The Archaeology of Rome and the Roman provinces 11 City of Rome 2.pdf · The Seven Hills of Rome The Seven Hills of Rome east of the Tiber form the heart of Rome. The Seven Hills

The Archaeology of Rome and the Roman provinces

Lecture 11. The city of Rome.

The Origins of Rome

• Rome’s Geography

– Site of Rome chosen for its fertile soil and strategic location

– Located on Italian Peninsula in the center of the Mediterranean Sea.

– Built on seven hills along Tiber River

• The First Romans

– Latins, Greeks, and Etruscans compete for control of the region.

– Latins found original settlement of Rome between 1000 B.C. and 500 B.C.

– Etruscans native to northern Italy influence Roman civilization

The Seven Hills of Rome The Seven Hills of Rome east of the Tiber

form the heart of Rome.

The Seven Hills of Rome

The original city was held by tradition to have

been founded by Romulus on the Palatine Hill.

The other six are now the Aventine, the

Capitoline , the Quirinal , the Viminal , the

Esquiline and the Caelian.

Infrastructure • Few geographical barriers

on the Italian peninsula

• Military roads radiated from Rome – Troops could be sent

quickly to quell unrest in any area

– Dual purpose—roads came to allow quick and easy travel by tax collectors, traders, travelers, and officials

• Famous roads – Appian Way

– Flaminian Way

– Valerian Way

• Public funds dedicated to building and maintaining the Republic’s infrastructure

Archaic Rome – VI c. BC

Rome – late Republic

In 14 CE, the city of Rome had at least 750,000 inhabitants, more than a tenth of Italy's population. It grew beyond 1 million in the 2nd century CE, a total not again equaled by Western cities until the 19th century. As the imperial capital, Rome was sustained by transfers in kind from throughout the empire; no other city could be sustained at this level.

Rivers, mountains & natural resources

Plan Forum - Cesarstwo

Origins of Roman Architecture

• Elements of Roman architecture show very significant Greek influence.

• However, Roman functional needs sometimes differed, resulting in interesting innovations.

• The Romans were less attached to “ideal” forms and extended Greek ideas to make them more functional.

Origins of Roman Architecture

The Maison Caree in Nimes

• Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks worshipped outside.

• Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged columns, while maintaining the same basic shape.

Roman Innovation

• To the original Greek

orders, the Romans

added two:

– The Tuscan order.

– The Compostite order.

Roman Innovation

• Tuscan Order:

– Like the Doric, except

this one has a base.

Roman Innovation

• The Composite order

combined elements of

both the Ionic and

Corinthian.

• It appears to be

Corinthian acanthus

leaves, supplemented

with volutes.

Roman Innovation

• The Roman ability to build massively was largely determined by their discovery of slow-drying concrete, made with pozzolana sand (volcanic ash).

• This allowed not only bases, but also walls to be constructed of mainly concrete or concrete and rubble.

• Facings could be made of more expensive stone or inexpensive brick.

• The result was strong structures that could be formed in any desirable shape.

Opus caementitium - white - Quartz sand and mika fragments added - Also calcyte and river mud

In water installations this mortar was used for plastering the walls of conduits and cisterns. On top a layer of opus signinum could be added.

Roman mortar Rudus (mortar) - Grey color - Sand, stone or pottery fragments added - No ground ceramic - Basic way to connect stones

Hydraulic mortar, opus signinum (after Signia in Latium)

- Usually pink or yellowish color - Contains sand and fragments of ground ceramics - Preparing hydraulic mortar was a rather sophisticated process in comparison to common mortar.

M. Biernacka-Lubańska – Zaprawy hydrauliczne w wodociągach z Novae, Novensia 7

Roman concrete (opus caementicium)

• Roman concrete (opus caementicium), was developed early in the 2nd c. BCE. The use of mortar as a bonding agent in ashlar masonry wasn’t new in the ancient world; mortar was a combination of sand, lime and water in proper proportions.

• The major contribution the Romans made to the mortar recipe was the introduction of volcanic Italian sand (also known as “pozzolana”). The Roman builders who used pozzolana rather than ordinary sand noticed that their mortar was incredibly strong and durable.

