south into the against Soviet expansion south into the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf, or the Indian Ocean. Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf, or the Indian Ocean.

This objective crystallized into attempts to establish a This objective crystallized into attempts to establish a Middle East Command in 1951,and then the Baghdad Middle East Command in 1951,and then the Baghdad Pact in 1955,which was centered around a southern Pact in 1955,which was centered around a southern tier alliance with Turkey, Iraq ,and Iran.tier alliance with Turkey, Iraq ,and Iran.

US Policy US Policy

Opposition to the U.S. policy in the region, Opposition to the U.S. policy in the region, developed under the leadership of Egyptian developed under the leadership of Egyptian President Gamal Abd al-Nasser. Between President Gamal Abd al-Nasser. Between 1954 and 1958 Nasser led a wave of 1954 and 1958 Nasser led a wave of opposition to the United States which saw opposition to the United States which saw the downfall of pro-Western regimes in the downfall of pro-Western regimes in Syria and Iraq and the destabilization of Syria and Iraq and the destabilization of other pro-Western regimes in Jordan and other pro-Western regimes in Jordan and Lebanon. Meanwhile, the Soviets acquired Lebanon. Meanwhile, the Soviets acquired new clients in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. new clients in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.

US PolicyUS Policy

In Lebanon, this was reflected in increased In Lebanon, this was reflected in increased polarization. President Camille Chamoun polarization. President Camille Chamoun (1952-1958) chose close alignment with the (1952-1958) chose close alignment with the U.S and was the only Arab head of state to U.S and was the only Arab head of state to come out in open support of the Eisenhower come out in open support of the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957. His administration was Doctrine in 1957. His administration was rewarded with American financial and other rewarded with American financial and other support, often channeled through the CIA, support, often channeled through the CIA, which was especially effective in helping which was especially effective in helping Chamoun's supporters sweep the 1957 Chamoun's supporters sweep the 1957 parliamentary elections.parliamentary elections.

US Foreign PolicyUS Foreign Policy

Lebanon quickly lost its political Lebanon quickly lost its political integrity as a nation-state. integrity as a nation-state.

South Lebanon became a South Lebanon became a battleground in the War of Attrition battleground in the War of Attrition that developed in 1968-69, and the that developed in 1968-69, and the growth of Palestinian armed power growth of Palestinian armed power in Lebanon, with Arab backing, led in Lebanon, with Arab backing, led to a gradual collapse of state to a gradual collapse of state sovereignty. sovereignty.

U.S. PolicyU.S. Policy

This situation was recognized quasi-formally This situation was recognized quasi-formally in the Cairo Agreement of 1969 in which the in the Cairo Agreement of 1969 in which the Palestinians were allowed special military Palestinians were allowed special military and political privileges. and political privileges.

The U.S. was alarmed at the rapid advances The U.S. was alarmed at the rapid advances made by the Palestinians and the radicals and made by the Palestinians and the radicals and soon lent its political support to a tougher soon lent its political support to a tougher Lebanese stance in which the Lebanese Lebanese stance in which the Lebanese would deal with the Palestinians as King would deal with the Palestinians as King Husayn had dealt with them in Jordan. This Husayn had dealt with them in Jordan. This was referred to as the 'Ammanization' option. was referred to as the 'Ammanization' option.

Civil Strife 1958 The Lebanese situation:Civil Strife 1958 The Lebanese situation:[1][1]

Lebanon’s economic prosperity was not evenly spread Lebanon’s economic prosperity was not evenly spread between Muslims and Christians, which led to visible between Muslims and Christians, which led to visible Muslim grievances against the Political order, which denied Muslim grievances against the Political order, which denied them equal access to benefits and privileges.them equal access to benefits and privileges.

The upsurge of Pan-Arab nationalism inspired by Nasser The upsurge of Pan-Arab nationalism inspired by Nasser gained considerable support for the mobilization of the gained considerable support for the mobilization of the underprivileged masses, undermined the authority of underprivileged masses, undermined the authority of traditional Muslim Leaders and caused the anxiety of traditional Muslim Leaders and caused the anxiety of Maronite Political leaders.Maronite Political leaders.

[1][1] Khalaf, Samir, 2002, Khalaf, Samir, 2002, Civil and uncivil violence in Lebanon: a history of Civil and uncivil violence in Lebanon: a history of the internationalization of human contactthe internationalization of human contact, Columbia University Press: 103-, Columbia University Press: 103-149149

1985 Civil Conflict1985 Civil Conflict Chamoun’s pro-Western Policies were suspicious to Chamoun’s pro-Western Policies were suspicious to

the majority of Muslims. The Suez crises in 1957 the majority of Muslims. The Suez crises in 1957 exposed the government. Chamoun refused to exposed the government. Chamoun refused to sever the relationship with Britain and France, or sever the relationship with Britain and France, or condemn the Israeli, French, British attack on condemn the Israeli, French, British attack on Egypt causing the resignation of the Prime Egypt causing the resignation of the Prime Minister Abdullah Yafi and the Minister of State Minister Abdullah Yafi and the Minister of State Saeb Salam.Saeb Salam.

