TASH Connections: Volume 38 Issue 3

Making Sense of the Common Core State Standards

ConnectionsEquity, Opportunity and Inclusion for People with Disabilities since 1975

Volume 38 w Issue 3 w Fall 2012

An Introduction to the Common Core State Standards w Page 8

Why are the Common Core State Standards Important for Students with Severe Disabilities? w Page 9

CCSS: Mathematics w Page 13

CCSS: ELA w Page 20

How We Arrived at the Common Core State Standards and the Promise it Holds for Students with Severe Disabilities w Page 27

Call for Nominations: Editor of RPSD Page 7

In This Issue

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The annual TASH Conference is the educational, networking and advocacy event of the year for parents, self-advocates and professionals in the disability field. Each year, more than a thousand attendees come together at the TASH Conference to share innovative ideas, ground breaking research and learn effective strategies for supporting equity, inde-pendence and opportunity in the lives of people with significant disabilities. You’re invited to Learn, Share and Grow during the 2013 TASH Conference in Chicago, Ill.

• More than 200 sessions and workshops• Opportunities to network with other parents, professionals and self-advocates• Practical skills to implement immediately• Engaging and inspiring keynote speakers

http://tash.org/2013tash

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Table of Contents

4 Letters from TASH 7 Call for Nominations: Editor of RPSD

Articles from our Contributors 8 An Introduction to the Common Core State Standards 9 Why are the Common Core State Standards Important for Students with Severe

Disabilities?13 CCSS: Mathematics 20 CCSS: ELA27 How We Arrived at the Common Core State Standards and the Promise it Holds for

Students with Severe Disabilities

30 Association News

33 Chapter News

35 Thank You Donors

EditorCharles Dukes

Editorial CommitteeDeborah TaubElizabeth FullertonLinda LengylPamela Lamar-Dukes

2011 TASH Board of DirectorsDavid L. Westling, President, Chair, Membership CommitteeJean Trainor, Vice President, Chair, Development CommitteeCarol Quirk, Past President, Chair, Diversity CommitteeDiane Ryndak, Secretary, Chair, Publications CommitteeBarbara Loescher, Ex Officio, TreasurerShirley Rodriguez, Ex Officio, Co-Chair, Chapter Leadership CommitteeMichael Callahan, Chair, Employment CommitteeMary Morningstar, Chair, Education CommitteeGail Fanjoy, Chair, Community Living CommitteeSharon Lohrmann, Chair, Conference and Training CommitteesLisa Mills, Ex Officio, Chair, Public Policy CommitteePat Amos, Ex Officio, Chair, Human Rights CommitteeCurtina Moreland-YoungAri Ne’emanBetty WilliamsMicah Fialka-FeldmanBill SmithLewis JacksonEmily TitonTerri WardMartin Agran, Ex OfficioCharles Dukes, Ex Officio

Contact Us1001 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 235 Washington, DC 20036 Phone: (202) 540-9020 w Fax: (202) 540-9019 [email protected] w www.tash.org Barbara Trader, Executive Director [email protected] Riethmaier, Advocacy Communications Manager [email protected] Kimmet, Program Manager [email protected] Feinberg, Operations [email protected] request an alternative format of TASH Connections call (202) 540-9020.Copyright© TASH 2012. No reprints without permission. Permission requests can be faxed to (202) 540-9019.

ConnectionsVolume 38 w Issue 3 w Fall 2012

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Toward More Compassionate Schools As the nation rolls out the high academic standards called for in the Common Core, it is important to pause and consider the other half of the “pyramid” – are kids getting the necessary supports to manage their own behavior?

As TASH members, this question immediately brings to mind Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports. Many TASH members are well versed in PBIS – some of our members conduct research in PBIS, some teach it, some use it on a daily basis. It’s part of our overall approach to how we support people.

But is it enough? What do we know about chronic stress? What are the environments our students and adults live in? What does stress have to do with behavior? Why are so many children and adults with significant disabilities living with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder?

The e-newsletter, ACES Too High, offers this perspective:“Kids who are experiencing the toxic stress of severe and chronic trauma just can’t learn. It’s physiologically impossible.” In the general school population, there is growing understanding that in every community, a percentage of students live with chronic, toxic stress. The severe negative impact of childhood stress on long term health and social outcomes was first documented in the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (http://www.cdc.gov/ace/) conducted in 1995-1997, with multiple studies following. The impact of childhood stress on the ability to learn and prepare for productive adult life is devastating. The neurological structure of the developing brain even changes. To more readily meet the needs of students, a growing number of schools are incorporating a trauma-informed approach to transform school culture.

TASH is a committed partner of the National Center on Trauma Informed Care (NCTIC: http://www.samhsa.gov/nctic/). This valuable national center, funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, works to create trauma-informed systems and approaches in all human services environments, including schools.

Since TASH has become involved with NCTIC, we’ve arrived at these observations about TIC and PBIS:

• these are two complimentary practices;

• trauma informed care assumes (as the “least dangerous” assumption) that a traumatic experience is behind most behavioral (especially violent) outbursts -- and with this assumption, calls on staff to manage such behaviors very differently, not with harsh discipline, but by first by asking “what’s wrong?”

• trauma is a very individualized experience; students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD), for example, by virtue of the ways disabilities manifest might be traumatized by experiences that do not traumatize other students. And, if they don’t come to school with a trauma history, they may experience trauma in school -- from bullying, from harsh discipline, such as restraint and seclusion (see http://stophurtingkids.com and join the Campaign!), and other violent experiences. Individuals with I/DD are also much more likely to experience assault – sexual and otherwise – than their peers. And, we must consider that the experience of segregation is traumatizing. In the words of Peyton Goddard, from the book I Am Intelligent:

Bitten by the beast of separation, resolved I became To never being included in the real world. My yells for a just peace wallowed. Segregation denied me reaping a potent education. Accommodations and true support were absent. Segregation denied me desired friendships. Each day I typically wished a death to the regulated existence in Which a culture fearing differences re-proposed day by verified day to tepidly control me. Joy was a word lost. Hope I filed as a barren cause.

• TIC acknowledges that many adults working in schools are also trauma survivors, and that certain episodes (such as a violent outburst from a student) may be re-traumatizing, causing them to over-react to student behaviors in dangerous, counterproductive ways. This knowledge may help schools determine staffing strategies and professional development needs.

• TIC is culturally responsive -- parents and professionals

Letter from our Executive Director

Barbara Trader, Executive Director of TASH

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who come from communities where strict discipline may be acceptable can recognize the impact trauma may have on a student and be taught to respond in a trauma-informed way. Last week, for example, I talked with an assistant principal from a pretty tough high school, who is skeptical about other approaches, but TIC immediately resonated with her.

As we work toward a future when rigorous academic instruction is available to many more students with I/DD, it is critical that we acknowledge the importance of responding to students in compassionate ways – understanding that students are naturally inclined to please adults, to do well, and to succeed. We are committed by our values to understand that behavior has a purpose – and we know through our knowledge of evidence-based practices that technologies available through PBIS have done much to transform school culture for all students. With

this additional understanding – the physiological impossibility of learning until trauma symptoms are recognized and well managed – we can create school cultures that are safe and nurturing for all students. Peyton makes this case much more effectively than I:

Yell it from the mountaintop that when all people are valued and supported surely, the world can change.

Barbara Trader Executive Director of TASH

ReferencesJestevens. (31 May 2013). Massachusetts, Washington State lead U.S. trauma-sensitive school movement. ACES Too High. Retrieved from: http://acestoohigh.com/2012/05/31/massachusetts-washington-state-lead-u-s-trauma-sensitive-school-movement/.

Jestevens. (23 April 2013). Lincoln High School in Walla Walla, WA, tries new approach to school discipline — suspensions drop 85. ACES Too High. Retrieved from: http://acestoohigh.com/2012/04/23/lincoln-high-school-in-walla-walla-wa-tries-new-approach-to-school-discipline-expulsions-drop-85/

Goddard, P. and Goddard, D. (2012). I am intelligent. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press.

A Letter from Our Executive Director continued from page 4

To learn more about Trauma Informed Care and its application to schools, please visit The National Center on Trauma Informed Care: www.nasmhpd.org/nctic

I Am Intelligent, by Peyton and Dianne Goddard, can be purchased at www.amazon.com

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There has been a great deal of buzz about the Common Core State Standards (CCSS).

Rightfully so, the introduction of a common set of standards sets the stage for a new day in education…or does it? Standards or norms can be helpful and provide focus. But, it is important to keep in mind that standards are not intended to supplant curriculum and instruction, but to supplement. The most immediate implication is that the critical work of teachers-instruction is still necessary. Thus, the conversation about CCSS is just beginning and Connections will feature not one, but two

issues dedicated to help spark dialogue.

In this first issue, a solid collection of articles have been gathered to open the discussion about the standards and what this movement means for students with severe disabilities.

A Letter from Our Editor: Charles Dukes

Charles Dukes, Editor, TASH Connections

With this issue of Connections, TASH once again undertakes one of it primary missions: to educate its members and other interested individuals with cutting-edge information relevant to the lives of people with significant disabilities. The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) were developed under the leadership of National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers in collaboration with school personnel and instructional experts (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2012). Students with disabilities, including those with severe disabilities, are expected to learn academic skills that are linked to these standards.

As was noted by the developers of the CCSS, “Some students with the most significant cognitive disabilities will require substantial supports and accommodations to have meaningful access to certain standards in both instruction and assessment, based on their communication and academic needs. These supports and accommodations should ensure that students receive access to multiple means of learning and opportunities to demonstrate knowledge, but retain the rigor and high expectations of the Common Core State Standards” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2012). The articles presented in this issue of Connections provide a foundation for the “supports and accommodations” necessary for student with significant disabilities to benefit from instruction in the Common Core.

In the final article, Drs. Fred Spooner and Diane Browder provide a brief overview of the modern history of curriculum for students

with severe disabilities and then discuss why academic standards based on the CCSS are important for these students. They note that we do not know all the answers about the academic learning potential of students with severe disabilities, but that there is now a strong research base that demonstrates academic learning ability in several areas. They state, “Although we do not yet know how much of the CCSS students with severe disabilities will learn, we can be confident from this recent research that it will be more than once believed possible.”

I hope you enjoy this issue of Connections. It provides critical information about the changing the nature of instruction for students with severe disabilities and it merits the attention of all who support TASH values and quality education for all students.

David Westling President, TASH Board

Letter from our President

David L. Westling, Ed.D.President, TASH Board of Directors

ReferenceCommon Core State Standards Initiative (2012). Application to students with disabilities. Retrieved: June 1, 2012 at: http://www.corestandards.org/assets/application-to-students-with-disabilities.pdf

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Call for Nominations: Editor of RPSD

The TASH Editorial Search Committee is beginning the search for the new Editor of RPSD. The Editor serves a three-year term that will begin officially in June 2014. The Editor is an Ex-Officio member of the TASH Board of Directors.

Nominations or direct applications are invited from TASH members with the experience, expertise, and availability described below. Applications from traditionally under-represented groups including people with disabilities, women, and people representing racial or ethnic minority groups are particularly encour-aged. The following criteria will be used in making the selection decision:

1. Prior editorial experience: Previous experience as an Editor or Associate Editor of a scholarly journal in the field is preferred, especially RPSD. Experience in reviewing for refereed journals is required. Experience with electronic review systems is desired.

2. Record of authorship: Substantial publication record in the area of severe disabilities.

3. Commitment to TASH’s mission and vision: Support of TASH values as described in resolutions and other association activities.