• It also had the ability to set underwater.

• Brick and tile were commonly plastered over the concrete since it was not considered very pretty on its own, but the concrete’s structural possibilities were far more important.

Roman concrete (opus caementicium)

• The invention of opus caementicium initiated the Roman architectural revolution, allowing for builders to be much more creative with their designs.

• Since concrete takes the shape of the mold or frame it is poured into, buildings began to take on ever more fluid and creative shapes.

• From the second century BC through the second century AD, the ancient world went through what's been called the Concrete Revolution. The Romans' dynamic civilization required ever larger and sturdier structures, and they excelled in the use of concrete to make buildings that would have been unthinkable before their time.

Roman concrete with brick facing

(opus testaceum or latericium) on

the Palatine Hill in Rome.

Roman Innovation – Composite

Walls

• Note the use of a brick

outer facing and a fill

of concrete and rubble.

Concrete Revolution

• Roman architecture was unlike anything that had come before. The Persians, Egyptians, Greeks and Etruscans all had monumental architecture. The grandeur of their buildings, though, was largely external.

• Buildings were designed to be impressive when viewed from outside because their architects all had to rely on building in a post-and-lintel system, which means that they used two upright posts, like columns, with a horizontal block, known as a lintel, laid flat across the top.

• Since lintels are heavy, the interior spaces of buildings could only be limited in size. Much of the interior space had to be devoted to supporting heavy loads.

An example of post and lintel

architecture: Hera II, Paestum, c.

460 B.C.E. (Classical period),

tufa, 24.26 x 59.98 m

Concrete Revolution

• Roman architecture differed fundamentally from this tradition because of the discovery, experimentation and exploitation of concrete, arches and vaulting (a good example of this is the Pantheon, c. 125 C.E.).

• Thanks to these innovations, from the first century C.E. Romans were able to create interior spaces that had previously been unheard of.

• Romans became increasingly concerned with shaping interior space rather than filling it with structural supports. As a result, the inside of Roman buildings were as impressive as their exteriors.

Giovanni Paolo Panini, Interior of the

Pantheon, c. 1734, oil on canvas,

The Pantheon • The Pantheon is a building on the site

of an earlier building commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD).

• The present building was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD. He retained Agrippa's original inscription, which has confused its date of construction.

• The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment.

• A rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the sky.

The Pantheon • Almost two thousand years after it was

built, the Pantheon's dome is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres.

• It is one of the best-preserved of all Ancient Roman buildings, in large part because it has been in continuous use throughout its history, and since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a church dedicated to "St. Mary and the Martyrs" (Latin: Santa Maria ad Martyres) but informally known as "Santa Maria Rotonda". The square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda.

Roman concrete (opus caementicium)

6.

9.

11.

Roman Innovation Worship – The Pantheon

Roman Innovation Worship – The Pantheon

• The magnificent interior space of the Pantheon was achieved by:

– Employing a dome over a drum.

– Coffering the dome to reduce weight.

– Placing an occulus to allow light to enter.

The arch • The Romans also exploited the opportunities afforded to architects by the

innovation of the true arch (as opposed to a corbeled arch where stones are laid so that they move slightly in toward the center as they move higher).

• A true arch is composed of wedge-shaped blocks (typically of a durable stone), called voussoirs, with a key stone in the center holding them into place.

The Roman Arch • To support the tremendous weight of

the arches, it was necessary to provide

a way of transmitting the force to

massive piers to the foundation of the

arch.

• The Romans achieved this feat

through the use of the Keystone

block. The force was directed down

onto the top of the keystone.

• Force was then translated to the

voussoir blocks of the arch which in

turn translated the force through the

impost to the piers.

The arch

• In a true arch, weight is transferred from one voussoir down to the next, from the top of the arch to ground level, creating a sturdy building tool.

• True arches can span greater distances than a simple post-and-lintel. The use of concrete, combined with the employment of true arches allowed for vaults and domes to be built, creating expansive and breathtaking interior spaces.

