The Changing Faces of Europe's Coastal Areas

7/28/2019 The Changing Faces of Europe's Coastal Areas

1/80

EEA Report No 6/2006

The changing faces of Europe's coastal areas


2/80

Cover design: EEACover photo: Marcelo Terraza/Stock.xchngLeft photo: Frdric Cirou/PhotoAltoRight photo: Geoff Hartman/Stock.xchngLayout: Scanprint a/s, EEA

Legal noticeThe contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the EuropeanCommission or other institutions of the European Communities. Neither the European EnvironmentAgency nor any person or company acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use thatmay be made of the information contained in this report.

All rights reservedNo part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical,including photocopying, recording or by any information storage retrieval system, without the

permission in writing from the copyright holder. For translation or reproduction rights please contactEEA (address information below).

Information about the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through theEuropa server (www.europa.eu).

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006

ISBN 92-9167-842-2ISSN 1725-9177

EEA, Copenhagen, 2006

European Environment AgencyKongens Nytorv 61050 Copenhagen K

DenmarkTel.: +45 33 36 71 00Fax: +45 33 36 71 99Web: www.eea.europa.euEnquiries: www.eea.europa.eu/enquiries


3/803

Contents


Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 6

Executive summary .................................................................................................... 7

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................101.1 Purpose and key definitions ...............................................................................101.2 Scope ............................................................................................................141.3 Structure .......................................................................................................14

2 Trends in state of coasts: facts and figures ......................................................... 152.1 Main changes in land cover and population .........................................................152.2 Coastal zones of regional seas' catchments .........................................................172.3 Artificial surfaces ............................................................................................242.4 Agricultural and forest areas..............................................................................302.5 Natural areas ..................................................................................................312.6 Coastal waters.................................................................................................352.7 Coastal dynamics and risk ................................................................................402.8 Maritime economy and coastal uses ...................................................................44

3 Living by the sea ................................................................................................. 48

3.1 Sustainability challenges ...................................................................................483.2 Resulting environmental quality ........................................................................67

4 Current trends in policy responses ...................................................................... 754.1 Development of policy .....................................................................................754.2 The main elements of current European policy framework for coasts .......................764.3 Climate change, coastal risks and ICZM ..............................................................82

5 Building the conceptual framework ..................................................................... 865.1 Towards an integrated assessment framework ....................................................865.2 Spatial analysis of anthropogenic pressures ........................................................865.3 Lessons learnt: data gaps and needs ..................................................................885.4 Communicating main environmental problems .....................................................89

List of acronyms .......................................................................................................92

References ............................................................................................................... 94Further reading ......................................................................................................96Further electronic sources ........................................................................................97

Annex: Data and methodological approaches ........................................................... 99A Data and methodology of the report ...................................................................99B Methodological issues of coastal integrated assessments .....................................105


4/80The changing faces of Europe's coastal areas4

Contents

List of figures, maps and tables

Figures

Figure 1 Land cover change within the 10 km coastal zone of 17 of Europeancountries (19902000) ........................................................................... 15

Figure 2 Built-up area in the 01 km coastal strip versus the entire 10 kmcoastal zone (19902000) ....................................................................... 16

Figure 3 Land cover changes in 010 km coastal zone of European regional seas(19902000) ......................................................................................... 21

Figure 4 Change of built-up areas in the 010 km and 01 km coastal zones ................... 21Figure 5 Land take by urban development in 010 km coastal zone (19902000) .........23Figure 6 Increase of area occupied by diffuse residential sprawl in the 10 km

coastal zone (19902000) ....................................................................... 27Figure 7 Change of total agricultural land in the 10 km coastal zone (19902000) ........29Figure 8 Net changes in pastures and mixed farmland in the 10 km coastal zone

(19902000) ......................................................................................... 30Figure 9 Natura2000 areas in coastal zones and inland (2005) ...................................32Figure 10 National coastal zones covered by Natura2000 sites (2005) ..........................32Figure 11 Distribution of Natura2000 sites in 1 km bands from the coastline and

10 km band seawards ............................................................................. 33Figure 12 Average (19922003) of bathing water sampling points compliancein percentage of the total number............................................................. 37

Figure 13 Blue Flags in marinas and beaches (2004) ..................................................37Figure 14 Rate of detection of exotic species in the Mediterranean Sea .........................39Figure 15 Eco-labelled tourist accommodation in coastal and non-coastal NUTS3

regions (2005) ....................................................................................... 56Figure 16 Approach for policy analysis of coastal areas ...............................................76Figure 17 ICZM: the sea/land interface in a sustainable development perspective ..........80Figure 18 Integration model of river basins, marine regions and coastal zones ...............81

Maps

Map 1 Population density in the European coastal zone (010 km) in 2001 ...............17Map 2 Population trends between 1991 and 2001 in the European coastal regions .....18Map 3 Pan-European marine ecosystems .............................................................19Map 4 Share of built-up area in the 01 km coastal strip, by NUTS3 (2000) ..............24Map 5 Population in coastal settlements (2001) ....................................................25Map 6 Wetland concentration in Europe (2000) ....................................................31Map 7 Coastal zone protected by Natura2000 sites (2005) .....................................33Map 8 Coastal zone with Natura2000 land/sea connections, by NUTS3 regions ..........34Map 9 Frequency of occurrence of turbid waters (from 0 to 100 %) along the coast

between Marseille and the Spanish border (2003) ....................................... 36

Map 10 Oil spills in European regional seas (20002004) .........................................38Map 11 Catchments with regulated rivers in France (1900 and 1995) ........................40Map 12 Percentage of artificial coastline length by NUTS3 regions (2004) ..................41


5/805

Contents


Map 13 Coastal erosion patterns in Europe (2004) ......................................................43Map 14 Salt water intrusions into groundwater in Europe (1999) ..................................44Map 15 Container traffic in European ports (2003) ......................................................45Map 16 Night glow as indication of human settlement distribution and

related energy use ......................................................................................62Map 17 Mode of introduction of marine alien species ...................................................69Map 18 Earthquakes in Europe and adjoining areas (19642001) ..................................72

Map 19 Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina National Park anthropic pressures........87

Tables

Table 1 European regional seas main figures ..........................................................20Table 2 Number of settlements with > 50 000 inhabitants per 100 km of coastline ..........25Table 3 Offshore wind energy capacity in selected EU countries (2004) ..........................47Table 4 Artificial and agricultural pressures 19902000 inside and surrounding the

Natura2000 site in Portugal ..........................................................................88Table 5 Overall progress on EU ICZM Recommendation implementation (2005) ..............90



Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

The main content of this report is based on the workof EEA Topic Centre on Terrestrial Environment(ETC-TE), with contributions from ETC BiologicalDiversity (ETC-BD) and ETC Water (ETC-W). Thecontributors in the project team from the EuropeanTopic Centre on Terrestrial Environment were:

Franoise Breton (task manager) Carlota Montori,Aleix Canals (project officers) and special supportfrom Alejandro Iglesias-Campos (project officerfrom the Ministry of the Environment of the Juntade Andaluca).

The ETC-TE report team was assisted byOscar Gomez, Roger Milego and Ferran Pramo(GIS team ETC-TE), Stefan Kleeshulte andJaume Fons (ETC-TE), Dominique Richard andSophie Cond (ETC-BD), Steve Nixon (ETC-W),Sebastien Colas (IFEN) and Gonzalo Malvrez(UPO).

Additional input came from Jean Louis Weber,Andre Jol (EEA), Xavier Marti (Department ofEnvironment and Housing of Catalonia, Spain),Franois Desrentes (Conference of PeripheralMaritime Regions), Hartmut Barth (DG RTD)

and Alan Pickaver (European Union for CoastalConservation).

Many experts have been consulted throughoutthe report. The consultation process included aworkshop for developing the outline of the report

(March 2005, Barcelona); Eionet consultation onthe final draft of the report (September 2005); andinput from the members of the Working Groupon Indicators and Data, under the auspices ofEU Expert Group on Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement. The EEA wishes to acknowledgetheir valuable input, especially in connection withnational, regional and local case studies.

Finally, special thanks should go to Birgit Snoeren,European Commission (DG Environment) forher support and advice on implementation anddevelopment of coastal policies, and the related

information needs.

This report was conceived, coordinated and partlywritten by EEA project manager Andrus Meinerunder the guidance and support of Ronan Uhel(EEA).