He supported the Baghdad Pact and anti Nassirist He supported the Baghdad Pact and anti Nassirist governments like Iraq, Saudi Arabia Iran, Turkey governments like Iraq, Saudi Arabia Iran, Turkey and Jordan. and Jordan.

He supported the Eisenhower Doctrine, in an effort He supported the Eisenhower Doctrine, in an effort to curtail the radical leftist’s ideologies, which to curtail the radical leftist’s ideologies, which caused major resignations in government. caused major resignations in government.

1958 Civil Conflict1958 Civil Conflict

Electoral reforms of 1957 alienated a sizable Electoral reforms of 1957 alienated a sizable cross sections section of the country’s political cross sections section of the country’s political leaders and their constituents causing the leaders and their constituents causing the development of a large opposition in regions development of a large opposition in regions like Tripoli, Beqa’a Southern Lebanon, Chouf, like Tripoli, Beqa’a Southern Lebanon, Chouf, and Zgharta. Even though the opposition did and Zgharta. Even though the opposition did not have intentions to resort to political not have intentions to resort to political violence, the sequence of events during the rest violence, the sequence of events during the rest of the year led to the escalation of the situation of the year led to the escalation of the situation into a full fledged civil war that caused the US into a full fledged civil war that caused the US to send its Marines to Lebanon.to send its Marines to Lebanon.

1958 Civil Conflict1958 Civil Conflict The opposition called for the resignation of the The opposition called for the resignation of the

government, and in a demonstration by its government, and in a demonstration by its supporters, the government used fire arms and supporters, the government used fire arms and tear gas causing civilian deaths and engeries. tear gas causing civilian deaths and engeries.

Saeb salam who was injured and taken to Saeb salam who was injured and taken to hospital went on a hunger strike until the hospital went on a hunger strike until the government resigned. government resigned.

The results of the elections which were held The results of the elections which were held after were stunning with the opposition after were stunning with the opposition gaining barely 8 seats of the 66 seats in the gaining barely 8 seats of the 66 seats in the Chamber, causing public outcry about fraud Chamber, causing public outcry about fraud and briberies on behalf of the government. and briberies on behalf of the government.

1958 Civil Conflict1958 Civil Conflict

The situation started to deteriorate with The situation started to deteriorate with infiltrations and subversive activities infiltrations and subversive activities attributed to political dissident groups, attributed to political dissident groups, particularly Palestinians, Syrians, particularly Palestinians, Syrians, Egyptians and other political refugees. Egyptians and other political refugees. Syrian and Egyptian regimes were hostile Syrian and Egyptian regimes were hostile to Chamoun’s government and provided to Chamoun’s government and provided arms and funds to the opposition, as well as arms and funds to the opposition, as well as pushed into the country “Arab” pushed into the country “Arab” missionaries to support the insurgency missionaries to support the insurgency later on. later on.

1958 Civil Conflict1958 Civil Conflict By early 1958 Lebanon was entrapped in a By early 1958 Lebanon was entrapped in a

spiral of escalating violence. Two events spiral of escalating violence. Two events provided direct impetus for the outbreak of provided direct impetus for the outbreak of violence:violence:

The Creation of the United Arab Republic, The Creation of the United Arab Republic, (UAR) by the Union of Syria, and Egypt in 1958. (UAR) by the Union of Syria, and Egypt in 1958. Students affiliated with Al-Maqassed Sunni Students affiliated with Al-Maqassed Sunni Benevolent Society, took the streets asking the Benevolent Society, took the streets asking the government to support the Union.government to support the Union.

What triggered the insurgency was the What triggered the insurgency was the Assassination of Nassib al-Matni on May 8, Assassination of Nassib al-Matni on May 8, 1958, an independent Maronite Journalist who 1958, an independent Maronite Journalist who was critical to the government. was critical to the government.

The 1975 Civil Conflict and the The 1975 Civil Conflict and the collapse of the Lebanese collapse of the Lebanese

government.government.

The beginning of 1975-75 war was a The beginning of 1975-75 war was a result of a fight between the result of a fight between the Palestinians and the Phalanges Party Palestinians and the Phalanges Party related to the PLO freedom fighters related to the PLO freedom fighters operations from Lebanon.operations from Lebanon.

The civil war was precipitated by the The civil war was precipitated by the Lebanese National Movement ( the left ) Lebanese National Movement ( the left ) support of the Palestinians, which support of the Palestinians, which brought about the collapse of the brought about the collapse of the Government.Government.