Roman Innovation – The Arcuated

Arch

• Romans did not

invent this form,

but they used it

well in bridges,

within buildings,

and to allow

aqueducts to span

rivers and gorges.

Roman Public Water Supply Pont de Garde Aqueduct, Nimes

Roman Innovation – Massive Building – the

Temple of Fortuna Primigenia

• The Temple of

Fortuna Primigenia

was a massive

structure, made

possible by concrete

construction.

Roman Innovation – Massive

Building – Baths of Caracalla

• Roman baths were the recreation centers of Roman cities, incorporating pools, exercise facilities and even libraries.

• They could serve hundreds or thousands at a time.

Materials, Methods and Innovations

• Long before concrete made its appearance on the building scene in Rome, the Romans utilized a volcanic stone native to Italy called tufa to construct their buildings.

• Although tufa never went out of use, travertine began to be utilized in the late 2nd century B.C.E. because it was more durable. Also, its off-white color made it an acceptable substitute for marble.

Temple of Portunus

(formerly known as,

Fortuna Virilis),

c. 120-80 B.C.E., structure

is travertine and tufa,

stuccoed to look like Greek

marble, Rome

Golden House

• The Emperor Nero began building his infamous Domus Aurea, or Golden House, after a great fire swept through Rome in 64 C.E. and destroyed much of the downtown area.

• Nero’s desire to live in grand fashion did spur on the architectural revolution in Rome.

• The architects, Severus and Celer, are known (thanks to the Roman historian Tacitus), and they built a grand palace, complete with courtyards, dining rooms, colonnades and fountains.

• They also used concrete extensively, including barrel vaults and domes throughout the complex.

Golden House

• What makes the Golden House unique in Roman architecture is that Severus and Celer were using concrete in new and exciting ways;

• Rather than utilizing the material for just its structural purposes, the architects began to experiment with concrete in aesthetic modes, for instance, to make expansive domed spaces.

Severus and Celer, octagon room, Domus Aurea, Rome, c. 64-68 C.E.

Roman architecture • Nero may have started a new trend for

bigger and better concrete architecture, but Roman architects, and the emperors who supported them, took that trend and pushed it to its greatest potential.

• Vespasian’s Colosseum, the Markets of Trajan, the Baths of Caracalla and the Basilica of Maxentius are just a few of the most impressive structures to come out of the architectural revolution in Rome.

• Roman architecture was not entirely comprised of concrete, however. Some buildings, which were made from marble, hearkened back to the sober, Classical beauty of Greek architecture, like the Forum of Trajan. Ultimately, Roman architecture is overwhelmingly a success story of experimentation and the desire to achieve something new.

Apollodorus of Damascus, Markets of Trajan, Rome, c. 106-12 C.E

Roman architecture

• Marble was slow to catch on in Rome during the Republican period since it was seen as an extravagance, but after the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.E. - 14 C.E.), marble became quite fashionable.

• Augustus had famously claimed in his funerary inscription, known as the Res Gestae, that he “found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble” referring to his ambitious building campaigns.

Roman Innovation Housing - Insulae

• Large apartment buildings housed most of the population of a Roman city.

Public Buildings – Basilica

• Basilica were first built to house audience facilities for government officials.

• When Christianity became the state religion, this kind of building was adapted to Christian worship.

Public Buildings -- Basilica

• A large nave is flanked by side aisles behind a row of supporting piers.

• An Apse draws attention in the direction of the altar.

ROMAN BUILDINGS THE ROMAN FORUM

(Forum Romanum)

Roman Forum

• Roman cities were typically focused on the forum (a large open plaza, surrounded by important buildings), which was the civic, religious and economic heart of the city.

• It was in the city’s forum that major temples (such as a Capitoline temple, dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) were located, as well as other important shrines.

• Also useful in the forum plan were the basilica (a law court), and other official meeting places for the town council, such as a curia building.

• Quite often the city’s meat, fish and vegetable markets sprang up around the bustling forum.

