Terminology Sheet #1: Persuasion & Argumentatio n.

Terminology Sheet #1:

Persuasion

& Argumentation

Persuasion:

Presentation of ideas or information in order to compel action (emotional)

ie. mayoral candidate urging voters to vote for an initiative

Argumentation:

Presentation of ideas or information in order to present a common understanding (rational)

ie. columnist who defends a presidential foreign policy

Purposes of Persuasion/Argumentation:

Audience Types:

*** Types of support used often depends on the target audience

Audience Types:

1. Those who have formed opinions, and hold them tightly (Atticus to the jury, Michael Moore, Ann Coulter)

Audience Types:

2. Those who have formed opinions, but recognize another reasonable view (Reagan Democrats, independent voters)

Audience Types:

3. Those who have not formed opinions, and are interested in the issue (undecided voters in the 2012 Presidential election)

Audience Types:

4. Those who have not formed opinions, and are uninterested in the issue (non-registered citizens)

I. Elements of Classical Argumentation

Claim/Assertion/Proposition/Position/Thesis:

That which the writer wants the reader to accept as reasonable or true

Sub-claims:

That which the writer wants the reader to consider a reasonable point that helps prove the claim

Support/Evidence:

Material used to prove a claim/sub-claim

Concession:

Acknowledging reasonable opposing arguments

Refutation:

Proving those opposing arguments wrong

II. Types of Support/Evidence:

***Material used to prove or explain a claim/opinion

Fact:

Information that can be proven objectively to be true

Statistic:

Information that is an interpretation of numerical data

Interview/Survey/Questionnaire:

Information gathered first hand from people; a primary source

Experience/Example/Anecdote:

Information from personal experience supposedly representative of a general pattern

Opinion:

Information based on personal interpretation of facts

Ideally, a position reached after being knowledgeable about all arguments & weighing factors from both sidesPrejudice: position reached after

gathering limited information or ignoring one side of an issue

Analogy:

Information comparing easily accepted examples with unfamiliar subjects

Authority:

Information from a person whom the writer attributes expertise on a given subject

Shared Beliefs/Values:

Information readers share and accept as true (allusions to history, Bible)

Causal Relationship:

Writer asserts one thing results from another event or action

Primary Source:

Materials on which other research is based

Created by one with direct personal knowledge of the events being described

Secondary Source:

A work created from primary sources

Performs the function of generalization, analysis, or synthesis of events

III. Argumentative Appeals

Pathos (emotional):

Appeal to audience’s emotions --- (connotative language, manipulation of tone, and figurative language are the best tools)

Weakest form of proof, but often necessary for the audience

Logos (logical):

Appeal to reader’s reason/logic/intelligence --- (statistics, authorities, facts)

Strongest form of proof, but often not very interesting or compelling

Ethos (ethical/credible):

Appeal based on credibility of author ---(image, integrity, expertise, honesty, knowledge, character)

VI. Argumentative Organization/Arrangement

Inductive Reasoning:

Begins with empirical evidence, then works to a claim

Is not proof, but leads to a testable hypothesis

Specific to general; evidence to conclusion; instance to theory; particular to universal (Netflix recommendations)

Inductive Reasoning:

Examples of Inductive Reasoning:

RED SHIFT: I have noticed that every star I observe is moving away from the earth. Therefore, the universe must be expanding.

Every time I ask to borrow the car a day in advance, my parents let me. Therefore, I should ask today if I need to use the car tomorrow.

Deductive Reasoning:

The process of concluding that something must be true because it is an instance of a general principle that is known to be true

Begins with a claim, then works toward evidence, going from general to specific; from conclusion to evidence; theory to instance (Declaration of Independence; prejudice; rational market [invisible hand])

Deductive Reasoning:

Why are these important?

Many arguments in the social sciences are deductive, but the main premise was not created through induction. In deductive arguments, we should always check the validity of the main premise.Challenges to The Declaration – all men

are created equal(?).

Inductive or Deductive?

A red-eyed fruit fly has RNA.A white-eyed fruit fly has RNA.A Hawaiian fruit fly has RNA.Therefore, all fruit flies have RNA.

All organisms have RNA.This fruit fly is an organism.Therefore, this fruit fly has RNA.

V. Forms of Logic

Syllogism:

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of: a major premise (a general

statement of fact),

a minor premise (a particular instance of the major premise),

and a conclusion

Syllogism Example:

All humans are mortal, the major premise;

I am a human, the minor premise;

Therefore, I am mortal, the conclusion.

Enthymeme:A syllogism with one premise (usually the

major premise) left unstatede.g., Ms. Haxton didn’t eat her hash

browns; she must hate potatoes.

Major: ???Minor: Ms. Haxton was absent today.Conclusion: Ms. Haxton must be sick.

Major:???Minor: The Sumerians invented written

language.Conclusion: The Sumerians created the

modern world.

Here’s one way to turn an enthymeme into a syllogism:Create a “because” statement

Because Ms. Haxton didn’t eat her hash browns (minor premise), Ms. Haxton doesn’t like potatoes (conclusion).

Because the Sumerians invented written language, they created the modern world

Change the noun to an indefinite pronounAnyone who doesn’t eat hash browns must not

like potatoes (major premise).Whoever invented written language invented

the modern world (major premise).

Now you try!

Mr. Woodard heard this the other day - turn it into a syllogism.50% of all schools in Detroit are

still heated with coal. No wonder they have had such an exodus from their public schools.