TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 1. AC air conditioner (often referred to as AC ) is a home appliance , system , or mechanism designed to dehumidify and extract heat from an area. The cooling is done using a simple refrigeration cycle . In construction , a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as " HVAC ". In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers heat from a lower- temperature heat source into a higher-temperature heat sink . Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior and into the room in which it stands. A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil , 2) expansion valve , 3) evaporator coil , 4) compressor . This cycle takes advantage of the way phase changes work, where latent heat is released at a constant temperature during a liquid / gas phase change, and where varying the pressure of a pure substance also varies its condensation / boiling point .Freon is a good refrigerant. running a normal air conditioner's refrigerant in the opposite direction, the overall effect is the opposite, and the compartment is heated. This is usually called a heat pump , and is capable of heating a home to comfortable temperatures (25 °C; 70 °F), even when the outside air is below the freezing point of water (0 °C; 32 °F) @@@@ Humidity
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TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
1. ACair conditioner (often referred to as AC) is a home appliance, system, or mechanism designed to dehumidify and extract heat from an area. The cooling is done using a simple refrigeration cycle. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as "HVAC".
In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers heat from a lower-temperature heat source into a higher-temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior and into the room in which it stands.
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor.
This cycle takes advantage of the way phase changes work, where latent heat is released at a constant temperature during a liquid/gas phase change, and where varying the pressure of a pure substance also varies its condensation/boiling point.Freon is a good refrigerant.
running a normal air conditioner's refrigerant in the opposite direction, the overall effect is the opposite, and the compartment is heated. This is usually called a heat pump, and is capable of heating a home to comfortable temperatures (25 °C; 70 °F), even when the outside air is below the freezing point of water (0 °C; 32 °F)@@@@
Humidity
Air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity of the air processed by the system. The
relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed
air, much as a cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass. The water is drained,
removing water vapor from the cooled space and thereby lowering its relative humidity.
Basic parts
The following are the basic parts for a window unit air conditioner.
any other. Each telephone line has an identifying number called its telephone number. To initiate
a telephone call, a conversation with another telephone, the user enters the other telephone's
number into a numeric keypad on his/her phone.
3.Solar cookerA solar cooker, or solar oven, is a device which uses the energy of sunlight to heat food or drink to cook it or sterilize it. High-tech versions, for example electric ovens powered bysolar cells, are possible, and have some advantages such as being able to work in diffuse light. However at present they are very unusual because they are expensive. The vast majority of the solar cookers presently in use are relatively cheap, low-tech devices. Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide to help reduce fuel costs for low-income people, reduce air pollution and slow deforestation and desertification, caused by use of firewood for cooking. Solar cooking is a form ofoutdoor cooking and is often used in situations where minimal fuel consumption is important, or the danger of accidental fires is high.
There are a variety of types of solar cookers: over 65 major designs and hundreds of variations of
them. The basic principles of solar cooker design are:
Concentrating sunlight: A reflective mirror of polished glass, metal or metallised film is
used to concentrate light and heat from the sun into a small cooking area, making the energy
more concentrated and increasing its heating power.
Converting light to heat: A black or low reflectivity surface on a food container or the
inside of a solar cooker will improve the effectiveness of turning light into heat.
Light absorptionconverts the sun's visible light into heat, substantially improving the
effectiveness of the cooker.
Trapping heat: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker
from the air outside the cooker. A plastic bag or tightly sealed glass cover will trap the hot air
inside. This makes it possible to reach similar temperatures on cold and windy days as on
hot days.
Greenhouse effect : Glass transmits visible light but blocks infrared thermal radiation from
escaping. This amplifies the heat trapping effect.
The changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle.
The possibility of the potable water or collector fluid overheating.
The possibility of the potable water or collector fluid freezing.
5)ELECTRIC GEYSER
Geysers work on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into heat energy by using a heating element. Cold water comes into a defined compartment, gets heated to a certain degree, by the heating element and goes out through another outlet. ISI marked geysers are preferred over local makes because they have incorporated essential safety norms.
The standard geyser is 15lt in capacity, although 1lt capacity geysers are also available. These electrical appliances have insulated body with long life heating element. There are multiple safety systems installed in geysers to avoid any kind of mishap. These geysers come with a minimum guarantee period but have quite a good life. Combistat is also fitted for maintaining temperature and to conserve energy.
Electrical Geysers are classified as per their capacity, where the starting range is one liter and extends up to 25liters, depending on the requirement of any household.