4. Record of leadership: Demonstrated record of leadership on the national level in the area of se-vere disabilities, need to appoint associate editor and monitor editorial board.

5. Commitment to excellence and scholarship: A commitment to uphold the scholarship, rigor and reputation of the journal, while also providing leadership to move in new directions and innova-tive practices; and serve as an advocate for the journal and the publication mission of TASH.

6. Research skills: Expertise in one or more research methods commonly used in the area of severe disability, for example: within-subject designs (single subject), qualitative methods, and/or quan-titative methods including large-N descriptive or survey studies, experimental methods, and multivariate modeling.

7. General organizational skills: Evidence of ability to meet important deadlines and organize major tasks.

8. Resource availability: Ability to commit time and resources to (a) the production of RPSD for a three-year period, (b) attend the annual conference, and (c) participate in Board meetings.

If you are interested in being considered for this position, please send a letter of interest and your vita to: RPSD Editor Search, TASH 1001 Connecticut Ave., NW Suite 235, Washington, DC 20036 by December 1, 2013. You may also email your nomination or notice of your interest to: [email protected]. Further application materials will be requested from finalists. If you want to nominate someone for this position, please contact him or her and request this information.

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Undoubtedly, everyone invested in special education, personally or professionally, is affected by the changes in policy

that have led to the adoption of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS; http://www.corestandards.org). As a field, we now have a collective agenda: the interpretation and implementation of the CCSS for all students. Again, undoubtedly, the range of emotions and reactions to this charge is wide; we can celebrate the civil significance of holding all students to high academic standards, and we can bemoan the daunting task of how to do this well. Certainly teaching all students, including students with the most

severe disabilities, to not only access but demonstrate progress on skills based on the CCSS requires considerable attention, time, and expertise. These standards are intentionally rigorous, and the scope of content is broad and thorough. We recognize that for many teachers in many states, you are being asked to use a new blueprint for instruction with seemingly very little guidance. We also believe, fully, that you are able to teach the CCSS, and that you are able to teach it well.

Consider the following analogy: Moving to a new home is a tremendous undertaking. Packing and planning to relocate requires teamwork, time, and a great deal of physical and

Articles from Our Contributors

An Introduction to the Common Core State StandardsLeah Wood and Alicia Saunders, UNC Charlotte

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emotional energy. But when you move into your new home, you bring the essential pieces you will need with you. You do not discard everything and rebuild from scratch. Maybe you keep your favorite furniture and those personal items that helped make your house a home. Of course, you’ll need to buy some new items too. This is very similar to adopting the CCSS in your classroom or school. You have experiences that have served your students well. As a field, we have decades of knowledge about evidence-based and research based practices that are best used for teaching our students a variety of skills and content. By no means should the CCSS be in competition with what we know about how to teach. Instead, we now have a set of academic standards that we can use to drive instruction. And we can use the tools we already have. This may not be simple, but it is possible. More importantly, as we become sharper and stronger at teaching grade-aligned content using practices supported by research, the impact we can make on the lives and outcomes of students with

disabilities can only increase.

This edition of TASH Connections aims to introduce and discuss the CCSS as it relates to students with severe disabilities. We also have included two pieces specific to mathematics and English Language Arts (ELA), in which we have provided specific guidelines and suggestions for using what we know works (e.g., time delay, task analytic instruction) to effectively teach academic standards. Finally, we conclude with a piece that provides context for the development of the CCSS, rationale for teaching the CCSS to people with severe disabilities, and thoughts for moving forward. While the responsibility of teaching the CCSS to all students is ours to own, we are best suited to approach this new direction with the wisdom to use what we know are effective practices, the confidence that we are capable to teach this content, and the satisfaction that we are providing our students with a rich, full, and equitable educational experience.

Articles from Our Contributors

An Introduction to the Common Core State Standards continued from page 8

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS; www.corestandards.org) represent a shared set of content

standards adopted by most states that frame instruction and assessment for all students, including students with severe disabilities. The CCSS are designed with the goal that all students are college and career ready upon completion of high school. Through the use of the CCSS, students across the country receive instruction based upon the same set of content and learning targets. The authors of the CCSS identified several intentions of the standards that include driving effective practice, aligning with college and work

guidelines, and targeting higher order skills and rigorous content (www.corestandards.org/assets/Criteria.pdf). The CCSS do not provide instruction for how to teach, but instead represent what to teach in ELA and mathematics.

The CCSS vary from the previous approach of the use of individual state standards for each content area in that states now have the authority to decide (a) to adopt the CCSS, and (b) to supplement the CCSS with additional standards that each state determines to be crucial to the students within their state. Currently there are 45 states and 3 territories that have adopted

Why are the Common Core State Standards Important for Students with Severe Disabilities?Shawnee Wakeman, UNC Charlotte

Common Core State Standards www.corestandards.org

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Articles from Our Contributors

Why are the Common Core State Standards Important for Students with Severe Disabilities? continued from page 9

the CCSS (see www.corestandards.org/in-the-states for the full list). For students with significant cognitive disabilities1 (i.e., those who participate in a state’s alternate assessment based upon alternate achievement standards [AA-AAS]), individual states can decide to write alternate standards which are linked to the content within the CCSS and represent the state’s judgment of the highest expectations possible for this population of students. One example of this type of work is Wisconsin (http://dpi.wi.gov/sped/assmt-ccee.html). Additionally, the CCSS serve as the content base for the next generation of AA-AAS. Two consortia made up of state partners have been charged to design these new AA-AAS for use in the 2014-2015 school year. More information about the two consortia and each assessment system can be found at www.k12center.org/publications/alternative.html.

Structure of the CCSS

Mathematics There are two components that comprise mathematics: practice and content. There are eight mathematical practices outlined as critical for instruction within the context of the content. These practices are comprised of processes defined by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and by proficiencies defined by National Research Council. The content standards are written by grade level using domains, clusters, and individual standards. The domains represent the groups of related standards. For example, in 2nd grade there are four domains: Operations & Algebraic Thinking, Number & Operations in Base Ten, Measurement & Data, and Geometry. Within each domain there is a cluster of standards. The individual standards taken as a group represent the cluster under each domain. For example, in the 2nd grade in the domain of Measurement & Data there are four clusters: measure and estimate lengths in standard units, relate addition and subtraction to length, work with time and money, and represent and interpret data. Within each cluster there are individual standards. Following the same example, within the cluster of Represent and Interpret Data there are

two standards:

1. Generate measurement data by measuring lengths of several objects to the nearest whole unit, or by making repeated measurements of the same object. Show the measurements by making a line plot, where the horizontal scale is marked off in whole-number units.

2. Draw a picture graph and a bar graph (with single-unit scale) to represent a data set with up to four categories. Solve simple put-together, take-apart, and compare problems1 using information presented in a bar graph.

See Figure 1 below for an additional explanation of the structure of the mathematics CCSS.

English Language Arts (ELA)The structure of the ELA CCSS diverges from that of mathematics. The CCSS in ELA are designed using college and career readiness anchor standards in reading, writing, speaking and listening, and language. There are 10 anchor standards in reading, 10 in writing, six in speaking and listening, and six in language. These anchor standards are identical throughout the grades and provide the frame for what a student must do to ensure college and career readiness. The anchor standards in reading frame four groups: key ideas and details, craft and

Figure 1 . A screenshot of the website with domain, clusters, and standards (www.corestandards.org/Math/Content/introduction/how-to-read-the-grade-level-standards).

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Articles from Our Contributors

Why are the Common Core State Standards Important for Students with Severe Disabilities? continued from page 10

structure, integration of knowledge and ideas, and range of reading and level of text complexity (see Figure 2 below or an example). Reading standards are divided into literature, informational text, and foundational skills (found only in grades K-5). Writing standards are also framed into four anchor standards groups: text types and purposes, production and distribution of writing, research to build and present knowledge, and range of writing. Speaking and Listening are divided into two anchor standards groups: comprehension and collaboration, and presentation of knowledge and ideas. Finally, language standards are divided into three groups: conventions of standard English, knowledge of language, and vocabulary acquisition and use. Each set of standards are written in K-5 and 6-12 spans, with individual standards at each grade level, to allow teachers the opportunity to see what content is expected to come before and after the identified grade level content within related concepts.

Consideration of Students with Disabilities in the CCSSThe Council for Exceptional Children was involved in the development of the CCSS and endorsed their utility and use with students with disabilities (see CEC’s statement of support at www.corestandards.org/assets/k12_statements/CEC-Statement-of-Support.pdf).

The CCSS includes some information regarding the provision of accommodations to support the learning of students with disabilities. The CCSS is not prescriptive about what specific accommodations are appropriate or approved for assessment, as those are state and IEP team decisions, but do provide general recommendations such as the assistive technology and instructional accommodations (see www.corestandards.org/assets/application-to-students-with-disabilities.pdf).

Why is the CCSS Important for Students with Severe Disabilities?The CCSS represent the knowledge and skills necessary for students to be college and career ready. These expectations are intended to be inclusive of all students. Conley (2010) described four major dimensions for college readiness: (a) key cognitive strategies, (b) key content knowledge, (c) academic behaviors, and (d) college knowledge. For students with severe disabilities, the range of skills needed for college and career readiness also include those identified within each student’s IEP related to daily living, self-help, and transition. In past efforts, the emphasis within transitional efforts for students with significant disabilities has been employment (NTLS- 2, 2006). However, in recent years, college and postsecondary education opportunities for students in this population have increased (Hart & Grigal, 2010).

Kearns et al. (2010) identified five goals for helping students with significant cognitive disabilities become college and career ready, including: (a) developing communicative competence by Kindergarten; (b) cultivating fluency in math and ELA for learning, leisure, or vocational purposes; (c) using age appropriate social skills and working in small groups;

Figure 2. CCSS Anchor Standards for Reading.

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Articles from Our Contributors

Why are the Common Core State Standards Important for Students with Severe Disabilities? continued from page 11

(d) demonstrating independent work and assistance seeking behaviors; and (e) accessing support systems.

Historically, students with severe disabilities have followed a separate curriculum that may or may not have included general curriculum content until the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB, 2006; Browder, Spooner, Wakeman, Trela, & Baker, 2006). As efforts to increase access to the general curriculum has increased and evolved, the degree to which students have access opportunities has varied greatly by state and student (Ryndak, Moore, Orlando, & Delano, 2009-2010). One of the most important reasons for providing instruction in the CCSS for students with moderate to severe disabilities is the increased assurance and opportunity that these students are following the same curriculum as their nondisabled peers. Students with severe disabilities should be afforded the opportunity to be exposed to and meet at least some level of these high standards if they are going to use them in their post-school lives. The onset of the CCSS represents possibly the first time teachers and students have had the opportunity and readiness based upon previously enacted legislative efforts for engagement in rigorous academic content as part of their educational program. While legislation such as IDEA and NCLB mandated access, the CCSS represents the academic targets that can be used to fulfill the mandates.

Survey data (e.g., Cameto et al., 2010; Karvonen, Wakeman, Browder, Rogers, & Flowers, 2011) have documented that

teachers indicate they have not been trained regarding academic content or are not provided professional development regarding how to teach it. While the CCSS does not provide how to teach content, it does provide the impetus for teachers in special education and general education to work together around a common frame for the benefit of students with severe disabilities. Although more and more students with severe disabilities are being included in general education settings, the truth is that there is a long way to go and this population is less likely to be included in general education classrooms than students with mild disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). The potential of the CCSS to help promote inclusion of all students through collaboration is worth noting. Of additional benefit are the curriculum resources being developed by a multitude of teachers, states, and publishers, which target the same academic knowledge and skills. Universally designed lesson plans and curriculum materials aligned with the CCSS open the door for all students and create access to content that students with severe disabilities may have never experienced before. While CEC recognizes that the lack of special education teacher preparation in content may be a challenge, the organization identifies the implementation of the CCSS as an opportunity for collaboration and growth of all teachers (www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=CEC_Today 1&TEMPLATE= /CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=15269).