7/807

Executive summary


Executive summary

This report provides information on the state of theenvironment in the coastal areas of Europe, andprovides evidence of the need for a more integrated,long-term approach. Since 1995, concern about thestate of Europe's coastline has led to a number of EUinitiatives, which build on the concept of integrated

coastal zone management (ICZM). ICZM attemptsto balance the needs of development with protectionof the very resources that sustain coastal economies.It also takes into account the public's concern aboutthe deteriorating environmental, socio-economic andcultural state of the European coastline.

The specific objective of this work is to contributeto the review of the Recommendation of theEuropean Parliament and the Council concerningthe implementation of Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement in Europe (2002/413/EC), planned bythe European Commission for 2006. This review

requires information on existing trends and on theeffects of policies and financial instruments directedtowards coastal management.

The EEA intends to contribute to the review bypromoting spatial analysis and enhancing theintegration of relevant environmental data withrelated socio-economic data to the extent currentavailable information allows. At the same time, thereport aligns itself to the wider context of ecosystemsand human well-being set up by the MillenniumEcosystem Assessment (2005). By linking ecosystems

and human well-being, this approach focuses inparticular on 'ecosystem services', i.e. the benefitspeople obtain from ecosystems.

Climate change and its impact on coastal zones is yetanother important analytical framework that is takeninto account while analysing the state of coasts. Theincreasing vulnerability of the coastal populationand ecosystems becomes a challenge for the ICZMapproach, which should achieve a reduction inthese vulnerabilities through the coherent spatialorganisation of coastal zones and by increasing theresilience of coastal systems.

By analysing the responses of society tounsustainable development trends, the report

reviews existing relevant policies and trackshow they may affect the coastal zones. However,analysing the effects of all these policies is acomplex task for which there are not alwayssufficient data. Nevertheless, the report is intendedto give a comprehensive picture of European

policies concerning the coast, either directly orindirectly. The focus is weighted towards the EUICZM Recommendation and follows the workundertaken by the EU Expert Group on ICZM,which selected two sets of indicators: a set of27 indicators for measuring sustainability onthe coast, and an additional set to measure theimplementation of integrated coastal managementin European countries. A number of case studiescompleted within this EU ICZM framework havealso been included. The indicators also serve asexamples for a more widespread adoption ofintegrated territorial management principles across

Europe.

Testing indicators at Member State and regionallevel is especially important as the approach(laid out by the EU ICZM Recommendation)underlines the flexible and problem-orientednature of adopted responses. Here, the EU followsthe subsidiarity and proportionality principle byproviding leadership and guidance to supportimplementation at other levels. It is also importantto note that a European approach on ICZM buildson existing instruments and programmes which

may not necessarily have been designed withcoastal zones in mind.

The report serves the purpose of developing theEEA's approach on integrated spatial assessmentwith a view to understanding changes in coastalsystems and monitoring progress towardssustainable development. It focuses mainly on theenvironmental dimension, which is used as anentry point to analyse the relationship betweensociety and the natural environment in coastalzones.

The coastal zone in this report is interpreted asthe resulting environment from the coexistence oftwo margins, namely: the terrestrial edge of the


8/80

Executive summary

8 The changing faces of Europe's coastal areas

continent and coastal water as the littoral section ofshelf seas. Together they constitute a whole whichneeds a specific methodological approach, anddedicated planning and management methods.

The report follows this conceptual framework asmuch as possible, even though data availability hasoften been a limiting factor. Constraints also existbecause models linking terrestrial drivers and waterquality are still not fully developed or efficientenough to assess the changing conditions of thesea and coastal waters, and the pressure of humanactivities.

Despite these limitations, this report shouldconstitute the first integrated spatial assessment

of Europe's coasts. Added value is provided bythe variety of data and information that have beencollated and analysed (from environment, sectors,policies etc.), and the construction of a conceptualframework to make the coast more visible for thepublic and policy-makers. Previously unpublishedinformation on land cover changes 19902000 forEuropean coasts has been provided by applyingEEA methodology on land and ecosystem accounts.This makes use of the Corine land cover data base.

Work on this report has also led to a review of theavailability of data for such assessment and data

needs for the future. In addition, it has allowed theconstruction of a GIS database for the Europeancoast to begin. Advancing a data concept forcoastal assessment lays a corner stone for buildinga data model for coastal zones, and contributesto establishing the infrastructure for spatialinformation in the Community (INSPIRE) and itsimplementing guidelines.

In the assessment, a number of priorities for actionhave been identified. The most important ones canbe expressed as follows:

Population sizes in Europe's coasts arecontinuously increasing, sometimes faster thanin inland areas. Coasts are converted to man-made artificial surfaces at an even faster pace.There is a need to develop more information tobetter understand what is happening with builtup areas and city planning in Europe, and toestablish some thresholds and other planningtools to avoid uncontrolled sprawl.

Infrastructure developments appear as apowerful driver of residential sprawl, soilsealing and heightened levels of mobility.They are also, together with urban sprawl, animportant factor in fragmentation of coastalspace.

Numbers and figures from the Corine land coverdata base describing changes between 1990and 2000 show an important loss of habitats(e.g. pastures, mixed farmland, natural and

semi-natural areas and wetlands), which areextremely relevant for biodiversity. This is a clearindicator of the need for action to mitigate thesetrends.

Coastal shelf ecosystems are also being affected.A European map of sea grass communities isurgently needed. Sea grass communities arebeing degraded because of the persistence ofturbidity in coastal waters, trawling and othercauses. But data are still lacking by which tomap the underwater habitats on a Europeanscale.

Contamination of coastal water significantlyaffects the capacity for coastal waters to be thenursery habitats for species that will return todeep waters. Land/sea models are needed tobetter understand how terrestrial sources affectthe quality of coastal waters. Eutrophication isstill an important problem in different regionalseas.

There is an urgent need to find more sustainableforms of tourism on the coast. Tourism appearsto be the most important maritime activityespecially in southern countries and also inthe Baltic countries, Poland, South Finland

etc. This activity has a very high spatial andseasonal impact. Tourism flows affect the wholeof Europe. Urgent action is needed to buildEuropean awareness and promote respectfor coastal areas, including economic tools tocompensate for major externalities and enhancesolidarity amongst European regions.

There is a need to map and manage the activitiesthat are growing very rapidly seawards (e.g.wind farms and other energy plants, ports andmaritime traffic). This will require progress inspatial planning of coastal waters.

Aquaculture is a sector that has a stronggrowth potential, but it is often considered acontroversial issue. Data are needed to assess therelevance of aquaculture for fishery communityneeds in order to ensure economic feedback andcontrol environmental externalities, includingfish stock recovery.

Due to these different pressures, the EUdesignated extensive coastal sites through itsNatura2000 network (both on land and at sea)to protect the coast from further development,and ensure the quality of the coastal ecosystemsand habitats. An initiative to create a networkof marine protected areas, ideally connectedby 'blue corridors', offers good prospects formarine ecosystem protection. However, the


9/80

Executive summary

9The changing faces of Europe's coastal areas

management and follow up system of alreadyestablished sites is still under preparation.

A large number of coastal regions are amongstthe EU's less favoured regions. Improving

living standards of peripheral coastalcommunities is therefore an obvious challengefor cohesion policies. Sustainable socio-economicdevelopment is needed at regional and locallevel, and could be supported by EU fundsthrough the enhancement of maritime activitiesusing sustainable practices, coupled with aconsistent monitoring of effects of the differentactions on environment and society.

The report identifies major coastal risks andassesses how and why to reverse the trends.To fight coastal erosion, the recovery of the

sediment balance is needed. In light of this,a new concept of sediment management ishighlighted.

Looking to the future it is clear that the impact ofglobal warming and climate change will becomewidespread. It will have a singular effect onthe coast with rising sea levels, the increasedprobability of storm surges and associatedcoastal floods. However, increasing humanvulnerability rather than physical magnitude orfrequency of the events themselves is the primefactor underlying the rise in impacts. People areincreasingly occupying the low-lying areas that

are exposed to flooding, thus exacerbating theirvulnerability to extreme events.

Natural ecosystems have proved to be key inincreasing coastal resilience and protecting thecoast during hurricane episodes (e.g. Louisiana,September 2005) and even tsunamis, (south-eastAsia, December 2004). Coastal wetlands, coastaldunes and beaches, inter-tidal flats, coastalforests etc. are the most effective defences in thecase of these types of natural disasters. However,coastal ecosystems and habitats need space and

time to fully recover to be able to efficientlyprotect settlements and lives landwards.

Results show that the EU's coast is made up ofvery diverse landscapes and cultural contexts.