Instant Geysers are geysers which take very little time to heat water and have lesser capacity as compared to traditional geysers. Fusible plug, pressure release valve, thermal cut out and ISI approved thermostat are some of the features of instant geysers. They are good for small families because standard geysers consume more electricity to heat large quantity of water. Instant geysers are also successful in kitchens where water consumption is only for cleaning of utensils.
Geysers are also classified according to energy consumption. Some large capacity geysers consume lesser electricity, despite their higher capacity. These geysers are given ratings of 4stars and 3stars respectively. The higher number of stars denotes higher efficiency and therefore low energy consumption. Those electrical kitchen accessories should be purchased which have good ratings to save on energy and enjoy greater efficiency.
Electrical Geysers are available in different shades to go with the interiors of your bathroom and kitchen.
The function of the thermostat is to set the temperature to a certain value so that water is not heated above that value.
The tank is normally covered with some insulating material such as glass wool and entire assembly is enclosed inside a metal casing which can be hanged on the wall or wherever required.
6. MICROWAVESA microwave oven (often referred to colloquially simply as a "microwave") is a kitchen appliance that heats food by dielectric heating. This is accomplished by using microwave radiation to heat polarized molecules within the food. This excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 1 inch (25 mm) to 1.5 inches (38 mm) inches of a dense (high water content) food item, leading to food being more evenly heated throughout (except in thick dense objects) than generally occurs in other cooking techniques.
Basic microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently, but, unlike conventional ovens, do not brown or bake food. This makes them unsuitable for cooking certain foods, or to achieve certain culinary effects. Additional kinds of heat sources can be added to microwavepackaging, or into combination microwave ovens, to produce these other heating effects.
A microwave oven works by passing non-ionizing microwave radiation, usually at a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)—a wavelength of 122 millimetres (4.80 in)—through the food. Microwave radiation is between common radio and infrared frequencies. Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heatingRotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, when dispersed as molecular vibration in solids and liquids (i.e., as both potential energy andkinetic energy of atoms), is heat.
A microwave oven consists of:
a high voltage power source, commonly a simple transformer or an electronic power
converter, which passes energy to the magnetron
a high voltage capacitor connected to the magnetron, transformer and via a diode to the
case.
a cavity magnetron, which converts high-voltage electric energy to microwave radiation
a magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller)
a waveguide (to control the direction of the microwaves)
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe.
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacement of the ground. When theepicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the
seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger
landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether
natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly
by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine
blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus orhypocenter.
The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter. 7 MAJOR PLATES,
KEEP COLLIDING.
10 NATURAL GEYSERA geyser (US / ̍ ɡ a ɪ z ər / ; UK / ̍ ɡ i ː z ə / [1] ) is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water
ejected turbulently and accompanied by a vapour phase (steam). The word geyser comes
from Geysir, the name of an erupting spring at Haukadalur, Iceland; that name, in turn, comes
from the Icelandic verb geysa, "to gush", the verb itself from Old Norse.
The formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions, which exist in only a few
places on Earth, so they are a fairly rare phenomenon. Generally all geyser field sites are located
near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity ofmagma. Generally,
surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where it
contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of
hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent (a hydrothermal explosion).
About a thousand known geysers exist worldwide, roughly half of which are in Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming, United States. A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to
ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot
springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention.[2]
Geysers are temporary geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic
areas.[3] As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and
water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically
requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.[3]
Intense heat
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that needs to be near the
surface of the earth. The fact that geysers need heat much higher than normally found
near the earth's surface is the reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic
areas. The pressures encountered at the areas where the water is heated makes the
boiling point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric pressures.
Water
The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel underground through deep,
pressurized fissures in the earth's crust.
A plumbing system
In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system is required. This
includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally
aligned along faults.[3] The plumbing system is made up of a system of fractures, fissures,
porous spaces and sometimes cavities. Constrictions in the system are essential to the
building up of pressure before an eruptio
11)IRONAn iron is a small appliance used in ironing to remove wrinkles from fabric. Ironing works by loosening the ties between the long chains of molecules that exist in polymer fiber materials. With the heat and the weight of the ironing plate, the fibers are stretched and the fabric
maintains its new shape when cool. Some materials such as cotton require the use of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many materials developed in the twentieth century are advertised as needing little or no ironing.