ReferencesBrowder, D. M., Spooner, F., Wakeman, S., Trela, K., & Baker, J. N. (2006). Aligning instruction with academic content standards: Finding the link. Re-search and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31, 309-321.

Cameto, R., Bergland, F., Knokey, A.-M., Nagle, K.M., Sanford, C., Kalb, S.C., … Ortega, M. (2010). Teacher perspectives of school-level implementation of alternate assessments for students with significant cognitive disabilities. A report from the national study on alternate assessments (NCSER 2010-3007). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Conley, D. T. (2010). Eligible & ready for college. Principal Leadership, 11(4), 18-22.

Hart, D., & Grigal, M. (2010). The spectrum of options—Current practices. In M. Grigal & D. Hart (Eds.), Think college: Postsecondary education options for students with intellectual disabilities (pp. 49-86). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Karvonen, M., Wakeman, S. Y., Browder, D. M., Rogers, M. A. S., & Flowers, C. (2011). Academic curriculum for students with significant cognitive disabilities: Special education teacher perspectives a decade after IDEA 1997. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED521407

Kearns, J., Kleinert, H., Harrison, B., Sheppard-Jones, K., Hall, & M., Jones, M. (2010). What does ‘college and career ready’ mean for students with significant cognitive disabilities? Lexington: University of Kentucky. Retrieved from www.naacpartners.org

Ryndak, D. L., Moore, M. A., Orlando, A., & Delano, M. (2009-2010). Access to the general curriculum: The mandate and role of context in research-based practice for students with extensive support needs. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 34, 199-213.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2012). Digest of Education Statistics, 2011 (NCES 2012-001), Chapter 2.

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Teaching grade-aligned mathematics can sometimes be a daunting task for a teacher of students with severe

disabilities. We often get asked by teachers, “How am I supposed to teach algebra to a student who cannot solve a simple addition problem?” This is a valid concern, and we continue to find answers to this question through research. In a recent study conducted by the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, a teacher who had been piloting a lesson aligned to the CCSS in mathematics said,

They [students] learned far more than I expected and I believe would have not learned as much if my focus was not on the grade-aligned objectives. The grade-aligned skills pushed me to use more grade level appropriate vocabulary and introduce the lessons in a manner that could be understood. I would have never imagined using the terms area and perimeter with my class or having them understand this appropriate grade level skill. It was a valuable guide that pushed me to think differently and shift my thinking to dig far deeper to find a connection to make it effective to learn the new content. Awesome!

This feedback is invaluable and comes at a time when many special education teachers are disheartened by the difficulty of the CCSS in mathematics, especially when paired with the quantity of content and pace of instruction delivered in the general education mathematics classroom. We should not become disheartened though. When students with severe disabilities were presented with the challenge of learning grade-aligned academics based on alternate achievement standards, they rose to the challenge and exceeded our expectations. In addition, research shows that students with severe disabilities can learn grade-aligned content when it is delivered with sound instructional practices and broken down into teachable steps (Browder, Jimenez, & Trela, 2012; Browder, Trela, et al., 2012; Jimenez, Browder, & Courtade, 2007). We have outlined a seven-step approach to creating lesson aligned to the CCSS in mathematics.

Step 1: Identify the standard and topic. The first step is to visit the CCSS website and select the domain in the CCSS to target (http://www.corestandards.org/Math). Once the

domain has been chosen, select the standard(s) from the domain. Collaborating with a general education mathematics teacher is essential to the planning process. When planning with the general education mathematics teacher, he or she may be able to help prioritize standards and select big ideas from prioritized standards to teach. The general education teacher’s lesson plans and activities may simply need some adaptations, or s/he may be able to provide suggestions on how to teach the content in a meaningful way.

Because many of the standards can get quite complicated, a number of resources have been developed to help teachers understand the concepts and how they are taught. These can be especially helpful for special education teachers who may not have had training on teaching mathematics. One great resource, developed by the professionals in North Carolina is the “Math Unpacking Standards” documents (http://www.ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core-tools/#unmath). These documents are broken down by grade level and include: (a) critical areas of focus for each grade level; (b) how the standards of mathematical practice should be integrated into the grade level; and (c) a description of each cluster, standard, and an example of what students should be able to do with each standard. These documents are very helpful in the planning process because they can help in narrowing down the content and selecting the most pertinent standards to teach. Prioritization is necessary when selecting standards for this population because of the depth and breadth of the CCSS.

Ms. Walker, a special education teacher of students with severe disabilities, co-teaches mathematics in an inclusion classroom. The 4th grade classroom was working on a measurement and geometry unit on area. She was challenged by having to make the concept of area from the 4th grade CCSS both meaningful and accessible to her students with severe disabilities. She broke her lesson into multiple parts and set benchmarks for her students. Ms. Walker consulted with the general education mathematics teacher, Mr. Mercer, to select the “big ideas,” or the most critical skills for understanding the targeted concept, which were identifying length, width, and area. These were the entry points for the lesson. The next benchmark was to find area using tiling squares and have the students count with 1:1 correspondence to find the area to help them have a visual understanding of what area meant. The last skill, which was the 4th grade skill, was to use a formula to find the area of a rectangle. By breaking the concept into smaller steps, she was able to help students build their understanding of the concept of area.

CCSS: MathematicsAlicia Saunders and Julie L. Thompson, UNC Charlotte

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Step 2: Incorporate a real-world application. The second step is to think of a real-world application to provide a context in which to anchor the standards. This is the opportunity to make the lesson and its contents meaningful and personally relevant to the students. Complex mathematical skills will have little meaning if taught in isolation, but if they are taught in context, students will have a much better chance of generalizing the skills to real world situations (Browder et al., 2008). The Internet can be valuable resources when thinking of a real-world application for a lesson. One helpful website is Illustrative Mathematics (www.illustrativemathematics.org), which provides specific examples of real world applications for many of the standards. In addition, the general education mathematics co-teacher can likely provide a variety of real world examples.

Mrs. Walker and Mr. Mercer wanted to choose a real-life application to help anchor the concept of area for their students. Since their team was in charge of decorating the bulletin boards for the hallway, they decided to teach area using the application of decorating the bulletin boards.

Step 3: Use a story-based lesson approach to teaching mathematics. The third step is to use a story-based lesson approach (Browder, Trela, et al., 2012). The story will create a purpose for the lesson, provide the context for the students, and help make the connection to a real-world activity or a personal experience (Pugalee, 2004). The mathematics story should be short, simple, include the facts needed to solve the problem, and end with a problem that the students will solve. To prevent confusion, place the facts in the story in the same order in which they would be placed on a graphic organizer to solve the problem. Also, incorporate students’ names and favorite places, things, or activities in the story to increase engagement. The story can be adapted with picture symbols and presented using a read aloud format for students who are emerging readers. Peers can be helpful in reading the story problems aloud to students with severe disabilities and guiding them through the problem solving process. This activity also can be differentiated for an entire class. For example, some students may use problems with 2- or 3 digit numbers but the activity can be adapted with 1-digit numbers, or instead of a two-step algebraic equation, a one-step equation can be substituted.

Mrs. Walker and Mr. Mercer divided the class into groups and read the following story related to finding the area of a rectangle: “It was time to display new artwork on the class bulletin board. Tameka’s teacher asked her to cover the bulletin board background with blue

scrapbook paper. The scrapbook paper was 1 ft2. Tameka could fit 6 papers across and 4 papers down. How many scrapbook papers will she need in all?”

In addition to the bulletin board background made of blue scrapbook paper, the class decided to create a mosaic design on each page of scrapbook paper using 1in squares of different colors. The class had to answer several questions: How many squares will be needed for one paper? How many for all the papers on the board? What is the area of the bulletin board in ft2 and the total number of 1 in squares needed to decorate all the scrapbook papers? Mrs. Walker and Mr. Mercer floated around to the groups providing a visual depiction of the dimensions of the bulletin board with the length and width identified to those needing assistance. Each group was given 1in tiles and peers were encouraged to assist each other in covering one page of scrapbook paper (1ft2) with the tiles. They taught the students using strategies described below that length is the longer side and width is the shorter side. They provided students with a graphic organizer of the formula for area (A = l x w) and a calculator to complete the problems.

Step 4: Utilize research and evidence-based instructional strategies. Systematic instruction, task analytic instruction, explicit instruction, and plans for generalization are research-based and evidence-based practices that can be incorporated into a grade-aligned lesson to help students with severe disabilities learn the content. Not only is it best practice to use high quality instructional practices when teaching, but NCLB (2006) also promotes the use of research supported practices in instruction.

Systematic instruction is the basic training procedure that has been used to teach students with moderate and severe disabilities from the first applied study (Fuller, 1949). Snell (1983) is likely the first to attempt to define systematic instruction as a replicable process, which uses performance data to make modifications to teaching procedures based on student learning during proficiency, maintenance, and generalization phases of instruction. Based on the principles of behavior analysis, training is frequent (daily), specific behaviors are targeted for training, skills are broken down into teachable components (task analysis), antecedents are clearly identified, prompting and fading strategies are incorporated as needed, and data collection is utilized to help guide the instructional process. In the example provided above, students with severe disabilities who may still be learning to identify numerals or count to 100 can be provided multiple opportunities to practice this skill while completing measurement problems.

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Task analytic instruction is an evidence-based practice for teaching mathematics to students with severe disabilities (Browder et al., 2008; Spooner, Knight, Browder, & Smith, 2012). Since students in the inclusion class access mathematics at varying levels, there may be more than one task analysis per lesson, or if the skills progress nicely in a sequential format, only one task analysis may be needed. In Ms. Walker’s example, she developed one task analysis for the 4th grade skills, where the students first identified that area was measured in square units and found area using tiling squares and then used a formula to solve for the area.

Two types of systematic instruction that have been used to teach mathematics are constant time delay and system of least prompts (Browder et al., 2008). Constant time delay can be used to teach discrete mathematics skills like vocabulary, number, and symbol identification (Collins, 2007). System of least prompts is another evidence-based practice that can be used to teach both discrete and chained skills (Collins, 2007). System of least prompts can be combined with task analytic instruction when teaching mathematics. Table 1 shows an example of this in an actual grade-aligned mathematics lessons. In the provided example, the skill of teaching area using tiling squares was broken into a task analysis, and then the systematic prompting and feedback were planned out and scripted. Peers have been successfully trained to

use systematic prompting and feedback with fidelity (Hudson, Browder, & Jimenez, in press). Because of the level of detail in the script in Table 1, peers could easily use the task analysis after a few short training sessions (see Table 1).

Recently, the use of explicit instruction has been implemented and shown promise in teaching mathematics to students with severe disabilities (Cihak & Foust, 2008; Rockwell, Griffin, & Jones, 2011; Thompson, Wood, Test, & Cease-Cook, 2012). Rosenshine (1987) defines explicit instruction as “a systematic method of teaching with emphasis on proceeding in small steps, checking for student understanding, and achieving active and successful participation by all students” (p. 34). One effective explicit instruction strategy is to check for understanding and ensure active student participation through the use of model-lead-test (Heward, 1994). Also known as “I do, we do, you do,” model-lead-test (MLT) is used to model concepts or procedures, provide scaffolding, and test students to check for understanding. This procedure has been demonstrated effective for teaching in general education classrooms targeting students without disabilities (e.g., Kretlow, Wood, & Cooke, 2011), as well as with students with disabilities (e.g., Thompson et al., 2012).