It is important to take stock of this diversity toavoid cultural and landscape homogenisation.There is a need to work more on regionalsustainable development. Using a regionalscope, islands need a specific approach asthey have specific problems such as limitedland availability, lack of water reserves, wastemanagement etc.

Policies for the EU's coasts have a long historybut have not been implemented in an integratedmanner so far. The situation today presentsa great challenge. It also offers opportunities

to promote the integration of river basins,coastal zones and marine regions and enhancecooperation with the water framework directive,European marine strategy and preparation of theEuropean Maritime Policy. This should be seenwithin a sustainable development frameworkand the EU's ICZM Recommendation with thenational ICZM strategies (to be issued in 2006).The implementation of all these different policieshas great potential and represents a uniqueopportunity to create an integrated legislativeframework for the sustainable development ofthe European coasts.

This report presents spatial information to supportan integrated coastal policy framework. It representsa baseline to monitor the coast and should beupdated in 2010 in accordance with the EU's ICZMstrategy (2000). The EEA will support the revisionof the strategy in conjunction with the assessmentof the state of European environment. This newinformation can bridge present gaps and providebetter regional assessments to fully understand thetrends identified at European level.



Introduction

1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose and key definitions

The 1992 Earth Summit of Rio de Janeirorecognised in its Agenda 21 the need forenvironmental action for oceans and coastlines(Chapter 17), and committed coastal nations to

the sustainable development of their coastal areasand implementation of integrated coastal zonemanagement.

According to the basic principles of sustainabledevelopment, all three dimensions of development economic, social and environmental needattention and should be treated together in aholistic way. This report focuses primarily on theenvironmental dimension, which is used as anentry point for analysing relationships betweensociety and its natural environment in coastalzones. By linking the state of the environment

with natural resources (e.g. land, water, sediments,energy, biodiversity) and constraints (e.g. naturaland industrial risk, pollution), the report extendsto living conditions on the coast and aims at anintegrated approach.

The specific objective of this work is to contributeto the review of the Recommendation of theEuropean Parliament and of the Council concerningthe implementation of Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement in Europe (2002/413/EC) planned bythe European Commission in 2006. This review

requires information on existing trends, and theeffects of policies and financial instruments oncoastal management.

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)promotes an integrated approach that involves allrelevant stakeholders and takes a long-term view ofcoastal zones. ICZM attempts to balance the needs ofdevelopment with protection of the very resourcesthat sustain coastal economies. It also takes intoaccount the public's concern about the deterioratingenvironmental, socio-economic and cultural state ofthe European coastline.

The EEA intends to contribute to the review bypromoting spatial analysis and enhancing the

integration of relevant environmental data withrelated socio-economical data, as far as currentavailable information allows.

At the same time, this report aligns itself to the widerframework of ecosystems and human well-being set

up by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA,2005a). By linking ecosystems and human well-beingthis approach focuses in particular on 'ecosystemservices', i.e. the benefits people obtain fromecosystems. Every person depends on the servicescontinuously supplied by ecosystems. Services aredelivered both by 'near-natural' ecosystems, such asgrasslands, seas and forests, and by highly managedecosystems, such as cultivated or urban landscapes.

The conceptual framework of Millennium EcosystemAssessment posits that people are integral parts ofecosystems. Dynamic interaction exists between

them and other parts of the ecosystem. Furthermore,changing human conditions drive both directly andindirectly changes in ecosystems and thereby causechanges in human well-being.

The report serves the purpose of developing theEEA's approach to spatial integrated assessment.The aim is to understand spatial changes in coastalsystems, tackle the biodiversity loss, and at the sametime serve as a first baseline for monitoring progressof sustainable development along the coasts. Thereport intends to assess what is happening in the

coastal areas of Europe and the current state of thecoasts. By doing this, it shows as much as possiblethe specificity of the coast in relation to the rest ofthe territory, makes the coast more visible for thepublic and provides policy focus.

Throughout this report a European view is takenwhich focuses on a majority number of coastalcountries in Europe. The number of coastalcountries analysed may change in relation to eachtopic depending on the availability of data. Forexample, 17 coastal countries are covered by Corineland cover data for both 1990 and 2000, whereasEurostat data covers 20 countries (18 countries forpopulation trends analysis). Moreover, countrycase studies and regional examples are used where


11/80

Introduction


relevant. Unfortunately, lack of more up to date andcomparable baseline data does not allow systematicanalysis of recent 20002005 trends in land cover ofcoastal zones. An overview of the European spatial

data sources available for this report is provided inthe annex.

The coastal zone in this report is interpreted as theresulting environment from the coexistence of twomargins: coastal land defined as the terrestrial edgeof continents, and coastal waters defined as thelittoral section of shelf seas. Together they constitutea whole, which needs a specific methodologicalapproach and dedicated management methods.

In this report, coastlines are determined from the

Corine land cover data base (CLC). The terrestrialportion of the coastal zone is defined by an areaextending 10 km landwards from the coastline.Where relevant, assessment of the basic coastalzone is enhanced by comparisons between theimmediate coastal strip (up to 1 km), the coastalhinterland (coastal zone between 1 and 10 kilometreline) and the non-coastal national territory, calledinland. The marine part of coastal zone is definedas a zone extending 10 km offshore (i.e. as inNatura2000 coverage analysis) or a variable zoneof shelf sea depending on the issue analysed (e.g.navigation routes, territorial waters, fisheries, coastal

dynamics). The generic term used throughout thereport is coastal zone, but coastal area, coast, coastalspace and coastal systems are used synonymously tobetter accommodate the particular context.

Depending on the coastline data and definition ofthe coastal zone used, the estimates of Europeanterrestrial coastal zone can vary between 4 and13 % of the land mass. In line with the abovedefinition and based on CLC data, there is almost185 000 km of coastline and 560 000 km2 of coastalzones (terrestrial part) in the 24 European coastal

countries available for this measurement (20 coastalEU Member States plus Norway, Iceland, Bulgariaand Romania) (see Annex). This area correspondsto 13 % of the total land mass of these countries,and 11 %, if only 20 coastal EU countries areincluded.

Comparison to the global value, which was basedon a different definition of the coastal zone extent(area up to 50 m elevation or 100 km from theshore), shows Europe's share of terrestrial coastalzones broadly matching the world's average 4.1 %(MEA, 2005a). Estimates for the whole of the EU

may also be different from presented numbers.According to DG Joint Research Centre (Carreauand Gallego, 2006), the area of 010 km terrestrialcoastal zone of EU-25 is 378 000 km2 (9.4 % of

EU-25 total territory).

Regional analysis of European coastal land areashows that this resource is distributed ratherunevenly. Two countries are almost landlocked(having just a single sea port), nine include lessthan 1 % of European coasts and nine countries(Norway, the United Kingdom, Finland, Greece,Italy, Spain, Denmark, Sweden and France)represent approximately 80 % of Europe's coasts.

A regional perspective on the state of the coastal

zones also requires the diverse conditions,problems and needs of European marineenvironment to be taken into account. Based on theecosystem approach, the EU's marine strategy (1)proposes a framework of marine regions andsub-regions. The current proposal for the marinestrategy directive presents the vision of threeMarine regions (the Baltic Sea, the North-EastAtlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea) whichcan be divided into sub-regions.

Such regionalisation of integral Europeanmarine waters also facilitates integrated coastal

management and provides grounds for assessmentof regional seas' coastal zones. The regionalapproach proposed by the EU's marine strategybroadly corresponds to the UN definition of largemarine ecosystems in Europe (2). However, thisreport presents the trends at the Europe's coastalzones by aggregating them for the Baltic, the NorthSea, North-East Atlantic Ocean, the MediterraneanSea and, for a degree possible, the Black Sea.

1.1.1 State of coasts in Europe: main trends andrelevance to policies

Coastal ecosystems coastal lands, areas oftransitional waters, and near shore marine areas are among the most productive yet highlythreatened systems in the world. Between 1990 and2000, Europe lost more coastal wetlands despite analready high wetland conversion rate during theprevious decades. However, the first signs of reliefare emerging with the new concept of 'managedrealignment', which returns some coastal spaceto its natural state. Other valuable ecosystems,such as coastal dunes and sea grass beds remaincontinuously under threat.

(1) http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/marine.htm accessed 06/06/2006.(2) www.oceansatlas.org accessed 06/06/2006.