Modern irons for home use can have the following features:
a method for setting the iron down, usually standing on its end, without the hot soleplate
touching anything that could be damaged;
a thermostat ensuring maintenance of a constant temperature;
a temperature control dial allowing the user to select the operating temperatures (usually
marked with types of cloth rather than temperatures:silk, "wool", "cotton", "linen", etc.);
electrical cord with heat-resistant Teflon (PTFE) insulation;
ejection of steam through the clothing during the ironing process;
A water reservoir inside the iron used for steam generation;
An indicator showing the amount of water left in the reservoir,
Constant steam - constantly sends steam through the hot part of the iron into the
clothes;
Steam burst - sends a burst of steam through the clothes when the user presses
a button;
12) ELECTRIC FANA mechanical fan is a machine used to create flow within a fluid, typically a gas such as air.
A fan consists of a rotating arrangement of vanes or blades which act on the air. Usually, it is
contained within some form of housing or case. This may direct the airflow or increase safety by
preventing objects from contacting the fan blades. Most fans are powered by electric motors, but
other sources of power may be used, including hydraulic motors and internal combustion
engines and solar power.
Fans produce air flows with high volume and low pressure, as opposed to compressors which
produce high pressures at a comparatively low volume. A fan blade will often rotate when
exposed to an air stream, and devices that take advantage of this, such
as anemometers and wind turbines, often have designs similar to that of a fan.
For more details on this topic, see Centrifugal compressor.
While fans are often used to cool people, they do not actually cool air (if anything, electric fans
warm it slightly due to the warming of their motors), but work by evaporative cooling of sweat and
increased heat conduction into the surrounding air due to the airflow from the fans. Thus, fans
may become at ineffective at cooling the body if the surrounding air is near body temperature and
contains high humidity.
The axial-flow fans have blades that force air to move parallel to the shaft about which the blades rotate. Axial fans blow air along the axis of the fan, linearly, hence their name. This type of fan is used in a wide variety of applications, ranging from small cooling fans for electronics to the giant fans used in wind tunnels. Axial flow fans are applied for air conditioning and industrial process applications. Standard axial flow fans have diameters from 300-400 mm or 1800 to 2000 mm and work under pressures up to 800 Pa.
13 CYCLONE a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth.[1][2] This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure.
FORMATIONCyclones (including typhoons and hurricanes) are caused by warm tropical moisture bearing clouds developing in open oceans or seas. Cyclones can only form over warm waters in the tropical regions of the oceans where the sea temperatures are 26.5 degrees Celsius or higher (around 80 degrees Fahrenheit). They occur in areas of very low pressure when air that is heated by the sun rises rapidly, and becomes saturated with moisture which then condenses into high thunderclouds. As the atmosphere becomes favorable for development (no wind shearing in the higher parts of the atmosphere), normal thunder storms clump together.
When the hot air rises, cooler air rushes in to fill the area left vacant by the hot air. The Coriolis effect of the Earth spinning on its axis causes the air to spiral upwards with considerable force. This in turn causes the winds to rotate faster, causing the tropical low to deepen in intensity into a tropical depression, and eventually a cyclone which is anywhere between hundreds of kilometres to thousands of kilometres wide.
Cyclones are also characterised by strong winds, yet in their centre is a clear, calm region called the 'eye'. When the cyclone continues its course, and the winds return from the other direction, they may seem to be more violent. The winds are not just rotating; there is also the effect of the warmer air continually rising and cold air rushing in. That is why the winds are so strong, and seem to move in all directions.
Winds gusts in a category 5 cyclone can exceed 280 kph, and a fully developed cyclone pumps out about two million tonnes of air per second.
Condenser, 2: Expansion valve, 3: Evaporator unit, 4: Compressor
Features
Newer refrigerators may include:
Automatic defrosting ;
A power failure warning, alerting the user by flashing a temperature display. The
maximum temperature reached during the power failure may be displayed, along with
information on whether the frozen food has defrosted or may contain harmful bacteria;
Chilled water and ice available from an in-door station, so that the door need not be
opened;
Water and Ice Dispensing became available in the 1970s. Also some refrigerators have
icemakers built-in so the user doesn't have to use ice trays. Some refrigerators have water
chillers and water filtration systems.