Mrs. Walker reviewed the concept of perimeter with the whole class using MLT. During peer group work Mr. Mercer checked in with Zatrel, a non-verbal student with limited mobility who uses an eye gaze response, and used MLT until Zatrel demonstrated the concept independently using his gaze board. Dhakshan, also non-verbal but uses a point response was taught by his peer, Ryan. “My turn to show you perimeter,” said Ryan. While tracing his finger around the outside edges of a cardstock paper, he stated, “This is perimeter.” Then he continued, “Do it with me. This is perimeter.” As he traced the paper again he scanned to see if Dhakshan traced his paper with his finger. Dhakshan made a mistake so Ryan said, “My turn again. This is perimeter,” and demonstrated tracing the edge of the paper. Then he led Dhakshan again by asking him to “show perimeter.” This time Dhakshan correctly traced the edges of the paper to demonstrate perimeter. “Very good,” said Ryan, “Now it is your turn. Show me perimeter.” Since this is the test component to check for understanding, Ryan did not model perimeter and only scanned to see if the Dhakshan made the correct response. He did! Mrs. Walker and Mr. Mercer intend to review this prerequisite skill briefly before each lesson pertaining to area to ensure maintenance of the concept.

Step 5: Plan for generalization. Planning for generalization also is an important step to take in creating mathematics lessons aligned to the CCSS. Teachers may plan

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Figure 1. A screenshot of an interactive whiteboard les-son on area. The graphic organizer is included on the screen, along with an interactive calculator with large buttons that are easy to push.

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Teacher does/says Target student response PromptingReinforcement when correct

“First, we need to cover the area of your paper using tiling squares. Use your tiles to cover the area.”

Note: Provide student with more tiles than necessary.

Student places tiles adjacently to cover area of the area of the paper.

I = Independent

V = Verbal Prompt (e.g., “Put the tiles side-by-side until the whole area of the paper is covered.”)

G = Gesture prompt (e.g., point to where to place tile)

P = Physical Prompt (e.g., hand over hand)

“Great job using the tiles to cover the area!”

Provide student specific reinforcement as needed.

“Next, count the tiling squares to find the area of the paper.”

Student counts aloud or indicates final number of blocks by choosing a number from an array

I = Independent

V = Verbal Prompt (e.g., count the tiles)

G = Gesture prompt (e.g., point to each tile while counting using 1:1 correspondence)

P = Physical Prompt (e.g., hand over hand)

“Nice counting! You counted __ tiles, so the area of your paper is __ square units.”

Provide student specific reinforcement as needed.

“What is the area of the paper?”

Student states area using correct number and units of measure (i.e., “square units” or “units squared”).

I = Independent

V = Verbal Prompt (e.g., count the tiles)

G = Gesture prompt (e.g., point to each tile while counting using 1:1 correspondence)

P = Physical Prompt (e.g., hand over hand)

“Excellent job! The area is __ square units or __ units squared.”

“Now, let’s practice finding the area of a different paper.”

Have students trade papers to measure their neighbors or switch the papers, giving them a new one to measure.

For independent practice, repeat all steps above and use data sheet to record student responses.

Student completes all steps to calculate the area of the paper (see above)

Use Least Intrusive Steps above.

“Great work determining the area. Here is enough paint to cover the area of your paper” and provide student specific reinforcement as needed.

Example of System of Least Prompts with Math Application

Finding the Area using Tiling Squares

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CCSS: Mathematics continued from page 15

for generalization across materials (Spooner et al., 2012). In the area example, the dimensions were varied with each example to build generalization. Generalization also could be built in by using both concrete materials, such as actual paper, and virtual materials, such as shapes presented on the interactive whiteboard. Generalization across settings also should be planned. This could be from the classroom to a real-life setting, such as where the mathematics story took place. In the measurement example, students could not only measure the boards on their hall, but could provide their “service” to grade level teams across the building, thereby building in generalization along with multiple opportunities for repeated practice.

Step 6: Incorporate technology and instructional supports. The sixth step in creating a lesson aligned to the CCSS in mathematics is to incorporate instructional supports and technology, such as graphic organizers, manipulatives, interactive whiteboards, and assistive technology. These are ways to help the lesson come to life. Concrete manipulatives and graphic organizers aid students in solving problems while building conceptual understanding. For more tech savvy teachers, virtual manipulatives are widely available on the Internet (e.g., National Library of Virtual Manipulatives, http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html) and can be used in place of or in addition to concrete manipulatives. Assistive technology can be incorporated to address communication barriers for students who have difficulty expressing what they have learned through speech. Interactive whiteboards open a world of opportunities for students with severe disabilities. Figure 1 shows a screenshot of an interactive whiteboard to accompany a lesson about area. The graphic organizer is included on the screen, along with an interactive calculator with large buttons that are easy to push. Once students have calculated the answer, they can simply drag the calculator to the blank and press the yellow arrow to insert the solution into the equation. The interactive whiteboard can also be hooked up to a switch so students with physical impairments can access the lesson, which eliminates the physical barriers typical of concrete manipulatives (see Figure 1).

The field of instructional and assistive technology continues to grow at a rapid pace. There are a number of inexpensive, programmable applications available for tablets, which can be used to make mathematics more accessible to all learners. Teachers should be cautioned to use their own discretion in determining the quality of products available on the market and choose products selectively.

Step 7: Plan for progress monitoring. The seventh step is to plan for progress monitoring of student performance. Task analytic instruction lends itself nicely to data collection because the steps from the task analysis can be used directly to collect gather student performance data and peers can easily check off each correctly completed step as they work together. Data can be analyzed by determining the number of steps the student performed correctly and independently on the task analysis out of the total number of steps possible. There are many other methods for analyzing data, but this is a quick and easy method. A mastery criterion should also be established prior to teaching the lesson. This is the determining factor for deciding when or how to change or end instruction. Because the performance of students with severe disabilities can vary daily, it is important to teach the lesson over multiple days, gather data student performance daily, and analyze the data to look for trends or patterns. If students meet mastery over a set period of time, the teacher may choose to make the criterion more stringent (e.g., from 80% correct for three consecutive days to 95% correct for three consecutive days) or move forward to the next lesson. However, if a student is not making progress at all, or is making too slow of progress, other steps should be taken to improve instruction (i.e., breaking down the task analysis into further steps, tightening prompting strategies, increasing reinforcement or varying reinforcers).

This seven-step approach is just one suggestion for developing lessons aligned to the CCSS. Teachers who have tried this approach have found it useful. There may be other instructional strategies that work better for your students, which can certainly be incorporated when designing a lesson of your own.

A modified bar graph is one way to modify grade-level concepts.

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CCSS: Mathematics continued from page 17

Grade-aligned Mathematics for Students with the Most Severe DisabilitiesMathematics can be especially challenging for students with the most severe disabilities who lack even the most basic numeracy skills. The important thing to remember when adapting lessons for this population is to try for a balanced approach. The goal may not be for the student to master solving the entire problem from beginning to end independently, but the student may be able to identify the big idea of the lesson. To achieve this balance, early numeracy skills (e.g., counting with one-to-one correspondence, number identification, concept of more or less), communication skills, and functional skills can also be addressed simultaneously, or even within the same lesson (Collins, Hager, & Galloway, 2011).

Mrs. Walker has adapted her lesson on area for one of her students, Jacita, who has a severe intellectual disability. Jacita does not speak and has limited use of her hands, but she can point in the proximity of an object. She is working on identifying numbers 1-5. One of her IEP communication goals is to activate a switch to indicate a choice or a preference. When teaching area to Jacita, Mrs. Walker specifically targets Jacita identifying area, by having her chose between three choices- a paper square with the perimeter highlighted in yellow, a paper square with the area painted red, and an unrelated distracter, like a ball. Mrs. Walker arranges the choices with at least 8 in of space between so that when Jacita points to the proximity of the choice, she

can clearly see what Jacita is motioning towards. Mrs. Walker not only takes data on Jacita’s ability to find the choice that shows area, but she also takes IEP data on whether Jacita initiates a response without being prompted. Several times throughout the lesson, she takes data on Jacita’s early numeracy goal on identifying numbers 1-5. For example, when students are identifying length and width to insert into an equation, she asks Jacita to “Find number ___,” and Jacita will choose between two numbers on her rocker switch. This is another opportunity for Mrs. Walker to take data on Jacita’s communication goal.

Grade-aligned skills, early numeracy skills, communication skills, and functional skills do not need to be thought of as separate entities, but rather, careful consideration should be made on how multiple skills can be addressed within the same lesson to make the most of the time with the student. Although these suggestions are intended for students with the most severe disabilities, a balanced approach to mathematics may be the best approach for all students that fall in the severe disabilities umbrella. By adhering to the concept of the least dangerous assumption, assuming that students with severe disabilities are able to learn, we will afford students with severe disabilities to access rich meaningful instruction and to continue to demonstrate their often untapped potential through instructing students on higher level concepts than previously attempted (Donnellan, 1984).

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ReferencesBrowder, D. M., Jimenez, B. A., & Trela, K. (2012). Grade-aligned math instruction for secondary students with moderate intellectual disability. Educa-

tion and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 47, 373-388.

Browder, D. M., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Harris, A., & Wakeman, S. Y. (2008). A meta-analysis for teaching mathematics to individuals with signifi-cant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74, 404-432.

Browder, D. M., Trela, K., Courtade, G. R., Jimenez, B. A., Knight, V., & Flowers, C. (2012). Teaching mathematics and science standards to students with moderate and severe developmental disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 46, 26-35. doi:10.1177/0022466910369942

Cihak, D. F., & Foust, J. L. (2008). Comparing number lines and touch points to teach addition facts to students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 23, 131–137.

Collins, B. C. (2007). Teaching students with moderate and severe disabilities: Systematic Instruction. In B. C. Collins (Ed.), Moderate and severe dis-abilities: A foundational approach (pp. 118-145). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Collins, B. C., Hager, K. L., & Creech Galloway, C. (2011). Addition of functional content during core content instruction with students with moderate dis-abilities. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 46, 22-39.

Donnellan, A. M. (1984). The criterion of the least dangerous assumption. Behavioral Disorders, 9, 141–150.

Fuller, P. R. (1949). Operant conditioning of a vegetative human organism. American Journal of Psychology, 62, 587-590.

Heward, W. L. (1994). Three “low-tech” strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman, & T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction. (pp. 283–320). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.

Hudson, M. E., Browder, D. M., & Jimenez, B. (in press). Effects of a peer-delivered system of least prompts intervention and adapted science read-alouds on listening comprehension for participants with moderate intellectual disability. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities.

Jimenez, B. A., Browder, D. M., & Courtade, G. R. (2008). Teaching an algebraic equation to high school students with moderate developmental disabili-ties. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 266-274.

Kretlow, A. G., Wood, C. L., & Cooke, N. L. (2011). Using in-service and coaching to increase kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instruc-tional units. The Journal of Special Education, 44, 234–246.

Pugalee, D. K. (2004). A comparison of verbal and written descriptions of students’ problem solving processes. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 55, 27–47.

Rockwell, S. B., Griffin, C. C., & Jones, H. A. (2011). Schema-based strategy instruction in mathematics and the word problem-solving performance of a student with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26, 87–95.