• Surrounding the forum, lining the city’s streets, framing gateways, and marking crossings stood the connective architecture of the city: the porticoes, colonnades, arches and fountains that beautified a Roman city

Commerce & Trade • The Forum Cuppedinis in ancient Rome

was a market which offered general goods.

• At least four other large markets specialized in specific goods such as cattle, wine, fish and herbs and vegetables, but the Roman forum drew the bulk of the traffic.

• All new cities, like Timgad, were laid out according to an orthogonal grid plan which facilitated transportation and commerce. The cities were connected by good roads.

• Navigable rivers were extensively used and some canals were dug

• All settlements, especially the smaller ones, could be located in economically rational positions.

Plan Forum - Cesarstwo

The Roman Forum is located in a valley that is

between the Palatine hill and the Capitoline hill.

It originally was a marsh, but the Romans drained the

area and turned it into a center of political and

social activity. The Forum was the marketplace of

Rome and also the business district and civic center.

It was expanded to include temples, a senate house

and law courts. When the Roman Empire fell, the

Forum became forgotten, buried and was used as a

cattle pasture during the Middle Ages.

People would come to the Forum to buy and sell anything and everything: meats and produce; shoes and clothes; people - slaves, prostitutes, mercenaries; and even money. One could come to the Forum, get food for supper, hire a mercenary to protect the homestead, and get a loan for that add-on to the house.

The Forum

• Layout:

Curia

Basilica

Aemilia

Temple of Antonius and

Faustina Basilica of

Constantine

House of the

Vestals

Temple of

Vesta

Regia

Via

Sacra

Divus

Julius

Arch of

Augustus Temple of Castor

and Pollux

Basilica

Julia

Arch of Septimus

Severus

Temple of Concord

Rostra

Column

of

Phocas Arch of

Tiberius

Temple Saturn

Temple Vespasian

Navel of Rome • The Umbilicus Urbis Romae —"Navel of

the City of Rome"—was the symbolic centre of the city from which, and to which, all distances in Ancient Rome were measured.

• It was situated in the Roman Forum where its remnants can still be seen. These remains are located beside the Arch of Septimius Severus, behind the Rostra.

• Originally covered in marble, the Umbilicus is now a forlorn-looking brick core some 2 metres high and 4.45 metres in diameter.

Roman legend related that Romulus, when he founded the city, had a circular pit dug in the Forum. The first fruits of the year were thrown into this pit as a sacrifice and all new citizens of Rome had to throw in a handful of dirt from their place of origin.

Arch of Septimius Severus The arch honors Septimius Severus'sVictory over the Parthians. It also honors his two sons, Caracalla and Geta who fought with him in the war. It has on each long side four free-standing Corinthian columns flanking the three arches. It is located at one end of the Forum. The Forum had been flooded, buried and forgotten for many centuries. During this time the half of the arch that was above ground was used to house a barber shop.

Temple

of Saturn The temple of Saturn was erected by the consul Titus Larcius in 17 B.C. It was used as the public treasury and as a repository for the decrees of the senate. The poet Horace worked in this treasury when he was a young man. Treasures were held in an underground chamber. The temple was enlarged in 42 B.C. and rebuilt after a fire in the 4th century A.D. Eight columns remain of this temple.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Arch of Septimus Severus: – Built in 203 AD to celebrate victory over the

Parthians.

– Located between the Curia and Rostra.

– Three way triumphal arch.

– 20.88m high, 23.27m wide, 11.2m deep.

– Built of brick and travertine. Columns: composite order.

– Very well preserved.

Roman Curia (The Senate House)

The Curia is the largest brick

building that still has a roof in the

Forum. It was the Roman Senate

building. The building was a church

until 1937, when the fascist

government had the interior removed

and the original interior exposed.

What is left today of the ancient

senate building is the original marble

floor made out of Egyptian marble.

Also, the tiers that held the seats of

the senators remain. The Curia is

one of the best preserved buildings in

the Forum.

Curia

• Curia: Normal meeting place of the Senate.

– J. Caesar built the Curia Julia to replace the earlier one which burned down.

– Location: main square of the Forum.

