The Adaptive Immune Response T-cells

The Adaptive Immune Response

T-cells

T Lymphocytes

T lymphocytes develop from precursors in the thymus. Mature T cells are found in the blood, where they constitute 60% to 70% of lymphocytes, and in T-cell zones of peripheral lymphoid organs (described below).

Each T cell recognizes a specific cell-bound antigen by means of an antigen-specific T-cell receptor (TCR). In approximately 95% of T cells the TCR consists of a disulfide-linked heterodimer made up of an α and a β polypeptide chain, each having a variable (antigen-binding) region and a constant region.

The αβ TCR recognizes peptide antigens that are displayed by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules on the surfaces of antigen-presenting cells (APCs).

By limiting the specificity of T cells for peptides displayed by cell surface MHC molecules, called MHC restriction, the immune system ensures that T cells see only cell-associated antigens (e.g., those derived from microbes in cells).

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TCR diversity is generated by somatic rearrangement of the genes that encode the TCR α and β chains.

All cells of the body, including lymphocyte progenitors, contain TCR genes in the germ-line configuration, which cannot be expressed as TCR proteins.

During T cell development in the thymus, the TCR genes rearrange to form many different combinations that can be transcribed and translated into functional antigen receptors.

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un-rearranged (germ-line) TCR genes are present in all non-T cells in the body, but only T cells contain rearranged TCR genes.

Hence, the presence of rearranged TCR genes, which can be demonstrated by molecular analysis, is a marker of T-lineage cells. Furthermore, because each T cell and its clonal progeny have a unique DNA rearrangement (and hence a unique TCR), it is possible to distinguish polyclonal (non-neoplastic) T-cell proliferations from monoclonal (neoplastic) T-cell proliferations. Thus, analysis of antigen receptor gene rearrangements is a valuable assay for detecting lymphoid tumors.

A small population of mature T cells expresses another type of TCR composed of γ and δ polypeptide chains.

The γδ TCR recognizes peptides, lipids, and small molecules, without a requirement for display by MHC proteins.

γδ T cells tend to aggregate at epithelial surfaces, such as the skin and mucosa of the gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts, suggesting that these cells are sentinels that protect against microbes that try to enter through epithelia.

However, the functions of γδ T cells are not clearly understood.

Another small subset of T cells expresses markers that are found on NK cells; these cells are called NK-T cells. NK-T cells express a very limited diversity of TCRs, and they recognize glycolipids that are displayed by the MHC-like molecule CD1. The functions of NK-T cells are also not well defined.

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In addition to CD3 and ζ proteins, T cells express several other proteins that assist the TCR complex in functional responses.

These include CD4, CD8, CD2, integrins, and CD28.

CD4 and CD8 are expressed on two mutually exclusive subsets of αβ T cells.

CD4 is expressed on approximately 60% of mature CD3+ T cells, which function as cytokine-secreting helper cells that help macrophages and B lymphocytes to combat infections, whereas

During antigen presentation, CD4 molecules bind to class II MHC molecules that are displaying antigen.

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CD8 is expressed on about 30% of T cells, which function as cytotoxic (killer) T lymphocytes (CTLs) to destroy host cells harboring microbes.

CD4 and CD8 serve as “co-receptors” in T-cell activation, so called because they work with the antigen receptor in responses to antigen.

When the antigen receptor of a T cell recognizes antigen, the CD4 or CD8 co-receptor initiates signals that are necessary for activation of the T cells.

Because of this requirement for co-receptors,

CD4+ helper T cells can recognize and respond to antigen displayed only by class II MHC molecules, whereas CD8+ cytotoxic T cells recognize cell-bound antigens only in association with class I MHC molecules.

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Interdigitating dendritic cells, or just dendritic cells.

These cells are the most important antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for initiating primary T-cell responses against protein antigens.

Several features of dendritic cells account for their key role in antigen presentation.

Dendritic Cells

There are two types of cells with dendritic morphology that are functionally quite different. Both have numerous fine cytoplasmic processes that resemble dendrites, from which they derive their name.

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First, these cells are located at the right place to capture antigens—under epithelia, the common site of entry of microbes and foreign antigens, and in the interstitia of all tissues, where antigens may be produced.

Immature dendritic cells within the epidermis are called Langerhans cells.

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Second, dendritic cells express many receptors for capturing and responding to microbes (and other antigens), including TLRs and mannose receptors.

Third, in response to microbes, dendritic cells are recruited to the T-cell zones of lymphoid organs, where they are ideally located to present antigens to T cells.

Fourth, dendritic cells express high levels of the molecules needed for presenting antigens to and activating CD4+ T cells.

Follicular dendritic cell

These cells bear Fc receptors for IgG and receptors for C3b and can trap antigen bound to antibodies or complement proteins.

Such cells play a role in humoral immune responses by presenting antigens to B cells and selecting the B cells that have the highest affinity for the antigen, thus improving the quality of the antibody produced.

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MHC is HLAHLA and Disease Association

DiseaseHLA Allele

Risk (%)

Ankylosing spondylitis B27 90–100

Postgonococcal arthritis B27 14Acute anterior uveitis B27 14Rheumatoid arthritis DR4 4Chronic active hepatitis DR3 13Primary Sjogren syndrome

DR3 9

Type 1 diabetes DR3 5DR4 6DR3/DR4 20