Snell, M. E. (Ed.). (1983). Systematic instruction of the moderately and severely handicapped (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Spooner, F., Knight, V. F., Browder, D. M., & Smith, B. R. (2012). Evidence-based practices for teaching academic skills to students with severe develop-mental disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 374-387. doi:10.1177/0741932511421634

Thompson, J. L., Wood, C. L., Test, D. W., & Cease-Cook, J. (2012). Effects of direct instruction on telling time by students with autism. Journal of Direct Instruction, 12, 1–12.

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CCSS: ELALeah Wood and Angel Lee, UNC Charlotte

The ELA CCSS is framed by anchor standards in reading, writing, speaking and listening, and language (see www.

corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy). These anchor standards are the same across grade levels, with specific, grade-aligned standards related to each anchor standard. By design, concepts introduced in the elementary grades will be practiced, developed, and refined throughout the remainder of a student’s education. Educators can teach students across grade levels many of the same core concepts by interjecting grade-level materials or content to meet the needs of individual students. For instance, if an educator develops a method for teaching author’s purpose using multiple exemplars or a system of least prompts, this same lesson can be applied to students across grade levels, using various, grade-aligned texts (see Appendix B of the ELA CCSS for recommended titles by grade level).

Unlike mathematics, planning for ELA instruction can vary vastly based on the specific type of literacy standard used. Instruction for a lesson in reading comprehension will likely be developed very differently from instruction for foundational phonemic awareness skills (e.g., blending letter sounds) or a writing lesson (e.g., composing a letter). Instead of offering a specific task list for preparing lessons to teach ELA CCSS, we offer a range of suggestions and examples that fall under an umbrella of two broad categories. First, preparing to effectively teach the ELA CCSS requires time devoted to examining the skill sets detailed in the CCSS (e.g., planning what to teach). The second component of preparing to teach the ELA CCSS is determining which tools to use from special education (e.g., planning how to teach). The follow section provides specific information to help educators both plan for and map out instruction.

Planning What to TeachAlthough typically developing students are expected to receive instruction related to the majority of the standards (some high school standards are reserved for advanced placement courses), standards are prioritized and do not receive equal instructional emphasis. There are several resources that special educators may use when identifying the standards and topics to be addressed during instruction. These resources include the use of a grade level pacing guide, collaboration with general educators, and the use of online resources such as the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC; http://www.parcconline.org/) and Smarter Balanced (http://www.smarterbalanced.org/) websites. These websites belong to the groups developing the general assessments, and prioritized content can be found there.

Collaboration with general educators may be the best resource for special educators who are trying to determine: (a) what standards to teach, (b) what standards can be logically taught together in a lesson, and (c) what order to teach them in. Not only can general educators share specific content standards that will be emphasized for instruction, they can also share examples of how to incorporate specific standards in instruction. Lessons address multiple standards, often across content areas. As previously noted, special educators have not received a great deal of training or professional development regarding academic content (Cameto et al., 2010; Karvonen, Wakeman, Browder, Rogers, & Flowers, 2011). This may not remain the case for future special educators, as the emphasis on academic instruction increases for students with disability increases. Yet especially now, as educators adjust to the shift in curricular focus, collaboration remains crucial.

Access to general educators is not always possible. In these cases there are other resources available when planning instruction. The World Wide Web can provide a wealth of easily accessible knowledge. Many states and school districts have developed resources for the CCSS. One such resource is “unpacking documents.” In ELA, North Carolina has developed unpacking documents that are well done, available to the public, and being used by other states as a resource (www.ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core-tools/). The purpose of an unpacking document is to ensure that educators understand specifically what each standard means, as well as what a student must know, understand, and be able to do. The unpacking documents describe what each standard looks like in the context of specific content.

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Finally, after determining the standards to be taught, it is important to plan a meaningful context. The intent of the CCSS is for students to develop skills that will be applicable outside of the classroom. Promoting real world applications across content areas is one strategy that may lead to college and career readiness. One example of real world application in ELA is an increased emphasis on informational text at the secondary level (i.e., 70% informational text by 12th grade compared to 30% literary text). This emphasis is quite serendipitous for students in special education because informational text includes things such as newspaper articles, instructional manuals (e.g., how to record a television show), or instructions that may be used in vocational settings (e.g., step-by-step instructions for packing boxes for shipping). Although by middle school greater emphasis is placed on informational texts than literary texts, special educators should always seek ways to make the content meaningful to students at any age. Often, even at the elementary level, this can be accomplished through the use of informational text. For example, a literacy lesson based on Charlotte’s Web (White, 1952) may be planned for a group of second and third graders. In the course of reading the story, students may become interested in pigs, spiders, or life on a farm. Students may select a topic of interest, check out a library book, or research the topic on the Internet (which would be a great opportunity to incorporate multi media). There are numerous ways to incorporate learning that is meaningful to students.

Planning How to TeachCreate objectives. After identifying what standards to teach, the following steps will help develop a plan for how to teach the standards. First, create measureable objectives for students. Decide the specific skills students will develop and the output you will assess to evaluate the skills. For instance: After listening to a text read aloud, students will sequence three key events to create a summary of the text (CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.4.2). In this example, students will be taught explicit steps for deciding and indicating which event happens first, next, and last. Some students might sequence objects that match objects presented throughout the story. Other students might sequence key vocabulary words or phrases from the text, with or without picture symbols or photographs illustrating the events. No matter the response mode or materials used, all students would be demonstrating learning of the same objective.

Consider this example of an objective for 10th grade writing:

Given a passage read aloud, students will select the best concluding statement to complete the passage (CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.9-10.1e). In this example, students are intended to write or provide an appropriate concluding statement to a written argument. Perhaps students listen to a three to five sentence composition arguing the benefits of adopting a dog from a shelter (e.g., “I want to tell you about adopting dogs from shelters. Those dogs need a good home. Also, dogs from the shelter do not cost a lot of money.” After listening to the passage read aloud, some students could select from an array of three sentences: “People should adopt dogs from shelters,” “People should not adopt dogs from shelters,” or “People like cats more than dogs.” Again, the length of the story and the use of objects, photographs, and symbols can vary from students to student, as can the variety or complexity of the response options.

Design instruction units. After developing measurable objectives based on the CCSS, plan for ways to teach ELA explicitly as well as embedded in other instructional units. For instance, teaching foundational skills, including phonics and fluency, may work best during small group or individual instructional trials dedicated to the acquisition of these target skills. Other standards may be embedded in other content areas, including social studies and science. For instance, the literary and informational texts selected for instruction could be aligned to grade-appropriate science or social studies content. A literacy block could address core unit vocabulary (e.g., ecosystem, habitat, herbivore) and several reading standards

Madison (left) is a peer helping Jonathan (right) locate an answer in the adapted text of the novel A Single Shard by Linda Sue Park.

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ElementaryTeacher will: Student will:

1. Gain student attention Interact with materials

2. Review vocabulary (e.g., words, symbols)

Indicate request word or symbol

3. Ask for prediction Indicate a prediction

4. Read title Point to title

5. Read author’s name Point to author

6. Ask: “How do we get started?”

Open book to first page

7. Read text and provide chances to turn pages

Turn pages when appropriate

8. Pause for repeated story line

Anticipate or finish repeated story line

9. Pause for finding the words/symbols on page

Point to requested word/symbol

10. Ask student to point to line of text

Text point / eye gaze chosen line

11. Ask comprehension question/ review prediction

Answer questions

SecondaryTeacher will: Student will:

1. Gain student attention Interact with materials

2. Review vocabulary (e.g., words, symbols)

Indicate request word or symbol

3. Ask for prediction Indicate a prediction

4. Read title Point to title

5. Read author’s name Point to author

6. Ask: “How do we get started?”

Open book to first page

7. Ask to identify Table of Contents

Identifies Table of Contents

8. Identify current chapter Identifies current chapter

9. Read text and provide chances to turn pages

Turn pages when appropriate

10. Pause for repeated story line

Anticipate or finish repeated story line

11. Pause for finding the words/symbols on each page

Point to requested word/symbol

12. Ask to text point to chosen line in own book

Text point / eye gaze chosen line

13. Provide phonics tasks (e.g., blending, segmenting)

Independently demonstrates phonics skill

14. Ask comprehension question/ review prediction

Answer questions

Table 1. Comparison of Task Analyses of Story-Based Lessons for Elementary and Secondary Grades

Note. Task analyses adapted from Project MASTERY/NAAC IES Grant# H324U040001.

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could be taught through a story-based lesson or read aloud. Later, an accompanying science or social studies lesson might include hands on activities and application of ELA standards (e.g., use of unit vocabulary, sequencing events of an experiment, making predictions). The extent to which ELA standards can be purposefully infused throughout daily instruction across as many

content areas as possible, the more likely skills will be generalized and applied to other situations and settings.

Next, determine the research-based instructional practices to use to teach ELA standards. One evidence-based tool for teaching ELA concepts is story-based lessons, or read alouds (Hudson

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& Test, 2010). Task analyses for teaching story-based lessons can be developed and modified according to the grade level of the students (see Table 1 for an example). Within a story-based lesson, students are prompted to demonstrate knowledge of print concepts (e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RF.K.1) and listening comprehension (e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.8.10). Story-based lessons can be used to present literature or informational texts.

Comprehending what is read aloud or read independently is a complex skill. Using a system of least prompts (also known as least intrusive prompting), is a research-based strategy for teaching comprehension to students with severe disabilities (Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, & Algozzine, 2006). The prompting system can be modified to match the type of question asked. For instance, a prompting system for literal comprehension

questions (i.e., the answer can be derived directly from the text; CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.2.1) can begin with a directional prompt of simply asking the comprehension question and presenting the response options. After 4 s, if the student has not responded, deliver the first verbal prompt: “I heard the answer in the book. Listen.” Reread two to three sentences with the target answer. If the student still does not respond after 4 s, or if the student asks for help, deliver the second verbal prompt: “I heard the answer in the book. Listen.” Reread the sentence with the target answer. If needed, after 4 s, deliver the model prompt: State the answer. “What is the answer?” Deliver praise to the student if the student says or selects the correct answer even after prompting. Withhold praise if the student makes an error or never produces the correct answer. For a sample script of a system of least prompts (see Table 2).

System of Least Prompts (Literal Comprehension)

Objective: When given a passage of text read aloud, Jacob will answer 4/5 literal comprehension questions for two consecutive days.

Question: “What did the people think Stanley stole?” (Wait for independent response.)

Student response:

Correct Independent (no prompt needed) No response Incorrect response

Teacher feedback: “Good job! The people thought Stanley stole shoes.”

First verbal prompt:

“Let me read the story again.” Reread a few sentences of relevant text from the passage and repeat the question. Praise if correct.

Second verbal prompt (if still no response):

“Let me read the sentence with the answer.” Reread only the sentence containing the answer and repeat the question. Praise if correct.

Model prompt (if still no response):

“Shoes. The people thought Stanley stole shoes. What did the people think Stanley stole?” Praise if correct.

“No, shoes. The people thought Stanley stole shoes. What did the people think Stanley stole?”

Provide no further comment or praise.