– Destroyed completely by fire in 283 AD. Rebuilt shortly after by Diocletian.

– Dimensions: made of brick. Rectangular. • 8x27m and 21 m in height. (24x81x63h)

• 3 windows above doorway only.

• Single room inside, 2 lateral stepped platforms.

– Well preserved because it became a church in 7th Century.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Curia:

Temple of Antoninus & Faustina The temple of Antoninus and Faustina is the best preserved

building in the Forum. The Emperor Antonius Pius lost his wife Faustina.

After her death the Emperor built a magnificent temple in her honor in 141 AD. This temple was changed in the middle ages into the church of "San Lorenzo in Miranda".

Arch of

Titus The arch of Titus is located at

the opposite end of the forum

from the arch of Septimius

Severus.

Titus was the emperor that had

sacked the great Jewish temple

in Jerusalem.

The arch was built in his honor.

Sculptures on this arch show the

treasure of the Jews being

taken through the streets of

Rome. On the inside of the left

leg of this arch, there is a well

known sculpture of Romans

carrying away a Jewish

menorah.

The Rostra

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Rostra:

– Platform from which

people spoke to

assembled crowds.

– Name comes from the

bronze ship beaks that

dedicated its front.

Rostra

The Rostra was the

speaker’s platform on the

Roman Forum. The

Rostra is located in the

main square, between the

Arch of Septimius Severus

and the Temple of Saturn.

The speakers platform was

originally placed on the

Comitium, but moved to

the main square of the

forum by Julius Caesar in

44 BC.

Basilica Aemilia

• :

Basilica Aemilia

• Basilica Aemilia: Largest and only surviving basilicas of the Roman Republic. – Basilica: Public building: courthouse, metting hall, also religious

functions.

– Location: northeast side of the square in Forum.

– First built in 179 BC. Rectangular plan. • 70x29m (210x72) divided into 4 naves.

• Floor, polychrome marble.

– Very little remains of the basilica: floor plan is visible and a few columns.

Temple of Caesar • Divus Julius: (Temple of Caesar)

– East side of the main square of forum.

– Built by Augustus after Senate deified Caesar.

– Completed: August 29 BC.

– After Caesars body was taken by the people, it was placed on a funeral pyre in the Forum and burned.

• Initially a column was built on the spot.

– Temple rests on a tall podium with stairs on sides. 2 columns on sides.

– In front was a semi-circular recess with a small altar inside. This may be the location of the pyre.

– In front of the temple was a speakers platform.

– Very little remains of the temple.

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Temple of Antonius and

Faustina:

Inscription on Temple: “To the divine Antoninus and to the divine

Faustina by decree of the Senate.”

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Temple of Antonius and

Faustina:

– Built by emperor Antonius Pius after death of his wife in 141. It is located on the Via Sacra by the Basilica Aemilia.

– Corinthian columns. Entablature decorated with griffins, acanthus scrolls. Broad stairway gives access to porch.

– It had two statues in front of Antonius and Faustina.

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Basilica of Constantine:

Basilica of Constantine

– Last great basilica built in Forum.

– Begun by Maxentius and finished by Constantine after he defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 312 AD.

– Commercial and admin activities.

– Built with arches (other basilicas had flat ceilings). • Construction: Largest structure at the time, combining both bath

and basilica motifs.

– Consists of a central nave and 3 Barrel Vaults – Rectangular: 100x65m (300x195). Divided into a central

nave and lateral aisles with an atrium.

– Remains: North Aisle and the three concrete barrel vaults.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Via Sacra:

– The main road through

the Forum.

– It passes many important

buildings.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Regia:

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Regia:

– Originally the home of the kings of Rome.

– Later, the office of the Ponifex Maximus, high priest of Roman religion.

– It is by the Divus Julius and Antonius/Faustina.

– Rectangular building with three houses, with 3 interconnected room. A courtyard with doorway to middle room.

– Religious complex.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Vesta:

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Temple of Vesta: 7th BC (probably)

– On site of old Etruscan or Latin shrine

– Vesta: goddess of hearth, family, home

– One of the most ancient sanctuaries on Forum. Eternal fire kept going inside.