12/80

Introduction


Population densities along European coasts arehigher and continue to grow faster than thoseinland. However, differences are less pronounced inEurope than the rest of the world. Populations tend

to be concentrated in certain areas, most favourablefor trade, marine industry or recreation. These areasare often the location of the most valuable coastalecosystems (e.g. Mediterranean).

There is widespread evidence that Europeancoasts are a natural environment that attract socio-economic development due to a range of reasons.This attractiveness introduces multiple factorsrelated to changing land uses, which can leadto increased stress on both natural and humanenvironments. The development-related loss of

coastal systems, habitats and services has caused themost notable changes to coastal zones.

Between 1990 and 2000, artificial surfaces in coastalzones increased in almost all European countries.Economic restructuring has been a driver forinfrastructure development, which in turn hasattracted residential sprawl. The highest increase inartificial surfaces (2035 %) has been observed in thecoastal zones of Portugal, Ireland and Spain.

At European level, more than 2 720 km2 ofagricultural land (especially mixed agriculture and

pasture) and semi-natural and natural land were lostpredominantly to artificial surfaces during this period.

Human pressures on coastal resources cancompromise ecosystem integrity. Recent patternsof over-exploitation of key fish stocks in Europeanregional seas have altered the structure of marineecosystems. Other examples, involving increasingsand and gravel extraction for construction orbeach nourishment, has the potential to disturb thesediment balance around a European coast alreadyinfluenced by sediment trapping of river dams.

Potential threats from emerging off-shore windenergy installations need careful planning, too.

There is growing evidence that Europe's coastalsystems (including marine and terrestrial) aresuffering widespread and significant degradation(e.g. loss of habitat, eutrophication, contamination,erosion, alien species). This poses a major challengeto policy makers and coastal managers. Land basedsources of pollutants, but also other indirect sources,play an important role in the formation of coastalpressures. Therefore linking coastal zones with riverbasins is a priority.

Physical space (land and sea) is also a key resourcethat is needed to produce or sustain other natural

resources and some ecosystem services. Within thisinterpretation the coastal zone is a 'finite resource';'finite' due to its limited spatial extent as a narrowband along the coastline which is subject to on-going

land conversion for industrial and urban use. The'resource' of coastal space is also threatened due tothe widespread prioritisation of short-term economicinterest at the expense of regulating and provisioningservices that could be permanently lost.

People like to live by the sea because of arguably abetter quality of life. This fact may be expressed inelevated real estate prices. But current land use andeconomic practices often expose coastal populationsto threats such as coastal flooding and erosion. Theserisks may severely compromise relatively high levels

of human well-being on the coast, and underline therole for ICZM in reducing these vulnerabilities.

Coasts can support only a certain amount of activitywithout suffering environmental degradation. Due tothe gradual expansion of different human activities,coastal zones have accommodated a number ofdifferent uses. Often these human activities lack long-term coordinated spatial planning. These activitiesalso affect marine areas. Consequently, unregulatedgrowth has led to mixed land-use and large scalefragmentation of open space (Belpaeme and Konings,2004).

In response to this, the EU has been designatingextensive coastal sites through its Natura2000network (both on land and sea) to protect thecoast from further development. For the EU-15Member States, more that 70 % of coastal regionalunits (NUTS3) have at least one Natura2000 site. Intotal Natura2000 sites cover more than 50 000 km2,approximately 15 % of the coastal zone (landwardsand seawards). More than 40 % of the total areacovered by coastal Natura2000 sites is representedby habitats of European interest (habitat's directive

Annex I).

The state of the coast is often described throughthe management of coasts on local, regional andnational scales. However, coastal issues are alsorecognised to be of relevance on a European scale,because often they cannot be solved by the MemberStates separately (e.g. common natural and culturalheritage, transfers of pollutants and sediments, touristflows or maritime safety).

Typically, management responsibilities with respectto coastal areas are spread across several levels ofadministration. ICZM is a process that implies anew style of governance that is in partnership withall of the segments of civil society. However, this


13/80

Introduction


collaboration must go beyond the involvement ofthe stakeholders who are physically present in thenarrow coastal strip. As many of the problems facingcoastal zones can only be solved through a much

broader integrated approach, many actors fromelsewhere in the same marine region, river basin orother parts of the hinterland must also be involved.

However, concrete integration actions usually occurat local level, in the context of detailed planning,problem solving and territorial management.Regional level of government provides supportto this by ensuring the integrated planning andco-ordination between local municipalities in thelarger regional context. The effective administrationof coastal zones becomes a key factor for achieving

long-term development goals. The importantcondition for that is adoption of governancemechanisms taking into account the territorialintegrated vision of the coasts.

1.1.2 Policy responses: from conceptual frameworktowards integrated spatial management

Europe has a wide diversity of coastal landscapesconfiguring a complex territory with regards todifferent aspects of environmental, social, culturaland economic conditions.

There is a challenge to provide human safetyand promote economic development withoutcompromising ecological integrity. Althoughecosystems contribute to human well-being, theseservices are often not quantified and therefore thebenefits are not recognised in management. Thisissue is exacerbated by a lack of knowledge of thecontribution of ecosystems to human welfare, suchas the ability of salt marshes to reduce wave energyin coastal systems and their potential role as anatural buffer (Rochelle-Newall et al., 2005).

The Commission's communication on ICZMStrategy for Europe (COM(2000)547) asks forintegrated management of the coastal zone thatrequires action at local and regional level. This isguided and supported by a national vision andappropriate framework on a national level. The EUshould support these actions through the generationof factual information and knowledge about thecoastal zone by defining indicators for the coastalzone. These indicators would also serve as examplesfor more widespread adoption of integratedterritorial management principles across Europe.

The EU's ICZM Recommendation can be seen asa first step in the implementation of the visionoutlined by the strategy. Along with setting the

fundamental principles of sound coastal zonedevelopment, it calls on Member States to carry outnational stocktaking and prepare national strategiesfor coastal zones. In addition, an activity to create

indicators for monitoring the implementation ofthese coming strategies has been initiated.

Despite general recognition of the need for regionalsustainable development, existing environmentalpolicies do not sufficiently address the spatialand complex nature of coastal zones, and only afew policies facilitate the emergence of a commonconceptual framework for coasts. For example, theEuropean Spatial Development Perspective (seeEuropean Commission, 1999a) a major EU policyinitiative to promote spatial planning and horizontal

dimension of sustainable development has notcounter-balanced the development pressure fromkey economic sectors, such as tourism and transportinfrastructure.

At the same time, coastal waters are recognised bythe water framework directive as an integrated partof river basin management districts. The Europeanmarine thematic strategy also addresses the coastsby promoting an ecosystem-based approach andproposing marine regions.

Hopefully, the increasing attention to the coastal

zones will result in the development of an efficientand ambitious integrated maritime policy in thefuture. The Green Paper on an EU Maritime Policygives direction for the integrated management ofthe sea and the coast within the spirit of sustainabledevelopment.

All these new policy developments are expected tocreate demand for the integrated spatial assessmentof coasts. This is essential for creating a knowledgebase for better regional management of coastalsystems at the land and water interface.

1.1.3 Coastal conflicts: towards a humanperspective

The methodology used in this report specificallyaddresses the spatial analysis of overlappinginterests on the coast. As a principle, thesecontradictory forces should be kept at a level whichdoes not lead to unwanted environmental stress.However, this involves a subjective assessmentof the different uses of the coast. These subjectiveviews represent the values of people living by thesea and need to be balanced against each other andthe views derived from outside coastal zones. Toprovide an adequate answer, future work has also todeal with the life of coastal communities. This work


14/80

Introduction


should take a closer look at how a local populationtackles local development and environmental issues,and how they adapt to specific coastal situations.

Another key challenge from a human perspectiveis vulnerability and adaptation to climate change,especially with regard to sea level rise. This topic,addressed as a transversal issue across the sectionsof this report, is tackled via the human dimension.

1.2 Scope

This report looks at the EU's coasts in thecontext of sustainable development, focusing onenvironmental aspects as an entry point. Coastal

integration is also taken into account by an approachto ecosystem analysis of land, water and biodiversitycharacterised by a spatial perspective.

For the assessment of the environmental state ofEuropean coasts, two underpinning activities areaddressed:

the spatial analysis of the state of coasts as aresult of changes in land cover and land use.This is linked to the development of different

policies, e.g. tourism, physical planning,agriculture, nature protection;

the collecting and analysis of stakeholders' viewsand opinions on the analytical approach and the

results.