Table 2. Sample Script of a System of Least Prompts for Answering Literal Comprehension Questions

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Another evidence-based practice for teaching ELA to students with severe disabilities is the use of time delay to teach sight word or picture recognition (Browder, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Spooner, Mims, & Baker, 2009). Additionally, there is a research-base to support the use of time delay to teach vocabulary definitions or concepts (e.g., Jimenez, Browder, Spooner, & DiBiase, 2012). For instance, to infuse literacy into a social studies lesson on the American Revolution, consider pre-teaching core vocabulary (e.g., revolution= to stop one government and start another government, strategies= a plan for winning, volunteers= people who help for free). Peer tutors, teachers, or paraprofessionals can work individually or in small groups to teach the pairing of the word with the definition using constant time delay prior to the social studies lesson each day (e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.1.4).

Research also supports linking new content or concepts to prior knowledge. Traditionally, educators use anticipatory sets to gain the attention of students, including students with severe disabilities. But using the anticipatory set to link upcoming content to prior experiences of the learner is an effective means for making the lesson relevant and memorable for the learner. Tools such as KWHL charts (i.e., K=What do you know?, W=What do you want to know?, H=How do you find out?, L=What did you learn?) prompt students to generate a list of what they already know about a given topic. Teachers can show video clips or tangible items related to the content and ask students to recall a time they encountered the items in their own histories. But some students might have difficulty relating certain topics to their own lives. In these instances, teachers can create an experience for students. For instance, for the aforementioned unit on landforms, begin each lesson with the presentation of a “Mystery Box.” Students can reach into the box and feel a surprise material related to the landform that will be studied each day (or week). Specifically, when presenting sand dunes, place a bowl of sand inside a box with a fist-sized hole cut out of the top of the box. Help students reach into the box and feel the sand inside. After each student has experienced the mystery item, create a graphic organizer on the board and record student descriptions of what they felt in the box. Prompt students to use describing words to talk about the way the sand felt, and ask them to make predictions about the upcoming unit’s topic (i.e., sand dunes). Give students an opportunity to share their predictions with the class through touch, verbal response, VOCA, or eye gaze (e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.6.6).

Finally, to finalize an instructional plan, decide which materials to create and use. Plan for materials needed for teaching prerequisite

or supplementary skills (e.g., vocabulary definitions and concept cards – e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.6; graphic organizers or picture symbols for teaching reoccurring concepts such as central message – e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.1.2; author’s purpose – e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.11-12.3; or point of view – e.g., CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.5.6). Use Appendix B from the ELA CCSS to select grade appropriate texts, both literature and informational texts, and adapt them to meet the needs of particular students. For guidelines for adapting books (see Table 3). Plan for all of the materials needed for accessing or creating background knowledge and presenting concrete examples of

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ELA Lesson

Mrs. Lewis is using the SMARTBoard to project the adapt-ed text with picture supports. The two students have their own copy of the adapted text on their desks as well. Mrs. Lewis uses the text on the SMARTBoard to refer back to when students are answering comprehension questions. The students are reading about the benefits of part-time employment.

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literary content. Include hands-on materials for all learners to increase motivation and engagement.

Incorporate technology. Use the Internet to search for pre-made adapted books that can be read aloud using text-to-speech software. Use communication applications on iPads™ (e.g., GoTalk Now®, Proloquo2Go™) to create portable and changeable response boards for comprehension questions. Develop worksheets and activities to promote generalization across settings and materials. For instance, a worksheet template can be created and used with each new

book. Students’ worksheet packets can include their own print copy of the adapted text with graphic organizers to follow for summary, central message, and author’s purpose. Comprehension questions and response options can complete the packet. The story could be used for a whole week, and a different skill in the packet could be taught each day, ending with the comprehension assessment. Finally, create data sheets or systems for collecting data across standards. If using the packets described above, collect data on each page. Record the level of prompting used for each skills each day. Keep writing / speaking and listening journals to keep data of student generated writing, which might include

Elementary Secondary

Summarizing content

• Only for books with more than a few sentences on each page

• Summarize key concepts, include main idea statement, key events, characters, and setting

• Upload content to Lexile Analyzer (www.lexile.com) to match the appropriate listening comprehension level

• Select a repeated story line that represents the main idea of the story or is engaging for students

• Reduce chapters to 1-3 pages in length

• Summarize key concepts, include main idea statement, key events, characters, and setting

• Upload content to Lexile Analyzer (www.lexile.com) to match the approximate listening or reading comprehension level

Construction of book

• May be able to insert adapted text into existing book

• Add picture symbols only with key vocabulary

• Can use a binder with page protectors for fully adapted books

• Can Velcro objects onto pages as needed

• If student does not have visual impairment, retain the size and format of a typical chapter book (e.g., 12 point font, small size pages)

• Can print pages on heavy card stock or laminate

• Use picture symbols only with key vocabulary and only as needed

Response options • Add a page of key vocabulary, or create a set of vocabulary flash cards (with or without picture symbols, photographs, or objects)

• Create comprehension questions

• Vary the number of response options to meet the needs of the students

• Add a page of key vocabulary, or create a set of vocabulary flash cards (with or without picture symbols, photographs, or objects)

• Create comprehension questions

• Vary the number of response options to meet the needs of the students (may not need any response options)

Table 3. Guidelines for Adapting Literary Books

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selecting an object, picture, or symbol to complete sentence stems related to ELA, science, or social studies content. Additionally, create journals for students to use to record their thoughts and ideas about topics of their choice. Use a back page in students’ journals to keep a log of their verbal or nonverbal communication related to ELA instructions (e.g., sharing their writing with the class - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.4).

Access for students with the most severe disabilities. Students with the most severe disabilities will require thoughtful planning for the delivery of academic instruction. However, it is not necessary to create separate lesson plans for these students. When planning for such students, consideration should be given to the presentation of information, the student’s ability to “show what they know,” and the quality of instruction in a group setting versus an individual setting.

Earlier in this article, story-based lessons were suggested as an evidence-based tool for teaching ELA. When planning a story-based lesson that will include students with the most severe disability, a teacher will need to focus on the most concrete concepts or “big ideas” within the story. For examples, in the story Dragonwings (Yep, 1975), students with the most severe disabilities may focus on the big idea of the story (i.e., a young boy went to San Francisco to be with his father), whereas other students participating in the same lesson will learn the big idea but will also focus on details in the story. Students with more moderate disabilities may learn more vocabulary words that are more abstract in nature (e.g., rubble, courage) where students with more severe disabilities will be taught words that are concrete in nature and possibly personally relevant (e.g., home, money).

The content of the story may be represented with concrete objects (e.g., a raised map with a string beginning in China and ending in San Francisco) or very simple photographs (simple photograph of the father). This concrete representation may be needed for students with severe disabilities to gain meaning from stories.

The second consideration is the student’s ability to “show what they know.” This consideration is foundational to a student’s educational success. Students with complex communication needs will need access to appropriate assistive technology as determined through team collaboration. Assistive technology consists of both high tech (e.g., voice output devices) devices as well as low tech (e.g., picture symbols) materials. Rather than generating their own responses, students with the most severe disabilities can demonstrate understanding by making choices from response options.

Consideration also must be given to the student’s ability to be successful with academic content in an inclusive group setting. Students with the most severe disabilities often require intense instruction where the teacher can be in close proximity. In addition, students may require a setting that is free of distractions in order to be successful. One option is to provide pre-teaching of concepts using systematic instruction strategies. Pre-teaching can allow learning to occur in a setting that meets the student’s needs and also allows the teacher an opportunity to work with the student one on one. After pre-teaching has occurred, the student can still participate in inclusive group instruction. Group instruction provides opportunities for additional practice of academic skills (e.g., completing the repeated storyline for a chapter) and opportunities to generalize skills learned in pre-teaching (e.g., selecting the title of a novel book).

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ReferencesBrowder, D. M., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Spooner, F., Mims, P. J., & Baker, J. N. (2009). Using time delay to teach picture and word recognition to identify

evidence-based practice for students with severe developmental disabilities. Exceptional Children, 75, 343-364.

Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Research on reading for students with significant cognitive dis-abilities. Exceptional Children, 72, 392-408.

Cameto, R., Bergland, F., Knokey, A., Nagle, K. M., Sanford, C., Calb, S. C., … Ortega, M. (2010). Teacher perspectives of school-level implementation of alternate assessments for students with significant cognitive disabilities. A report from the national study on alternate assessments (NCSER 2010-3007). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Hudson, M. E., & Test, D. W. (2011). Evaluating the evidence base of shared story reading to promote literacy for students with extensive support needs. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 36, 34-45.

Jimenez, B. A., Browder, D. M., Spooner, F., & DiBiase, W. (2012). Inclusive inquiry science using peer-mediated embedded instruction for students with a moderate intellectual disability. Exceptional Children, 78, 301-317.

Karvonen, M., Wakeman, S. Y., Browder, D. M., Rogers, M. A. S., & Flowers, C. (2011). Academic curriculum for students with significant cognitive disabilities: Special education teacher perspectives a decade after IDEA 1997. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED521407

White, E. B. (1952). Charlotte’s web. New York: NY: Harper Collins Publishers.

Yep, L. (1975). Dragonwings. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.

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How We Arrived at the Common Core State Standards and the Promise it Holds for Students with Severe DisabilitiesFred Spooner and Diane M. Browder, UNC Charlotte

The curricular focus and expectations for students with moderate and severe disabilities has evolved across

the course of the last three decades. As educators’ raised the ceiling of expectations, students responded by learning more than previously expected. In the 1970s the new expectation was for students with severe disabilities to attend school and learn IEP objectives. These objectives were typically borrowed from early childhood curricula, regardless of the student’s chronological age. By the 1980s students with severe disabilities were routinely attending school and learning many of these objectives, but it became obvious that students also were getting stuck in developmental sequences that would never lead to adult functioning.

This brought a shift in thinking that students could gain increased independence in community and home environments by learning functional skills based on chronological age through focusing on the activities typical of these environments. By the late 1980s, students with severe disabilities often spent their day learning to make purchases, cross the street, follow recipes, manage self-care, and participate in leisure activities. Unfortunately, this often took them far from what their peers without disabilities were doing during the course of a school day. In the 1990s, educator’s expectations rose again assuming students could not only learn these community-referenced activities in special classrooms or community-based instruction, but also could learn these skills by focusing on their functional IEP objectives in general education and by applying self-determination (e.g., choice making, goal setting).

The acquisition of community-referenced skills, the application of self-determination, and the opportunity to learn in general education are enduring values for educating students with disabilities. What changed, radically, beginning with the new millennium was the expectation that students also might learn more academic content. This was probably a natural outcome of students spending time in general education classes where full inclusion would come to mean the opportunity to learn the same or similar content as their peers. When the passage of the IDEA amendments occurred (IDEA, 1997), students with disabilities were pulled into the standards based reform movement that was sweeping America’s schools, as well as many other countries. All students had to be included in the states’ general assessments; if unable to participate, even with accommodations, students had to receive an alternate assessment. This same amendment required all students to have access to general curriculum. At first educators did not connect the dots between these two requirements. The original alternate assessments were based on community-referenced activities back-mapped to the state’s standards in ELA and mathematics. This sometimes led to strange expectations like applying mathematical skills while using the restroom.

With the advent of No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2006) and the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004, the legal requirements of general curriculum access became clearer. Now schools were accountable for all students’ achievement in ELA and mathematics. Students with significant cognitive disabilities, the 1%, could count as proficient using alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards, but these alternate assessments had to be linked with the state’s academic content standards. Alternate assessments also were held to tighter standards of technical quality since they would be used in school accountability systems. The need for clear alignment with academic content standards and increased technical quality led many states to revamp their alternate assessment systems. With these new alternate assessments, teachers began to focus on the academic content typical of the student’s assigned grade, not only chronologically age appropriate, but also grade appropriate instruction. All over the country, educators were exploring

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what level of expectation to set and how to make this content meaningful.