– Dedicated to Vesta, goddess of the Hearth.

– By the Regia.

– Served as a storehouse for the wills of senators

– Circular ground plan. Entrance from the east.

– Circular cella, surrounded by 20 Corinthian columns.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Atrium of Vesta: Place

where vestal virgins

lived.

Statues of Vestal

Virgins

Atrium

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Castor and

Pollux:

Castor and Pollux

• In Greek and Roman mythology, Castor and Pollux (known as Polydeuces to the

Greeks) were twin brothers who appeared in several prominent myths. The twins

were worshiped as gods who helped shipwrecked sailors and who brought favorable

winds for those who made sacrifices to them. The Romans considered Castor and

Pollux the patron gods of horses and of the Roman social order of mounted knights,

called equites.

• In one of the earliest myths about the twins, Castor and Pollux rescued their sister

Helen* after she had been kidnapped by Theseus*, king of Attica.

• The twins also accompanied Jason* and the Argonauts on their voyage in search of

the Golden Fleece.

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Temple of Castor and Pollux:

– Built in honor of two Roman heroes who helped defend Rome from the Etruscans.

– Built on site where they watered their horses.

– Finished in 484 BC.

– Destroyed in 14 BC by fire. Rebuilt by Tiberius in 6 AD.

– Served as meeting place for the Senate.

– Also served as the office of weights and measures and depository for state treasury.

– Its podium served as a speakers platform.

– Corinthian columns: 8 and 11.

– 32x49.5m. 7 m high.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Basilica Julia:

ROMAN BUILDINGS • Basilica Julia:

– Built in 54-48 BC by J. Caesar.

– Location: southside of main square of Forum

– Destroyed by fire in 9 BC. Rebuilt in 2 BC.

– Huge dimensions: 101x49m.

– Function: house activities of Forum when weather prohibited outdoor activities. Administrative offices of city housed here. Basic floor plan can be seen. Some parts of brick walls remain.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Column of Phocas:

– Location: main square of Forum.

– Dedicated to Byzantine emperor, Phocas.

– Built in AD 608.

– Last item built in forum.

– Corinthian column 13.6 m high.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Arch of Tiberius:

– Built to commenorate the recovery of Roman

standards lost to Germanic tribes by Varus in 9

AD.

– It is dedicated to Tiberius (emperor) even though

the standards were recovered by Germanicus in

15-16 AD.

– Only foundations remain. Probably a single arch

with Corinthian columns.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Saturn:

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Saturn:

– Oldest temple in Forum?, 498 BC.

– Location: W. end of Forum.

– Destroyed and rebuilt three times.

– Ionic order, 6 columns on the facade.

– In front of podium were two rooms, one served as

state treasury.

– Altar dedicated to Saturn stood in front of temple.

Statue to Saturn stood inside temple.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Vespasian:

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Vespasian:

– Built after death of Vespasian 79 AD.

– Dedicated to him and his son, Titus.

– Behind Temple of Saturn.

– 22x33m. One cella. Corinthian columns 15.2m high.

– Very little left. Three columns, piece of entablature. Pieces of inscription identify it.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Concord:

– Built to commemorate the agreement reached between Patricians and Plebs in 367 BC.

– Located by the Temple of Vespasian.

– 45x24m. Wider than deep.

– Most of it was destroyed. Podium and threshold to door of cella remain, Corinthian capital.

– Sometimes used for Senate meetings.

– Also used as a museum for Greek sculpture and paintings.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

• Temple of Concord:

Part of the

entablature

Aqueducts

• Aqua Virgo: Buried

arches in Rome.

Aqueducts

• Map:

Entertainment

• Entertainment varied greatly to suit all tastes in Rome, necessitating the erection of many types of structures.

• There were Greek style theaters for plays as well as smaller, more intimate odeon buildings, like the one in Pompeii, which were specifically designed for musical performances.

• The Romans also built amphitheaters—elliptical, enclosed spaces such as the Colloseum—which were used for gladiatorial combats or battles between men and animals.