Cabinet rollers that allow the refrigerator to be easily rolled around for easier cleaning;
Adjustable shelves and trays which can be repositioned to suit the user;
A Status Indicator to notify the user when it is time to change the water filter;
An in-door ice caddy, which relocates the ice-maker storage to the freezer door and
saves approximately 60 litres (2 cu ft) of usable freezer space. It is also removable, and helps
to prevent ice-maker clogging;
A cooling zone in the refrigerator door shelves. Air from the freezer section is diverted to
the refrigerator door, to cool milk or juice stored in the door shelf.
workingA vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as R134a enters a compressor as low-pressure vapor at or slightly above the temperature of the refrigerator interior. The vapor is compressed and exits the compressor as high-pressure superheated vapor.
16 TVTelevision (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochrome (black-and-white) or colored, with accompanying sound
the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television, which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems developed in the 1920s, and uses high-powered radio-frequency transmitters tobroadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers.
A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is properly called a video monitor, rather than a television. A television system may use different technical standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television (HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is difficult or dangerous.
An analog television works by transferring electromagnetic waves into sound and light energy. The TV box works much like any receiver, in that it takes in electrical impulses sent from elsewhere and changes those bits of information into something people can hear and see. You can see a picture on a television because the cathode ray tube, in side older televisions, emits or fluoresces light not visible to the naked eye. The term "watch the tube," refers to the cathode ray tube present in most modern-day television sets.
Color on a television set is created by mixing various light beams. It basically works by regulating red, blue and green light in different patterns against something called a "phosphor sheet." TVs all have sheets placed behind the glass portion of it. Black and white televisions usually only have one phosphor sheet while color TVs will have three. By manipulating the "color burst," or composite video impulse, you can literally open up a suppressed TV signal for viewing.
17 VACUUM CLEANERSA vacuum cleaner, commonly referred to as a "vacuum," is a device that uses an air pump to create a partial vacuum to suck up dust and dirt, usually from floors, and optionally from other surfaces as well. The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Vacuum cleaners, which are used in homes as well as in industry, exist in a variety of sizes and models: small battery-operated hand-held devices, domestic central vacuum cleaners, huge stationary industrial appliances that can handle several hundred litres of dust before being emptied, and self-propelled vacuum trucks for recovery of large spills or removal of contaminated soil.
Technology
A vacuum's suction is caused by a difference in air pressure. An electric fan reduces the pressure
inside the machine. Atmospheric pressure then pushes the air through the carpet and into the
nozzle, and so the dust is literally pushed into the bag.
Tests have shown that vacuuming can kill 100% of young fleas and 96% of adult fleas
Suction
The suction is the maximum pressure difference that the pump can create. For example, a typical
domestic model has a suction of about negative 20 kPa. This means that it can lower the
pressure inside the hose from normal atmospheric pressure (about 100 kPa) by 20 kPa.
18 calculatorAn electronic calculator is a small, portable, usually inexpensive electronic machine used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic.
Modern electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations. Some even contain 00 and 000 buttons to make large numbers easier to enter
WORKING!
[3] In general, a basic electronic calculator consists of the following components:
Power source (battery and/or solar cell)
Keypad - consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (addition,
multiplication, square-root, etc.)
Processor chip (microprocessor) contains:
Scanning unit - when a calculator is powered on, it scans the keypad waiting to
pick up an electrical signal when a key is pressed.
Encoder unit - converts the numbers and functions into binary code.
X register and Y register - They are number stores where numbers are stored
temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first. The number
in the X register is shown on the display.
Flag register - The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator
needs it.
Permanent memory (ROM)- The instructions for in-built functions (arithmetic
operations, square roots, percentages, trigonometry etc.) are stored here in binary form.
These instructions are "programs" stored permanently. Permanent memory cannot be
erased.
User memory (RAM) - The store where numbers can be stored by the user.
User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) - The ALU executes all arithmetic and logic
instructions, and provides the results in binary coded form.
Decoder unit - converts binary code into "decimal" numbers which can be
the cathode, the Cu2+ is reduced to metallic copper by gaining two electrons. The result is the
effective transfer of copper from the anode source to a plate covering the cathode.
The plating is most commonly a single metallic element, not an alloy. However, some alloys can
be electrodeposited, notably brass andsolder.
Applications: fake jewellary
20PRESSURE COOKERSPressure cooking is a method of cooking in a sealed vessel that does not permit air or liquids to
escape below a preset pressure. Because the boiling point of water increases as
the pressure increases, the pressure built up inside the cooker allows the liquid in the pot to rise
to a higher temperature before boiling.