The focus of the report is mainly on the land/seainterface. Marine ecosystems and offshoreenvironments are addressed where relevant andwhere adequate data exist. However, the report doesnot cover Europe's ultra-peripheral regions, such assmall islands.

1.3 Structure

Chapter two presents a factual description of thecurrent trends in the state of the coasts. This isfollowed in chapters three and four by a synthesisof the integrated spatial assessment and currenttrends in policies relevant to the coastal zones.The concluding chapter discusses the need fora conceptual framework for the management ofcoasts, and summarises lessons learnt and futuredevelopment perspectives. The annex presents alldata issues and an overview of the methodologicaldevelopment that forms the basis of this report.


15/8015

Trends in state of coasts: facts and figures


2.1 Main changes in land cover andpopulation

For the 17 coastal countries covered by Corine landcover change analyses, three main types of coastalland use trends occurred between 1990 and 2000:

artificial surfaces increased during the period byalmost 1 900 km2, pasture and mixed farmlandshowed a major decrease (1 230 km2) and arable

2 Trends in state of coasts:facts and figures

lands and permanent crops increased (713 km2).However, there were significant differences in landcover change patterns between various countriesand at regional level.

In 2000 the share of area covered by artificial

surfaces was 25 % higher on the coast than inland.During 19902000, trends in the European coastalzone showed that the growth rate of artificialsurfaces was about 1/3 faster than inland (for thedefinitions of coastal zones see introduction).

In tandem, growth of urban artificial surfaces inthe coastal zones of Europe has continued. On thebasis of the annual growth rates observed during19902000, it is projected that by 2004 the 1990levels will have been exceeded by 12 %. The fastestdevelopment has taken place in Portugal (34 %),Ireland (27 %), Spain (18 %), followed by France,

Italy and Greece. The most affected regional coastsis the western Mediterranean.

Within the 10 km coastal zone, urban surfaces aredominant on the first kilometre from the shoreline.In several coastal regions of Italy, France and Spainthe coverage of built-up areas in the first kilometrecoastal strip exceeds 45 %. In these areas furtherdevelopment is occurring in the coastal hinterland.

Population densities are also higher on the coastthan inland. For Europe, population densities of

the coastal regions (NUTS3) are on average 10 %higher than inland. However, in some countriesthis figure can be more than 50 %. There are manyregions where the coastal population is at leastfive times the European average density. Calculatedfrom redistributed population values for the010 km coastal zone, population densities on thecoast are twice as big as total population densitiesof EU-25 countries (Gallego, 2006). Unfortunately,the lack of data availability precludes a systematicanalysis of seasonal population sizes on Europeancoasts. However, it is obvious that most coastsexperience significant seasonal peaks which insome areas overshadow the permanent population.The case study from Costa Brava (Girona, Spain),showed that in an average year the total seasonal

Figure 1 Land cover change within the10 km coastal zone of 17 ofEuropean countries (19902000)

Note: Countries included are: 20 EU coastal Member States(with the exception of Cyprus, Finland, Malta, Swedenand the United Kingdom), Bulgaria and Romania.

Source: EEA, 2005.

Net change in land cover % of initial year

4.00

2.00

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

Artificial areas

Arable land andpermanent crops

Pastures andmixed farmland

Forested land

Semi-natural vegetation

Open spaces/bare soils

Wetlands

Water bodies


16/80



population reached 2.6 visitors per resident(Sarda et al., 2005).

However, European coasts are very diverse. There

are also many coastal regions (NUTS3) wherepopulation density is five times less than average andcontinues to decrease (see Map 1). Higher densitiesare in general found in southern Europe, while thelowest densities are more likely to be found in northEurope, with the exception of the North Sea coasts.In certain regions of the Mediterranean coast higherdensities are registered (e.g. Barcelona), but there arealso regions with low population densities such asCorsica, parts of Sardinia etc.

Depending on the definition of coastal zone extent

(see Section 1.1), estimates of current (2001) coastalpopulation may differ substantially. A widelypublished number originating from the Eurosionproject (3) estimates the population living in coastalmunicipalities in the EU as being approximately70 million people (16 % of the EU-25 population).However, estimates vary depending on the appliedmethodology. For example, DG Joint ResearchCentre (Carreau and Gallego, 2006) has estimatedthat the population living in the 010 km coastalzone is 86 million inhabitants (19 % of EU-25 totalpopulation). This estimate is based on the 2001census data. Applying the coastal zone definition of

the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is likely toproduce yet another figure for coastal populationsize. The following analysis of coastal populationdynamics in this report is, due to data availability

reasons, based on the coastal population of coastalregions (NUTS3) rather than much smaller coastalmunicipalities or the 010 km coastal zone itself.

Population change analyses of 18 European coastalcountries where population data 19912001 wasavailable (EEA coastal member countries Bulgaria,Germany, Greece, Lithuania, Malta, Poland andTurkey not included) show that populationcontinues to be concentrated in European coastalregions (NUTS3). According to the 2001 census,coastal regions of these 18 coastal countries had

140 million inhabitants. Since 1991 the coastalpopulation has grown by 3.44 % (on average, almost0.5 million per year), which is about 1/4 faster thanthe growth rate of the total population of thesecountries.

However, notable regional differences exist.Some countries, such as Estonia, Latvia, Romaniaand Italy lost coastal population between 1991and 2001. This fact should be viewed against thegeneral de-population trends of these countries(with the exception of Italy). In other countriesthe coastal population clearly increased, but at

Figure 2 Built-up area in the 01 km coastal strip versus the entire 10 km coastal zone(19902000)

Source: EEA, 2005.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Belg

ium

Bulg

aria

Germ

any

Denm

ark

Esto

nia

Spai

n

Finl

and

Fran

ce

Gree

ce

Irel

and

Italy

Lith

uani

a

Latv

ia

Neth

erland

s

Poland

Portug

al

Rom

ania

Swed

en

Slov

enia

%

% 1990 10 km % 2000 10 km % 1990 1 km % 2000 1 km

60

(3) www.eurosion.org accessed 17.03.2005.


17/80



a somewhat slower rate than total population(Belgium, Netherlands and the United Kingdom).One interpretation would be the saturation of NorthSea coasts, which already had very high population

densities. Regarding the coasts of European regionalseas, population growth increased on most sea frontsbetween 1991 and 2001. The highest increases wereregistered on the Atlantic coast (6.4 %) (e.g. France,Ireland and Portugal). Even on the Nordic coast ofthe Baltic Sea, noticeable increases of population wereregistered (3.3 %), especially in some urban spots (e.g.Helsinki, southern regions of Sweden). Some growthstill continues on the North Sea coasts (2.9 %). In theMediterranean, significant increases were registeredfor some coastal regions of France and Spain.Assessed Black Sea coasts showed a population

decrease ( 1.6 %).

2.2 Coastal zones of regional seas'catchments

Regional seas have different coastal landscapes. Semi-

natural and natural lowlands cover almost 25 % ofthe 10 km coastal zone of the North Sea and almost20 % of the Baltic Sea. Upland, open semi-natural andnatural landscapes are comparatively more extensivealong the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea. Lowlandforests are important on the Atlantic coast, coveringapproximately 30 % of the coastal area. Lowlandcomposite rural landscapes represent 20 % on theBaltic coastal zone and 10 % on the Mediterranean.The North Sea coast represents the highest percentageof dense, urban areas (20 %). Dispersed urban areasare more acute along the Mediterranean Sea (12 %)

and the Atlantic coasts.

Map 1 Population density in the European coastal zone (010 km) in 2001

Source: EEA, 2005, based on population density disaggregated with CLC2000, JRC, 2005.


18/80



Map 2 Population trends between 1991 and 2001 in the European coastal regions

During the last decade important land use andland cover changes have been observed in the10 km coastal zone on the five European regionalseas (17 countries). In general terms, the artificialsurface and associated use of the coastal zone hasgrown intensively especially in the Mediterranean(804 km2), and the Atlantic (690 km2). The North Seashows lower growth of artificial surfaces (235 km2),and the Baltic Sea (142 km2) and the Black Sea(11 km2) show the lowest value of change. However,in relation to the total area of the assessed coastalzone, the increase of artificial surfaces is almost 15 %in the Atlantic, 10 % in the Mediterranean Sea, 8 %in the North Sea and 5 % in the Baltic Sea. Changesto artificial surfaces and the Black Sea representapproximately 2.5 %. Gains in artificial surfaces

represent the highest individual land cover changein the coastal zones of regional sea catchments.