• A circus was built in many of their cities. These were venues for residents to watch chariot racing.

Roman Innovation

- Public Entertainment

• Public spectacles – be they gladiatorial combat or theatrical – were given public venues.

• Theatres and arenas were built to hold multiple thousands of people and were engineered so as to allow quick and effective entry and exit.

ROMAN ENTERTAINMENT

VENUES Outside the Forum

Colosseum Circus Maximus

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Colosseum:

– Type of Building: Amphitheater, a type of

construction without Greek precedent.

• Designed to hold spectators. (large central performance

spaces surrounded by ascending seating, and were commonly used

for spectator sports)

– Location: Rome, just outside the Forum.

– Many ampitheaters were built in the Roman world.

Amphitheater vs A Greek Theater

• An amphitheater and a theater are different types of

buildings.

Amphi-theaters are "theaters in the round": amphi-

means "around" in Greek. A theater is a space with a

stage, and the audience is on one side of it. People

need to hear, so a theater is relatively small. An

amphitheater is for action: it's a sports arena, where

the spectators sit around the field. They need to see,

but they don't really need to hear, so an amphitheater

can be much larger.

AHA!

Roman Innovation Entertainment – Ampitheater at Nimes

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum • Colosseum is also known as the

Flavian Amphitheater. built by the Flavian emperors in the first century AD

• Construction was begun by Vespasian (emperor 69-79 AD), between 70-72 AD.

• Inaugurated by Titus in 80 AD and completed by Domitian.

• 10 years to build

• Located on marshy land, it is the first permanent amphi-theater built in Rome.

• Damaged by fire in 217.

Vespasian

Titus

Domitian

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Colosseum is a vast ellipse.

• Built in tiers, was able to seat 50,000 around a

central elliptical arena.

• Floor was made of wood.

• Below floor were a complex set of rooms and

passageways for wild beasts and other

provisions for staging the games.

Colosseum

• Specs:

– 188 m long x 156 m wide

– Structure covers over 4 hectars.

– Outer wall: 100,000 cubic m of travertine set in

mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.

– Height: 48,5 m (Equivalent to 12-15 story

building!)

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Inside and floor area: Elliptical design

Under-floor

rooms

Roman Innovation Entertainment – the Roman Colosseum

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum • Eighty walls radiate from arena and

support vaults for passageways, stairways and the tiers of seats.

• Three tiers of arcades are faced by ¾ columns and entablatures: first story, doric; second, Ionic and third, corinthian.

• Each floor consisted of 80 arches. • Above them is an attic story with

Corinthian pilasters and small square window openings.

• Pilaster: columns attached to a wall so that ½ of its circumference is cut off by the wall.

• Top: brackets and sockets carried the masts from which the velarium, canopy for shade, was suspended. Manned by sailors

Colosseum

• Columned tiers

Lower Arcade: Doric

Columns

Middle Arcade: Ionic

Upper Arcade: Corinthian

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Outside: Arches

arcades), columns,

pilasters

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Construction used combination of types:

– Concrete for foundations

– Travertine for the piers and arcades

– Tufa infill between piers for walls of lower two

levels

– Brick faced concrete for upper levels and most of

the vaults.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• DETAILS:

– 50,000 could be seated.

– 80 entrances allowing crowds to

arrive and leave quickly. 76 used

by spectators; 2 used by emperor;

2 used by gladiators

– Spectators used numbered tickets

(pottery shards)

– Built so that entry and exit could

be done in less than one half

hour!

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Details: – Upon entering, spectators

climbed sloping ramps to their seats.

– Seating was according to gender and social class.

• Women and poor stood or used wooden benches on 4th tier.

– During 1st ten years of use, it was filled with water for mock naval battles.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Plan:

Colosseum

• Hypogeum:

– Built by Domitian

– Connected by underground

tunnels to points outside

the colosseum.

– Machinery in hypogeum:

• Elevators and pulleys raised

and lowered scenery and

caged animals to surface.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Colosseum

• Details:

– Most shows in the Colosseum lasted all day beginning with comedic contests and exotic animal shows in the morning and moving on to professional gladiator events in the afternoon.