Like the general assessments, alternate assessments competed with instructional time, created a burden on teachers, and threatened to narrow the curriculum to only grade-aligned academic content. Why have they persisted? We think it was because students with severe disabilities began to demonstrate learning no one thought possible a short time ago. Now most states have replaced their state standards with the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), and the expectation that these standards apply to all students. At this point in time, 45 states and three territories have adopted the CCSS for all students, including those who participate in alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards.

There are three big questions that continue to require debate: (a) Can students with severe disabilities learn this rigorous academic content? (b) Should students learn this content even if they can?, and (c) Where must the content be taught? Although these questions are not new, the debate intensifies as educators transition to the CCSS, which requires much higher academic expectations than many previous states’ alternate achievement standards. First, can students with severe disabilities learn the academic content of the CCSS? The answer is we do not yet know, but we also will never know unless students have the opportunity to be exposed to that learning. Even though most students with severe disabilities currently have not mastered most of the CCSS, the expectation for how much can be achieved, once students receive sustained academic instruction across their school career, is yet to be discovered. Research on academic

learning has yielded two important lessons. First, systematic instruction is an evidence-based practice for teaching reading, mathematics, and science to students with severe disabilities (Browder, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Spooner, Mims, & Baker, 2009; Browder, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Harris, & Wakeman, 2008; Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, & Algozzine, 2006; Spooner, Knight, Browder, Jimenez, & DiBiase, 2011). Second, we know from research that the focus for academic learning in the past has been extremely restricted. The good news is that research is showing that students with severe disabilities can learn grade-aligned skills (e.g., Browder, Jimenez, & Trela, in press; Spooner, Knight, Browder, & Smith, 2012) and that systematic instruction can be applied in general education settings (e.g., Jimenez, Browder, Spooner, & DiBiase, 2012; Polychronis, McDonnell, Johnson, Riesen, & Jameson, 2004; Riesen, McDonnell, Johnson, Polychronis, & Jameson, 2003). Although we do not yet know how much of the CCSS students with severe disabilities will learn, we can be confident from this recent research that it will be more than once believed possible.

Given that students with severe disabilities may be able to learn at least some of the CCSS, the second issue is whether they should. Some have questioned the increased focus on grade-aligned standards (Ayres, Lowrey, Douglas, & Sievers, 2011). Others advocate for teaching grade-aligned content standards to ensure a full educational opportunity (Courtade, Spooner, Browder, & Jimenez, 2012). We are among the educators who advocate for giving students with severe disabilities the opportunity to learn CCSS and offer several rationale for doing so that space does not permit repeating here (see Courtade et al., 2012). What we will reiterate is that to expect more academic competence does not mean that IEP teams have to expect less competence in self-care or community-referenced skills. Educators do have to set priorities. An important priority for a young elementary student to learn to decode and comprehend text and learn critical early numeracy skills, which will help them be more independent during their post-school years. Middle school students need opportunities to learn about character traits like courage through reading literature with their peers. Gaining more advanced math skills may open more job opportunities. We agree that educators need to preserve opportunities for students to learn self-care, community access, and job skills in real work environments. The IEP helps to set these priorities and establish this balance.

Finally, in addition to the debates about what and how much to expect students to learn, educators also have debated the where Creating sets is one way to modify grade-level concepts.

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of instruction. The general education classroom is the place where a teacher is “highly qualified” in the academic content, and the full range of the CCSS are taught. TASH has long been a strong proponent for students with severe disabilities having opportunities to learn in general education with peers who are nondisabled. Adopting the CCSS can help promote this goal. It is more easily justifiable to teach students in a separate setting when their curricular goals have little to no overlap with that of the majority of students in general education. The adoption of the CCSS for all students creates an opportunity for IEP teams to ask again if a student’s educational needs can best be met in general education, the place where these standards are fully addressed.

One of the gratifications of working in the field of severe disabilities is experiencing the achievements that students demonstrate when given new opportunities. Through the CCSS, students will have opportunities to show us how to generate

equations to communicate about a mathematical problem and problem solve. They will not only have the opportunity to answer literal questions about text, but they will also analyze text to determine what questions can or cannot be answered. They will have the opportunity to describe the author’s point of view and follow the plot. They will learn to locate and analyze information found through multimedia resources like the Internet. Educators will need new models for instruction, better applications of assistive technology, and ideas for generalization and application to address the complexities of the CCSS in meaningful ways. We also will need to preserve what we know works well—making skills relevant to students’ lives, using systematic instruction for skill acquisition, and promoting inclusive education. We will likely get stretched to our limits trying to teach and learn these new standards and by trying to help more students become “college and career ready.” We are likely to learn more than we ever knew before about the abilities of the students we serve.

ReferencesAyres, K. M., Lowrey, K. A., Douglas, K. H., & Sievers, C. (2011). I can identify Saturn but I can’t brush my teeth: What happens when the curricular

focus for students with severe disabilities shifts. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 46, 11-21.

Browder, D. M., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Spooner, F., Mims, P. J., & Baker, J. N. (2009). Using time delay to teach literacy to students with severe developmen-tal disabilities. Exceptional Children, 75, 343-364.

Browder, D. M., Jimenez, B. A., & Trela, K. (in press). Grade-aligned math instruction for secondary students with moderate intellectual disability. Educa-tion and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities.

Browder, D. M., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Harris, A., & Wakeman, S. (2008). A meta-analysis on teaching mathematics to students with significant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74, 407-432.

Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Research on reading for students with significant cognitive dis-abilities. Exceptional Children, 72, 392-408.

Courtade, G., Spooner, F., Browder, B., & Jimenez, B. (2012). Seven reasons to promote standards-based instruction for students with severe disabili-ties: A reply to Ayres, Lowrey, Douglas, & Sievers. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 47, 3-13.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, 120 U.S.C. §1400 et seq.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, PL 108-466, 20 U. S. C. §1400, H. R. 1350.

Jimenez, B. A., Browder, D. M., & Courtade, G. R. (2008). Teaching an algebraic equation to high school students with moderate developmental disabili-ties. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 266-274.

Jimenez, B. A., Browder, D. M., Spooner, F., & DiBiase, W. (2012). Inclusive inquiry science using peer-mediated embedded instruction for students with moderate intellectual disability. Exceptional Children, 78, 301-317.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. § 6301 et seq. (2006).

Polychronis, S. C., McDonnell, J., Johnson, J. W., Riesen, T., & Jameson, M. (2004). A comparison of two trial distribution schedules in embedded instruction. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 19, 140-151.

Riesen, T., McDonnell, J., Johnson, J. W., Polychronis, S., & Jameson, M. (2003). A comparison of time delay and simultaneous prompting within embed-ded instruction in general education classes with students with moderate to severe disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12, 241-260.

Spooner, F., Knight, V., Browder, D. M., Jimenez, B., & DiBiase, W. (2011). Evaluating evidence-based practices in teaching science content to students with severe developmental disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 36, 62-75.

Spooner, F., Knight, V. F., Browder, D. M., & Smith, B. R. (2012). Evidence-based practices for teaching academic skills to students with severe develop-mental disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 374-387. doi:10.1177/0741932511421634

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Registration is open for the 2013 TASH Conference!

The conference will take place at the historic Hilton Chicago, December 11-14, 2013. Complete conference details can be found at http://tash.org/2013tash.

Early Bird Registration Ends October 1In an effort to accommodate the scheduling needs of TASH Conference attendees, we have changed the early bird registration deadline to October 1, 2013. This deadline change will allow more educators, parents, advocates and others to sign up to attend this year’s conference in Chicago and save on registration.

A Movement UnitedThe theme of the 2013 TASH Conference is “A Movement United.” By bringing together research, practice and advocacy, the TASH Conference builds bridges between stakeholders in the field and unites them in advancing inclusive lives for people

with significant disabilities. This year’s theme draws its inspiration from three challenges facing the disability community today: 1) People with disabilities are often lumped into segregated (or parallel) systems and services; 2) there are significant gaps in the communication between systems and services; and 3) the wide array of stakeholders in the disability field approach issues differently, and are not always aligned to advanced the common goal – equity, opportunity and inclusion in all aspects of community life.

Don’t Miss Wednesday Workshops!The TASH Conference will feature a series of short-course workshops on Wednesday, December 11, with leading experts in the disability field that allow attendees to dive into popular topics in more depth. All workshops are offered in full day or half day formats. And new for this year’s conference, All Wednesday Workshops are included with general conference registration

All New TASH Conference WebsiteWe’ve completely overhauled the TASH Conference website in preparation for this year’s conference! Check it out to find a wealth of information about the TASH Conference, including details for nearly 200 concurrent sessions, speaker bios and other activities planned during the conference.

Visit http://tash.org/2013tash to register and find additional information on hotel accommodations, Wednesday Workshops, the complete conference schedule and more!

‘Thank You’ Conference Local Host CommitteeOur Local Host Committee members have been working tirelessly to promote the conference in Chicago. On Thursday,

Association News

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June 27, members of the committee held an open house at Access Living of Chicago. There, two Local Host Committee members, Leonora McNeal and Paula Wills from the Family Resource Center on Disabilities, held a film screening on restraint and seclusion in schools. After the screening, they distributed literature about the conference. More than 200 people attended the open house! They are also in the midst of planning a Wednesday Workshop on Inclusive Education to attract local parents, advocates and educators.

The Local Host Committee’s hospitality subcommittee will also be conducting training for hotel staff to ensure our attendees have a great experience while at the conference. Joe Albritton, the Mayor’s Office for People with Disabilities Deputy Commissioner, is leading this initiative in collaboration with Hilton Chicago’s event planning staff.

New TASH Training Offered for Fall 2013!

TASH Training, the new online training program of TASH, underwent a makeover for 2013. We’re now pleased to offer live online training sessions using Adobe Connect. All new TASH Training sessions offer participants an opportunity to learn from field experts and ask questions in real time. As always, TASH members are eligible for discounts on all TASH Training sessions, so check our upcoming availability at http://tash.org/training!

Upcoming TASH Training Sessions• Building and Sustaining Our Communities through Time Bank

Exchange Tuesday, September 17, at 2 p.m. ET Presented by Joe Donofrio, co-founder of CHOICESS

• Research and Practice in AAC Device Implementation for Students with Complex Communication Needs Tuesday, October 8, at 2 p.m. ET Presented by Ann-Marie Orlando, University of Florida, Recipient of 2011 TASH Alice H. Hayden Emerging Researcher Award

• The Inclusion of Employment in Post Secondary Education for Youth with Intellectual Disabilities Thursday, October 17, at 2 p.m. ET Presented by Amy Dwyre, Senior Associate of TransCen, Inc.; and Richard Lueking, President of TransCen, Inc.

• Rethinking Guardianship/Conservatorship (Part I and II) Tuesday, October 29, and Thursday, October 31, at 2 p.m. ET Presented by Dohn Hoyle, Executive Director of The Arc of Michigan

Learn more at http://tash.org/training

An Introduction to the SWIFT Center: Reimagining Education For All In 2012 the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) funded one of the largest cooperative agreements in the agency’s history. The SWIFT Center—School-wide Integrated Framework for Transformation—led by Drs. Wayne Sailor and Amy McCart, will provide intensive technical assistance to 64 schools throughout 16 districts in four states to significantly improve academic and behavioral outcomes for ALL children, including those with the most extensive needs.