The 1975 Civil Conflict and the The 1975 Civil Conflict and the collapse of the Lebanese collapse of the Lebanese

government.government. The Lebanese were divided between the Christian The Lebanese were divided between the Christian

Maronite the Lebanese Front, and the Lebanese Maronite the Lebanese Front, and the Lebanese National Front (Muslim, Greek Orthodox, Greek National Front (Muslim, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, and Druze).Catholics, and Druze).

The Lebanese National Front was composed of The Lebanese National Front was composed of Progressive Socialist Party, Lebanese Communist Progressive Socialist Party, Lebanese Communist Party, Arab Nationalist Party, Syrian Nationalist Party, Arab Nationalist Party, Syrian Nationalist Party, and Organization of the Ba’ath Party. Beirut Party, and Organization of the Ba’ath Party. Beirut was divided into East and West.was divided into East and West.

The Lebanese Front was presided by Camille The Lebanese Front was presided by Camille Chamoun, Al Ahrar Party and its main participants Chamoun, Al Ahrar Party and its main participants were Pierre Gemayel-the Kataeb Party and President were Pierre Gemayel-the Kataeb Party and President Suleiman Franjieh, Charles Malik and Fouad Frem al-Suleiman Franjieh, Charles Malik and Fouad Frem al-Boustani, the president of the Lebanese University.Boustani, the president of the Lebanese University.

The 1975 Civil Conflict and the The 1975 Civil Conflict and the collapse of the Lebanese collapse of the Lebanese

government.government.

The division of the two fronts with The division of the two fronts with the President alliance with the the President alliance with the Lebanese Front brought the collapse Lebanese Front brought the collapse of the Lebanese government, and a of the Lebanese government, and a split in political power.split in political power.

The 1975 Civil Conflict and the The 1975 Civil Conflict and the collapse of the Lebanese collapse of the Lebanese

government.government.

In 1976 some of the Maronite groups sought In 1976 some of the Maronite groups sought the help of the Syrians against the ascendant the help of the Syrians against the ascendant Palestinian-Lebanese National Front coalition. Palestinian-Lebanese National Front coalition.

The Syrian support of the Christians was not The Syrian support of the Christians was not altruistic and was due to several factors:altruistic and was due to several factors: The emergence of a strong Palestinian presence in The emergence of a strong Palestinian presence in

Lebanon decreased Syrian influence on the Lebanese Lebanon decreased Syrian influence on the Lebanese political scene.political scene.

Syria feared a potential Israeli intervention to protect Syria feared a potential Israeli intervention to protect Israel’s northern borders.Israel’s northern borders.

Syria preferred a balance of power among Lebanese Syria preferred a balance of power among Lebanese contending groups so that it could control them all.contending groups so that it could control them all.

The 1975 Civil Conflict and the The 1975 Civil Conflict and the collapse of the Lebanese collapse of the Lebanese

government.government.

Syria under the Arab Deterrent Syria under the Arab Deterrent Force was able to prevent a victory Force was able to prevent a victory by the Palestinians and the Lebanese by the Palestinians and the Lebanese National Front.National Front.

The U.S consent to the Syrian The U.S consent to the Syrian intervention in Lebanon provided intervention in Lebanon provided Syria an opportunity to advance a Syria an opportunity to advance a long standing ambition of extending long standing ambition of extending its influence to Lebanon.its influence to Lebanon.

Paper Topic IPaper Topic I

Evaluate the U.S. Foreign Policy in Lebanon Evaluate the U.S. Foreign Policy in Lebanon since WWII, then write a paper in which you since WWII, then write a paper in which you evaluate the National Pact and the alliances of evaluate the National Pact and the alliances of the Prime Minister and the President prior to the Prime Minister and the President prior to the 1958 civil conflict. the 1958 civil conflict.

Discuss how would the alliances of the Discuss how would the alliances of the executive officials lead to the polarization of executive officials lead to the polarization of public opinion and possibly conflict. Take into public opinion and possibly conflict. Take into account the relevant crisis (s) ( identity, account the relevant crisis (s) ( identity, participation, penetration, legitimacy, participation, penetration, legitimacy, distribution) as it relates to the crisis of nation distribution) as it relates to the crisis of nation building.building.

Paper Topic IIPaper Topic II

The National Pact divided the executive The National Pact divided the executive power in Lebanon to Maronite President and power in Lebanon to Maronite President and a Sunni Prime Minister. Disagreement a Sunni Prime Minister. Disagreement between the two positions brought the between the two positions brought the country to a condition of polarization of country to a condition of polarization of public opinion, which consequently turned to public opinion, which consequently turned to conflict in 1958 and in 1975. conflict in 1958 and in 1975.

Discuss by evaluating the breakdown of the Discuss by evaluating the breakdown of the state over confessional lines in 1975 and the state over confessional lines in 1975 and the crisis of identity leading to the collapse of the crisis of identity leading to the collapse of the state.state.