Pressure is created at the beginning with boiling liquid, such as water, inside the closed pressure
cooker and the trapped steam increases the internal pressure and temperature, which is
maintained throughout cooking time.
Design
Pressure cookers are generally made from aluminum or stainless steel.
In most models a gasket or sealing ring forms a gas-tight seal which does not allow air or steam to escape between the pot and the lid, other more expensive models feature a metal to metal seal. Normally, the only way the steam can escape is through a regulator on the lid when the pressure has built up. In case the regulator is blocked, a safety valve is provided as a backup escape route for steam. The simplest safety valve is a loose-fitting rubber plug in the lid, held in place by steam pressure. If the pressure exceeds design limits, the plug pops out of its seat.
Operation
The food to be cooked is placed in the pressure cooker, with a small amount of water or liquid
required for the recipe. The lid is closed, the pressure setting selected and the pressure cooker is
placed on a heat source, e.g., a stove, at the highest heat (if a weight is used, the weight is
placed on the steam vent when steam is being emitted, as this ensures the air inside has
escaped) until the cooker reaches full pressure, then the heat is lowered to maintain pressure and
timing the recipe begins at this point. A common mistake is for the user to start timing the recipe
when the pop-up indicator rises as soon as there is the slightest amount of pressure in the
cooker, instead of timing the recipe when the cooker has reached its selected pressure level.
Some pressure cookers have markers on the pop-up indicator which show the pressure level, but
normally the pop-up indicator just shows that the cooker has pressure inside, which is not a
21 BATTERYAn electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.[1] Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applicationsThere are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly
to electrical energy.[22] It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell
includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e.,
the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In
the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the
cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.[23] The electrodes do not
touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells
with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing
of the electrolytes.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current
from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the
emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta.[12] Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs
and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between
the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[24]
APPLICATIONS!!!
22 ARC WELDINGArc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, and/or slag.
During a lunar eclipse only the umbra and penumbra are applicable. This is because Earth's
apparent diameter from the viewpoint of the Moon is nearly 4 times that of the Sun.
The first contact occurs when the Moon's disc first starts to impinge on the Sun's; second
contact is when the Moon's disc moves completely within the Sun's; third contact when it starts to
move out of the Sun's; and fourth or last contact when it finally leaves the Sun's disc entirely.
EARTH MOON SYSTEMAn eclipse involving the Sun, Earth and Moon can occur only when they are nearly in a straight line, allowing one to be hidden behind another, viewed from the third. Because the orbital plane of the Moon is tilted with respect to the orbital plane of the Earth (the ecliptic), eclipses can occur only when the Moon is close to the intersection of these two planes (the nodes). The Sun, Earth and nodes are aligned twice a year (during an eclipse season), and eclipses can occur during a period of about two months around these times. There can be from four to seven eclipses in a calendar year, which repeat according to various eclipse cycles, such as a saros.
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun as seen from the Earth.Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow. Since this occurs only when the Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun, lunar eclipses only occur when there is a full moon.
24 GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITESA geosynchronous Satellite is a satellite whose orbit on the Earth repeats regularly over points on the Earth over time. If such a satellite's orbit lies over the equator, the orbit is circular and its angular velocity is the same as the earth's, then it is called a geostationary satellite.
Application
There are approximately 300 operational geosynchronous satellites.
Geostationary satellites appear to be fixed over one spot above the equator. Receiving and
transmitting antennas on the earth do not need to track such a satellite. These antennas can be
fixed in place and are much less expensive than tracking antennas. These satellites have
revolutionized global communications, television broadcasting and weather forecasting, and have
a number of important defense and intelligence applications.
One disadvantage of geostationary satellites is a result of their high altitude: radio signals take
approximately 0.25 of a second to reach and return from the satellite, resulting in a small but
significant signal delay. This delay increases the difficulty of telephone conversation and reduces
the performance of common network protocols such as TCP/IP, but does not present a problem
with non-interactive systems such as television broadcasts. There are a number of proprietary
satellite data protocols that are designed to proxy TCP/IP connections over long-delay satellite
links—these are marketed as being a partial solution to the poor performance of native TCP over
satellite links. TCP presumes that all loss is due to congestion, not errors, and probes link
capacity with its "slow-start" algorithm, which only sends packets once it is known that earlier
packets have been received. Slow start is very slow over a path using a geostationary satellite.
Another disadvantage of geostationary satellites is the incomplete geographical coverage, since
ground stations at higher than roughly 60 degrees latitude have difficulty reliably receiving signals