Transformation of land into artificial surface ismost intensive in the first kilometre from thecoastline. The percentage of built up areas in the firstkilometre is 17 % for the North Sea coast (comparedto 11 % for the whole 10 km coastal zone); 16 %compared to 6 % for the Mediterranean coast; 14 %compared to 6 % for the Black Sea; 12 % comparedto 6 % for the Atlantic; and 9 % compared to 6 % forthe Baltic Sea.

Important gains in arable land and permanentcrops, i.e. intensification of agriculture (772 km2) isobserved especially for the Atlantic, compared to

Source: EEA, 2005, based on population census 1991 and 2001, Eurostat.


19/80



a general loss around the Baltic Sea (230 km 2) andthe Mediterranean (253 km2). For the North Sea, thefigure remains the same.

Pastures and mixed farmland, natural and semi-natural open spaces, and wetlands show a majordecrease, as they are transformed into intensiveagriculture or into urban land cover categories inthe Atlantic region, and in urban categories in theremainder of the regions. Loss of wetlands, naturalgrassland, natural and semi-natural vegetation, andpasture and mixed farmland is highest on the Atlanticcoast. The loss of pasture and mixed farmlandalone was 1 220 km2. Almost all European lossesof wetlands have occurred on the Atlantic coast,which lost nearly 5 % of its wetlands (422 km 2). This

figure is more than the overall 19902000 Europeannegative balance, which is compensated by some

gains of wetlands in other countries. Loss of pastureand mixed farming land also registered losses duringthe decade on the Mediterranean ( 303 km2) and onthe Baltic Sea coast ( 229 km2). These losses were

generally replaced by intensive agriculture or landuses of artificial surfaces.

Another important aspect to take into account isthe high concentration of Natura2000 sites on theEuropean coast, especially in the North Sea (wherearound 20 % of these coastal sites are located).Moreover, on the North Sea, the Atlantic andthe Mediterranean coasts Natura2000 sites thatprotect both land and sea cover more than 20 % ofthe coastline length. Here, available data clearlyshow that European coastal zones are potential

conflict zones due to the high levels of urbanisationand protection. These potential conflicts arise

Map 3 Pan-European marine ecosystems

Note: The large marine ecosystems (LMEs) project was created in support of the global objectives of Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, asa follow-up to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Out of the 64 LME definedworldwide, 13 are pertinent to the European environment. Numbering used in the map follows the one used in the LME project.

Source: UN (See www.oceanatlas.org accessed 12/10/2005).


20/80



Table 1 European regional seas main figures

Note: AL: Albania; BA: Bosnia-Herzegovina; BE: Belgium; BG: Bulgaria; CS: Serbia and Montenegro CY: Cyprus; DK: Denmark;DE: Germany EE: Estonia; EL: Greece; ES: Spain; FI: Finland; FR: France; HR: Croatia; IE: Ireland; IT: Italy; LT: Lithuania;LV: Latvia; MT: Malta; NO: Norway; NL: Netherlands; PL: Poland; PT: Portugal; RO: Romania; SE: Sweden; SI: Slovenia;TR: Turkey; UK: United Kingdom.

" Cvncpvke"Qegcp"fgpgf"cu"Rcp/Gwtqrgcp"Octkpg"Gequ{uvgou"pq"46"cpf"47"*Egnvke/Dkuec{"Ujgnh"Ugc"cpf"Kdgtkcp"eqcuvcn"ugc."

respectively), the Black Sea includes the Azov Sea.

Source


21/80



Figure 4 Change of built-up areas in the010 km and 01 km coastal zones

Note: Countries included are: 20 EU coastal Member States(with the exception of Cyprus, Finland, Malta, Swedenand the United Kingdom), Bulgaria and Romania.

Source: EEA, 2005.

0

2

4

68

10

12

14

16

18

North

Sea

Blac

kSe

a

Atlant

ic

% area

% 1990 10 km % 2000 10 km

Med

iterran

ean

Sea

Balti

cSe

a

from intensive utilisation of coastal space bysocio-economic activities (e.g. tourism, harbours).

Another worrying environmental problem isthe high level of armouring of the shorelines bycoastal defences and harbours. This is especiallyimportant in the North Sea (16 %) and along theMediterranean coast (more than 8 %) where onaverage the conversion of the coastline into artificialareas (e.g. harbours, artificial beaches and other

artificial constructions such as dams or sea walls) isvery high. The coastal armouring should not be seenas a local solution and in isolation from other relatedissues because it is closely related to the importantcoastal erosion process affecting the stability ofcoasts of the whole region. The coastlines of theMediterranean Sea (almost 30 %), the North Sea(20 %) and the Black Sea (13 %) have the most criticalerosion hotspots.

Intensive human use of coasts and the overallincrease in offshore activities in regional sea areashave impacted on water quality parameters andmarine biodiversity. The main issues for eachregional sea are described below:

Figure 3 Land cover changes in 010 km coastal zone of European regional seas(19902000)

Note: Countries included are: 20 EU coastal Member States (with the exception of Cyprus, Finland, Malta, Sweden and the UnitedKingdom), Bulgaria and Romania.

Source: EEA, 2005.

10 5 0 5 10 15

Artificial surfaces

Arable land andpermanent crops

Pastures and mixedfarmland

Forests and transitionalwoodland

Natural grassland andsemi-natural vegetation

Open spaces with littleor no vegetation

Wetlands

Water bodies

% change

Black Sea Mediterranean Sea Atlantic Sea North Sea Baltic Sea


22/80



Baltic Sea

All environmental problems in the region areexacerbated by low salinity and slow renewal in

this unusually shallow sea. A recent meeting ofNordic environmental ministers (23 November2005) called for the Baltic Sea to be made a 'pilotproject' under the newly drafted EU marineenvironment strategy.

Eutrophication has caused increased amounts ofplanktonic algae, increased frequencies of toxicblooms of algae, the reduction of oxygen levels inthe deep waters of the Baltic Sea and a decline ordisappearance of larger perennial macroalgae.

Fishing of the main target fish species such as cod,herring, salmon and eel is presently unsustainable

due to over-exploitation and impairment ofconditions for reproduction. Bycatches of marinemammals, seabirds and non-target fish speciesare also too high.

The intensity of shipping activities and relatedenvironmental impacts have increased veryrapidly over the last decade and are expected toincrease considerably in the future. According toHelcom, there are around 2 000 ships at sea anyone moment in time, accounting for 15 % of theworld's cargo transportation. Every day 150200large tankers filled with oil are harbouredin 20 ports around the Baltic Sea. By 2015 oil

transportation is forecast to increase by a further40 % to 160 million tonnes a year (Helcom (4)).

Pollution by organic contaminants have causedhealth and reproduction problems in marinemammals and birds. Oil has killed seabirds andnegatively affected benthic communities.

Changes in the structure and components of theecosystem are caused by introduced species.Intentional introduction, fouling and ballastwater are three important ways organisms havebeen introduced into the Baltic Sea. The riverconnections with the brackish waters in the Black

and Caspian Seas increase the risk of introductioninto a very vulnerable semi-closed sea.

Special problems exist which originate from non-EU countries with different policies. For example,the pollution of the Pregolya river in Kaliningrad,the potential threat from Kratsovskoye oilfieldand the D6 offshore platform (22 km fromKaliningrad coast).

North Sea

One of the major environmental problems in thisregion is its colonisation by new species from theAtlantic.

The strong coupling between benthic and pelagiccommunities in the shallow parts of the seamakes it extremely biologically productive. Infact, it is one of the most productive areas in

the world, with a wide range of plankton, fish,seabirds and benthic communities.

The North Sea is one of the world's mostimportant fishing grounds, and the sea bed isalso rich in oil and gas. All these resources areintensively exploited.

Anthropogenic impacts have been significant formany years. The marine ecosystems are underintense pressure from fishing, nitrogen input(from air and rivers), recreational use and habitatloss. Most notable are the effects of fisheries andeutrophication. Until the mid 1990s pollution

was the main issue at North Sea conferences.Over the last decade, there has been an increasingawareness and concern for the impaired status ofseveral of the North Sea's commercially importantfish stocks, as well as the impact of fisheries onother parts of the ecosystem.

North Sea coasts have high economic andpopulation concentrations and are mostvulnerable to coastal zone flooding. Resultinginundations may become additional sources ofpollution for the sea.

Atlantic

The Atlantic coastal sea is a part of the North-East Atlantic Ocean and is dominated by deepocean basins, with the exception of the Celtic Sea,the shelf along the Bay of Biscay and the Iberiancoast.