– In all shows, death played a prominent role.

– During the Colosseum's opening ceremonies in A.D. 80, spectacles were held for 100 days in which hundreds of animals and 2,000 gladiators were killed.

– Eventually, gladiator fights were outlawed by Emperor Honorius in A.D. 404; however, animal combats continued for another century.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• View from the air:

Reconstruction

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• Valley between Aventine and Palatine Hills.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• Reconstruction

Circus Maximus • Purpose: The Circus Maximus was a track used

primarily for chariot/horse-racing, although it was used on occasion for hunts or mock battles.

• Built in the 6th century BC. First and largest chariot racing stadium in ancient Rome.

• Size: 620 m long (2037 ft) and 137 m wide. • There was a long barrier (spina) that ran down the

middle of the track. • In addition to obelisks, fountains, statues, and

columns, there were also two temples on the spina, one with seven large eggs and one with seven dolphins. – At the end of each lap of the seven lap race, one egg

and one dolphin would be removed from each temple, to keep the spectators and the racers updated on how many laps had been completed.

• Theoretically it held 250,000 people. ¼ of cities pop. However, remains suggest seating for 150,000. Even more could view from hills and grass.

• Tradition says first games were held by Taquinius Priscus, 5th king of Rome.

Circus maximus • Construction:

– For a long time it was built entirely of wood

– The carceres or stalls for the horse and chariots also acted as starting gates, were built in painted wood, as well as the spina.

– In 174 B.C. the censors Fulvius Flaccus and Postumius Albinus had the carceres built in masonry, and placed the seven stone eggs along the spina.

– In 33 B.C. Agrippa had the bronze dolphins set up

– Augustus had the pulvinar, a sacred box reserved for the tutelary gods of the games, set up and in 10 B.C. he had the obelisk of Ramses, II taken at Heliopolis placed on the spina.

– Of the chariot races that were held there, the most important were those of the Ludi Romani the first week of September, which opened with a religious procession in which the highest religious and civil authorities of the city took part.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• It was twice destroyed by fire and on at least two occasions the stands collapsed, killing many people. – Inside its four-story facade, the Circus was a maze of

shops, rooms, stairways, and arcades.

– Throngs of people moved about the great interior corridor that provided access to any part of the structure.

– Vendors showed their wares and sold refreshments and souvenirs; and, of course, there were always prostitutes, gamblers, pickpockets, girl watchers, and drunks.

Circus Maximus

• Coins issued by Caracella

Notice the image of the Circus

Maximus on the obverse of the

coin

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• Facts: – Men and women could sit together.

– The Circus Maximus also had the ancient equivalent of the skyboxes you see now in stadiums for professional sports. The Emperor had a reserved seat, as did senators, knights, those who financially backed the race, those who presided over the competition, and the jury that awarded the prize to the winners.

– Originally, 10-12 races per day, then doubled to 24 by Caligula.

– Chariots started from 12 gates.

– Total distance per race: 3 to 4 miles.

– Drivers had to stay in a marked lane for a certain distance.

– Presiding magistrate dropped a white flag to start race.

– The last race held at the Circus Maximus was in 549 A.D., nearly a full

millenium after the track's construction.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• From Palatine Hill:

Circus Maximus • Carceres

Circus Maximus

• Spina from Circus of Maxentius

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• Interesting Tidbits:

• The Circus Maximus allowed emperors an opportunity to announce new laws or taxes

• the populace frequently aired its dirty laundry when horses weren't running.

• Displeased with their taxes, the crowd one day shouted their troubles to Caligula in between races.

• Rather than hear them out, or even ignore them, Caligula sent out hefty chunks of the military into the crowd with orders to detain any shouting persons.

• He had them brought to the center of the circus, halted all racing activity, and summarily executed each one so that the bulk of Rome could see he wasn't fooling around.

ROMAN BUILDINGS

Circus Maximus

• Chariots, Horses,

Jockeys