The formation of North Atlantic deep water isone of the driving forces for the thermohalinecirculation of the world's oceans. The primaryproductivity in the open ocean is low, but isincreasing from south to north and towardsshore.

Biodiversity is high, but several species in thearea are endangered. A lack of sustainable fisherymanagement is probably the most importantthreat here.

The main actual and potential threats to marinehabitats and biodiversity in the North-EastAtlantic are the:- lack of sustainable regulation of fisheries, e.g.

over fishing, bottom trawling, discards, catchof non-targeted species etc.;

- pollution from maritime transport due to oilspills and TBT in antifouling paints.

There is a shortage of information and/ormonitoring on species, habitats and fish stocks in

(4) www.helcom.fi accessed 16.05.2006.


23/80



the North-East Atlantic Ocean, except for coastalwaters. The effects of global warming and anychanges in ocean circulation are critical for marineand coastal ecosystems.

The North-East Atlantic Ocean is protected bythe OSPAR convention and other more globalconventions. Nature protection is primarilyfocused on coastal areas and is still poor in otherparts of the ocean, e.g. sea mounts.

Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is oligotrophic. It is richin oxygen and poor in nutrients. Oligotrophicconditions increase from west to east.

The fauna and flora is one of the richest in the

world in terms of species diversity and there is ahigh rate of endemism. Compared to the Atlantic,the Mediterranean marine communities havemany different species with generally smallerindividual specimens (Mediterranean nanism).

Eutrophication in coastal areas has almostcertainly resulted in an increase in fish catchesof some pelagic fish species in the formerlylow-nutrient waters of the Mediterranean Sea.However, fishing has resulted in over-exploitationof several fish stocks in the Mediterranean.

The immuno-suppressive effects of contaminantsarising from agriculture, industrial activity and

population growth may have contributed tothe severity of mass mortalities among marinemammals in the Mediterranean Sea. Toxic algalblooms have become more frequent.

Fishery by-catches of marine wildlife pose athreat to their populations. For example, mortalityof the monk seal is mostly associated with fishing.Over-exploitation by intensive collection has ledto a serious decline in some corals and manyshellfish.

Introduction of alien species through ballastwaters, fouling, import and invasion has resulted

in the establishment of dense natural populationsof species. Introduced alien species are increasingin the Eastern basin. The impact of some intruderslike the tropical algae Caulerpa taxifolia has hadcatastrophic effects on the natural environment.

High development rates of some West-Mediterranean coasts have made themincreasingly vulnerable to coastal erosion risks.

Black Sea

Nearly 87 % of the Black Sea is entirely anoxic(without oxygen) and contains high levels ofhydrogen sulphide. This is the result of pastgeological events, the characteristics and shape

of basin, its specific water balance and a highdegree of isolation from the world's oceans.

The composition and structure of the marinecommunities are constantly changing with thedecline of certain species and the expansionof others. However, deep pelagic and benthicorganisms are largely absent, and in theundisturbed conditions species diversity inBlack Sea fauna is approximately three timesless than that in the Mediterranean.

Increasing salinity due to inappropriate water

management and regulation, and pollution ofbrackish coastal lakes and estuaries representsa threat to coastal wetlands, relics and endemicspecies, especially in the Sea of Azov.

As a result of eutrophication, primaryproduction has increased and the number ofspecies has declined. These changes, as well asinappropriate fishing practices, have affectedfish stocks. A change towards small pelagic fish,i.e. anchovy and sprat, has been observed. Thiscan be regarded as fishing down the food chain.

The rich diversity of biotopes creates favourableconditions for invasion by alien species tothe Black Sea. Deterioration of some marinehabitats and over-exploitation of fish stocks

Figure 5 Land take by urban developmentin 010 km coastal zone

(19902000)

Source: EEA, 2005.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Land take by mines and and waste dumpsites

Land take by transport networks and infrastructures

Land take by industrial and commercial sites

Land take by housing, services and recreation

%

Belg

ium

Bulg

aria

Denm

ark

Esto

nia

Fran

ce

Germ

any

Gree

ce

Irelan

dItal

y

Latv

ia

Lith

uani

a

Neth

erla

nds

Pola

nd

Portug

al

Rom

ania Al

l

Spai

n

Slov

enia


24/80



has left the ecosystem vulnerable to invasionby such species, for example via ballast waters.For example, the invasion of the comb jellyfish(Mnemiopsis leidyi) led to the emergence of huge

populations, which changed the equilibrium ofthe native marine ecosystem. This caused thecollapse of anchovy fish stocks in the Black Seaand the disappearance of the most valuable fishspecies. There is no overall management of fishstocks in place in the Black Sea.

The seas and coasts around Europe are a vitalresource upon which many millions of peopledepend on both economically and for leisure.They also provide a wide range of ecosystemsservices that are essential to the health of Europe's

environment.

Different seas face both common and uniqueinterconnected challenges, highlighting the value ofintegrated approaches to solutions.

2.3 Artificial surfaces

Artificial surfaces spread by 190 km2 per yearbetween 19902000. Due to the irreversible natureof land cover change from natural to urban andinfrastructure development, these changes are seenas one of the main threats to the sustainability ofcoastal zones.

61 % of total land uptake by artificial surfaces wasdue to housing, services and recreation. Industrial

and commercial sites also took up land (see Figure 5).

Map 4 Share of built-up area in the 01 km coastal strip, by NUTS3 (2000)

Source: EEA, 2005, based on Corine land cover, 2000.


25/80



Table 2 Number of settlements with > 50 000 inhabitants per 100 km of coastline

Clusters of

ratio (see title)

Countries Type of settlement density pattern

< 0.05 Iceland, Norway Extremely low settlement density of North Atlantic coasts0.150.35 Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Cyprus,

Finland, Denmark, Sweden, EstoniaTypical low settlement density on European peripheralcoasts

0.400.50 Romania, Portugal Increased low settlement density on European peripheralcoasts

0.600.70 France, Germany, Poland, Bulgaria First tier high settlement density of intensively occupiedcoasts

0.751.00 The United Kingdom, Italy, Spain,Netherlands

Typical high settlement density of intensively occupiedcoasts

> 1.5 Lithuania, Belgium, Malta Extremely high settlement density of short developedcoastlines

Note


26/80



Closer examination of internal differences withincoastal zones shows that urban surfaces are moreconcentrated within the first kilometre of thecoastline. In some countries they represent up to

Box 1 Coastal development patterns case study (France)

Development pressure continues to be very significant on the Mediterranean coast despite the fact that thedegree of occupation is already very high. This finding is based on construction permits granted by Frenchplanning authorities between 1990 and 2003. Pressures are also being felt on the Atlantic coast, due toconstruction, especially the coast of Brittany (see inset). Moreover, trends show that new constructionis spreading farther away from the coastline, provoking a shift of occupation towards second and thirddevelopment areas along the coasts.

45 % of the area. Therefore, the immediate coastalstrip (i.e. the first kilometre from the coastlinelandwards) receives most pressures. These pressuresare especially intense in some coastal areas, such

This urban trend correlates with a social shift. Thenear coastline is reserved for seasonal tourismwhile the coastal hinterland is becoming thehome of permanent residents, who continue towork in coastal cities or in the tourism industry.An unexpected trend emerged with the launch ofthe 'Prissol Act' in 1997. This was intended tomake rented housing available to young peopleand middle/low classes, and give tax assistanceto owners of new buildings for rent. Growth inconstruction on the coast was lower than averagein France. However, a boom in new houses inthe coastal hinterland occurred which was muchhigher than in the rest of the country.

Source: IFEN (See www.ifen.fr accessed 13.04.2005).

Trends show an increased concentration ofthe population along the shoreline. This isdepicted in the map of Brittany above.

Note: A strong gradation of population densityfrom the shore to the interior.

Construction of housings between 1990 and

2003 in the French coastal NUTS3

Population density in Brittany, France.

Inhabitants per km2

by

NUTS5 in 1999

Very High High Medium

Low Very Low

Construction intensity between 1990 and 2003

More than 200 120200 90120

6090 3060 Less than 30


27/80



Figure 6 Increase of area occupied bydiffuse residential sprawl in the

10 km coastal zone (19902000)

Source: EEA, 2005.

45.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Est

onia

Ital

y

P

olan

d

Germ

any

Portug

al

F

ranc

e

Lith

uani

a

Rom

ania

Ire

land Al

l

Nethe

rland

s

Spai

n

Denm

ark

Bu

lgar

ia

Be

lgiu

m

G

reec

e

Slo

veni

a

%

as on the Mediterranean coast in France, Spainand some parts of Italy. On the Atlantic, the entireFrench coast, the Spanish Atlantic regions (theBasque country and Huelva) and certain stretches ofthe Portuguese coast are also intensively occupied.Many North Sea coasts are also very intensivelybuilt-up, such as the Netherlands and Belgium. In

contrast, the areas surrounding the Baltic Sea andIreland have fewer urban surfaces. In fact, only thesouthern part of Sweden and the Greater Dublinarea, Ireland have significantly built-up areas.

Urban development on the coast is often seen asa way to sustain population growth and expandand diversify economies. However, the way inwhich growth happens also matters. The concept of

'sustainable urban design' considers the patterns inwhich cities grow.

Coastal compact cities are often equipped withdynamic harbours. They tend to expand becauseof diversified economies and services. Labouris attracted to these areas by higher salaries andcapital is more easily available due to highershort-term capital returns. As a result, they oftenbecome headquarters for global concerns. Thereare 281 coastal cities with a population larger than50 000 inhabitants in Europe. Only 10 % of these

have a population of more than 0.5 million, whilethe remaining 90 % are divided equally between50100 thousand and 100500 thousand inhabitants.

The leading cause of land uptake by housing isresidential urban sprawl, which on average isresponsible for more than 45 % of the coast's landconversion to artificial surfaces in Europe.

Transport infrastructure development howeverdoes not consume large areas, but still acts as amain driver of artificial sprawl along the coast. Inthe last decade, most European coastal areas (e.g.

the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Sea, the Celticand North Seas) have witnessed continuous urbangrowth. This is often associated with the expansionof a new transport infrastructure along the coast. A

Box 2 Case study: tourism in southern European islands

With a few exceptions (e.g. the Canary Islands and Corsica), hotels are the predominant type ofaccommodation in southern Europe's island regions. Taking into account the limited land area, the levelsof hotel concentration in island regions appear higher than those within urban regions on the mainland. InGreece, for example, the islands of the Aegean Sea, including Crete, accounted for 43.7 % of the nationalhotel capacity in 1999. In Madeira and the Azores (Portugal), the figure was 11.9 % in 1999. To a lesserdegree, French islands accounted for 1.6 % in 2000, while Sicily and Sardinia accounted respectively for2.6 % and 2 % of Italian hotel capacity in 1999.

In the majority of cases, high levels of accommodation capacity are reflected in high overnight stay figures.Also, the rate in island regions fluctuates less between seasons. This is due to the fact that their sunnierclimates afford them longer tourist seasons (e.g. Greece has approximately 3 000 hours of sun annually).Because of low domestic demand, island tourism is primarily based on an external clientele. Certain islandsare particularly attractive to residents (e.g. Sicily, Sardinia, Northern Ireland and Corsica) while inboundtourism predominates on the Greek islands, the Canaries, the Balearic islands and Madeira. The length ofstay in island regions where domestic tourism predominates conforms to national averages. However, inregions where inbound tourism predominates, the averages recorded are the highest of any region.

Source: Eurostat (See http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/pls/portal/docs/page/pgp_prd_cat_prerel/pge_cat_prerel_year_2005/pge_cat_prerel_year_2005_month_01/5-11012005-en-ap.pdf accessed 22.11.2005).


28/80



Box 3 Case study: residential development on the coast in Finland

The major extension of holiday homes, in particular on the coast of Finland, has led to a situation in whichone third of the total shoreline is already inaccessible to other types of uses. In many coastal districts

holiday homes pose a threat to the freedom of movement for recreational purposes. Moreover, they alsoalter the landscape by interfering with conservation of the environment and the landscape in general. Thiswill generate a need to adopt new measures to steer and possibly restrict any further expansion of holidaysettlements in the name of public interest (Gran et al., 1999).

Coastal region Total length of

shore (km)

Length of shore

on mainland and

islands > ha (km)

Length of developed

shore (km)

Degree of

development

(%)

1 land Archipelago 9 891 7 175 837 12

2 SW Archipelago 14 356 11 640 3 862 33

3 Western Gulf of Finland 4 860 3 869 1 402 36

4 Eastern Gulf of Finland 4 215 3 503 1 617 46

5 Bothnian Sea 10 617 8 470 3 472 416 Bothnian Bay 2 123 1 864 485 26

Total 46 062 36 522 11 675 32

recent study on urban sprawl carried out for severalcountries from different parts of Europe identifiesthe type of urban sprawl having the greatest effect.Results show that in absolute terms the sprawl inlarge cities with a population of more than 500 000people and medium sized cities of between 100 000and 500 000 people is greater than for smallercities of between 50 000 and 100 000 people. This is

because sprawl consumes the area with the samefactor (i.e. 23 times the core city surface) in all citycategories (EEA internal report on urban sprawl,2005).

A significant part of residential urban land uptakeresults from tourism development, which leads tothe building of hotels, apartments and second homes.

< 25 % 25 - 50 % > 50 %

Degree of development

Bothnian Bay26 %

Bothnian Sea41 %

AlandArchipelago

12 %SW Archipelago

33 %

Eastern Gulfof Finland

46 %

Gran & RotoDepartment of Geography

University of Turku1998

Western Gulfof Finland

37 %

GULF

OF

BOTHNIA


29/80



Often these new residential quarters create unevenseasonal activity patterns as they are only used insummer and remain empty for the rest of the year.

While good European data on the number of bedsin hotels within coastal zones are not available,national values for coastal countries show significantincreases between 19902000. Strong growth inthe last decade took place in Germany, Spain andItaly and this continued until 2003. France also haslarge numbers of beds, but growth has been slow,especially since 2000.

Tourism is probably the largest individual sectorto drive the coastal economy. In 2001, tourismrepresented 43 % of the jobs in coastal regions in

France. It also produced four times more added valuethan the production of sea products and maritimetransportation (DATAR, 2004). The country examplesabove show that tourism is growing. Although theMediteranean is expanding the most, the Atlantic, thesouthern Baltic Sea and the Black Sea coasts are alsolikely to experience similar trends.

Tourism in Europe, especially in the Mediterranean,is closely linked with 'construction', e.g. hotels,second residences, apartments, leisure andcommercial infrastructures, which facilitates theexpansion of artificial areas. Therefore, tourism

growth needs to be decoupled from the sprawl ofman-made land cover.

Exacerbated by tourism, the environmental impactof man-made surfaces is felt on land, water andenergy consumption, waste production, habitatfragmentation. Furthermore, increased mobility

creates additional pressures in most coastal areas.

At the same time, tourism resources are at risk fromclimate change factors, such as increasing summertemperatures, drought and even a rise in sea level.Urban settlements also are vulnerable to floods andsea storms. This may affect the choice of destinationfor future visitors, especially in the Mediterranean.It is also likely to have an impact on the way built upareas on the coast will develop in the future.

With growing income and increasing leisure time,

the tourism industry in Europe is expected to grow.But this growth should be coupled with new formsof sustainable tourism and a rethinking of urbandevelopment on the coasts.

There are also contrasting trends which are pertinentto urban development on the coast. For example,the Cabo de Gata (Almeria region) in Spain is not asdeveloped as the rest of Spain because it is protectedby a natural park designation. Also, developmentin Corsica is controlled by the prioritisation oflocal interests. Long stretches of the Italian coastwhich have historical heritage are protected and

new developments are prohibited. Similarly,development has been limited in some stretches

Figure 7 Change of total agricultural land in the 10 km coastal zone (19902000)

Source: EEA, 2005.

1.85

0.02

0.65

0.42

0.64 0.70

0.12

1.22 1.16

0.04 0.18

3.06

0.28

4.40

0.94

0.12

0.42

4.50

4.00

3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00

%

Belg

ium

Bulg

aria

Denm

arkEs

toniaFr

ance

Germ

anyGr

eeceIreland Italy La

tvia

Lith

uania

Neth

erlands Po

land

Portuga

l

Rom

ania

Slov

eniaSp

ain


30/80



of coastal Greece. Island factors, such as size andlocation, and terrain may explain this.

2.4 Agricultural and forest areas

Urbanisation on the coasts has been growing strongly.However, built-up areas are still not the dominantland use form along Europe's coasts. Most of the

territory is characterised by other land uses whereagriculture and nature still coexist. Therefore, it isnecessary to monitor changes in these areas as well.

The Changing Faces of Europe's Coastal Areas

Documents