While this Center is funded by OSEP, this is not exclusively a special education initiative. The SWIFT Center approaches the work through the lens of equity and has adopted the guiding principle of “All means ALL” –all students, all staff, all parents, all community members. This is among the same guiding principles that served as the backbone to revelatory Supreme Court decisions like Brown v. Board, as well as the Congressional intent of landmark legislation like the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. And while the Supreme Court and Congress have built a foundation, the SWIFT Center is prepared and equipped to build the scaffold and, ultimately, the structure that will make the difference for all students in our public education settings.

The SWIFT Center utilizes more than 10 years of research that demonstrates highly effective practices that consistently improve academic and behavioral outcomes for all children. By engaging educators, parents, and community members in active decision-making roles, SWIFT creates distributed leadership structures that empower all members of a school community to be engaged in the education of the children. When everyone is invested in the outcomes, progress is achieved.

Association News

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Association News

Not Just Another InitiativeEducators are tasked with a lot, without question the field of education is swirling with “reform” initiatives. SWIFT is not another initiative. According to the SWIFT website www.swiftschools.org: “The beauty of SWIFT, is that it works within the current school—just better and more efficient.” Here’s how:

SWIFT is: a set of processes, tools & resources that create a powerful, unified teaching and learning environment for ALL students and faculty; and, SWIFT incorporates schools leadership, educators, students, families and the community.

SWIFT recognizes: that all students are not the same in the way that they learn; therefore, SWIFT unifies the strengths of general and special educators by supporting them in working in concert with one another teaching grade-level curriculum.

The SWIFT Center is guided by the expertise of eight Leadership Teams comprised of thought leaders from around the country. These teams include:

• Inclusive Education Implementation Team Leaders: Carol Quirk, Maryland Coalition for Inclusive Education, and Mary Schuh, University of New Hampshire

• UDL-Curriculum/Instruction Enhancements Team Leaders: Don Deshler and Mike Hock, University of Kansas

• MTSS-RTI Implementation Team Leader: Nikki Wolf, University of Kansas

• Family/Community Engagement Team Leaders: Ann Turnbull and Rud Turnbull, University of Kansas

• Policy Analysis and Stakeholder Engagement Team Leaders: Barb Trader, TASH, and Curtis Richards, Institute for Educational Leadership

• Capacity Building/Sustainability/Scale Up Team Leaders: Leonard Burrello, University of South Florida, and Elizabeth Kozleski, University of Kansas

• Formative Evaluation and Data Management Team Leaders: Rob Horner, University of Oregon, and Kathleen Lane, University of Kansas

• Communication and Knowledge Dissemination Team Leader: Brandon Worrell, Clickfarm Interactive Inc.

What Does a SWIFT School Look Like?A SWIFT School is identified by five domains, which are substantiated by critical features.

Administrative Leadership1. Collaborative Leadership2. Strong Educator Support System

Multi-Tiered Systems of Support1. Inclusive Academic Instruction2. Inclusive Behavior Instruction

Inclusive Educational Framework1. Inclusive Organizational Structure2. Inclusive School Culture

Family and Community Partnership1. Inclusive Organizational Structure2. Inclusive School Culture

Inclusive Policy Structure and Practice1. Strong LEA/School Relationship2. LEA Policy Framework

TASH and The SWIFT CenterTASH’s role is as Team Leader for the Policy Alignment and Stakeholder Engagement Team. In this capacity, staff will work with the Institute for Educational Leadership to help schools, districts and states align their policies to support inclusive education. We will produce informational briefs for a broad range of stakeholders, including parents, advocates, educators, and community members, in addition to building and maintaining relationships with policy makers and influencers from around the country.

The SWIFT Center recognizes that inequity in the U.S. education systems hurts. SWIFT unifies the strengths that exist is schools and districts and eliminates fragmentation of efforts to create powerful learning for students, teachers and active engaged partnerships with families and community members. By maintaining an unwavering focus on the core values of excellence, equity, and ALL, the SWIFT Center is prepared to change the face of education in the United States.

You can learn more about The SWIFT Center by visiting www.swiftschools.org. You can also read regular updates on TASH’s work with the SWIFT Center from TASH Education Policy Directory, Jenny Stonemeier, by visiting http://tash.org/tag/swift-center/.

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Welcome Virginia TASH!

Virginia TASH is the latest to join the expanding network of TASH chapters across the U.S. and abroad. Virginia TASH aims to unite individuals from across the Commonwealth of Virginia who believe in the dream that people who experience significant disabilities can become valued, contributing members of their schools and communities. Through membership, training, and support activities, Virginia TASH strives to advocate and disseminate information about current issues facing individuals who require a high level of support. Congratulations, Virginia TASH!

Kentucky TASH Co-hosted Regional Conference

The Arc of KY, in collaboration with Kentucky-TASH and the Jefferson & Simpson County Parent Resource Centers, hosted the “Navigating the Road Ahead” Making Choices – Choosing Future Directions Best Practices for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Regional Conference, April 26-27 in Louisville, Kentucky. Featured presenters included: David Hasbury and Patti Scott from Neighbours, Inc, James Conroy, President and CEO of Outcome Analysis, Inc and Barbara Ransom, Attorney, Disability Rights California.

Chapter News

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Pennsylvania Conference Honors History of People with Disabilities

PennTASH was among scores of disability organizations and individuals represented at a statewide conference at Millersville University on Friday, April 5. The conference featured a discussion of the formation of a coalition to honor the history of people with disabilities in Pennsylvania. Participants showcased people’s stories and struggles through photos, stories, artifacts, film, documents, genealogy, the arts, and other media, with some dating back to the 19th century. The planning group, composed of the Pennhurst Memorial & Preservation Alliance, Elwyn (a human services organization that was once an institution), Millersville University, Speaking for Ourselves, and the Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, will host the presentations along with panel discussions and a town‐hall session in the afternoon to consider the merits of a statewide coalition.

Chapters are the Heart of TASH – Be Involved!Did you know that your TASH Membership includes membership to your local TASH chapter? TASH Chapters offer local trainings and network opportunities for TASH members and brings local grassroots efforts to their community. Find out more about your local chapter on the TASH website at www.tash.org/find-a-local-chapter.

Don’t see a chapter in your state? There may be one forming near you and you can participate in their efforts to organize. To find out about a chapter forming in your state, contact the TASH Office at [email protected].

Jewish Values. Global Impact.www.TheCharlesBronfmanPrize.com

2013

The Charles Bronfman Prize celebrates the vision and endeavors of innovative humanitarians whose inspiring work benefits the world. We are committed to recognizing young, dynamic individuals whose Jewish values inform their work and inspire future generations.

The Prize is pleased to announce our 2013 recipient, Eric Rosenthal, founder and executive director of Disability Rights International (DRI), a pioneering human rights advocacy organization fighting the discrimination and abuse of people with disabilities in custodial institutions worldwide. Witnessing children locked away in orphanages, psychiatric facilities, and nursing homes deeply affected Eric, so DRI recently launched the World Campaign to End Institutionalization of Children, which advocates that children live with families rather than segregated from society.

Eric exemplifies what can be accomplished when leadership and compassion come together. We salute his tireless work to lift the lives of an overlooked, stigmatized, and excluded population and his belief that every person has a fundamental right to human dignity.

providing inspirationto the next generations

Eric RosenthalFounder + Executive Director

Disability Rights Internationalwww.DisabilityRightsIntl.org

TRUE CITIZENSHIP

People with learning difficulties are present in the community but how many are equal citizens of the world? How do we enable proper citizenship? By adopting our seven values for citizenship: support and care for all, respect each one, integrity-living by our values, for future generations, freedom of heart and mind, hope and courage, productive living and working. You can change them if you want. -Use our stories and questions for each value so that the person with learning difficulties can explore their own citizenship -Professionals, parents, commissioners and providers can explore their contribution to citizenship through a range of questions. -Services and organizations, using our methodology, can develop their own process for evaluating how they facilitate the development of citizenship for people with learning difficulties. (We use the term learning difficulties instead of disabilities as this is what people with differences we work with prefer.)

“I can see beyond your walls. I can glimpse individuality and community. I am ready to join. When will you let me?

Never mind, I’m breaking through.”

Civitas Vera

Available from: www.amazon.com

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TASH Gratefully Acknowledges the Following Donations of Time and MoneyPat AmosJeffrey and Arlene CohenJacki AndersonJason Andrew MachakLinda BambaraDarlene BealsMaria BradyDawn BrownKenna ColleyAdelaide ComegysAlyssa DaltonJoanne EichingerGail FanjoyAmy FeinbergBeth FingerRobyn FitzgeraldTed Gogol and Brenda McArthurSue HansenElizabeth HealeyLewis JacksonLois Kiefer

Leslie LedererBeth LofquistSharon LohrmannJazarae McCormickLisa MillsAri Ne’emanJoann NollKathryn Peckham-HardinJody PirtleDavid PitonyakCarol QuirkBarbara RansomJeanne RodriguezShirley RodriguezDiane RyndakWayne SailorSusan SchaeferDavid SpiesLorraine SylvesterJacqueline ThousandEmily Titon

Barbara TraderJean TrainorKatherine TrelaDavid WestlingKathleen WhitbreadBetty WilliamsJoe WykowskiKaren ZimbrichAmerigroup CorporationArbor Soft LLCHSC Foundation & the Mitsubishi Electric America Foundation, through the National Youth Transitions CollaborativeLehigh UniversityMetLife Center for Special Needs PlanningPublic Consulting GroupUnited Way California Capial RegionUniversity of Illinois at Chicago Department of Disability and Human Development

Your Passion, Our Purpose.University of Nebraska–LincolnPursue a career in Special Education.

Disciplines:• Autism/Severe Disabilities• Visual Impairments• Intellectual, Sensory & Developmental Disabilities• Deaf Education• And more!

Programs: • Master’s degrees• Education specialist degrees• Graduate certificates• Teaching endorsements

Special education & communication diSorderS

Get the details at online.unl.edu/UNLsped

The University of Nebraska–Lincoln is an equal opportunity educator and employer. ©2012, The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved. GDP_CHS233.13

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q New Membership q Membership Renewal Referred by ____________________________________________

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TASH offers membership at a variety of levels. Please review the details below and choose the membership level that is appropriate for

you. Individual and organizational memberships are available. Membership is valid for a 12 month term. A complete summary of mem-

ber benefits can be found at www.tash.org/membership.

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MembershipApplicationEffective June 15, 2012

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TASH Connections w Fall 2012 w www.tash.org38

ConnectionsEquity, Opportunity and Inclusion for People with Disabilities since 1975

TASH is an international leader in disability advocacy. Founded in 1975, TASH advocates for human rights and inclusion for people with significant disabilities and support needs – those most vulnerable to segregation, abuse, neglect and institutionalization. TASH works to advance inclusive communities through advocacy, research, professional development, policy, and information and resources for parents, families and self-advocates. The inclusive practices TASH validates through research have been shown to improve outcomes for all people.

Policy StatementIt is TASH’s mission to eliminate physical and social obstacles that prevent equity, diversity and quality of life for children and adults with disabilities. Items in this newsletter do not necessarily reflect attitudes held by individual members of the Association as a whole. TASH reserves the right to exercise editorial judgment in selection of materials. All contributors and advertisers are asked to abide by the TASH policy on the use of people-first language that emphasizes the humanity of people with disabilities. Terms such as “the mentally retarded,” “autistic children,” and “disabled individuals” refer to characteristics of individuals, not to individuals themselves. Terms such as “people with mental retardation,” “children with autism,” and “individuals who have disabilities” should be used. The appearance of an advertisement for a product or service does not imply TASH endorsement. For a copy of TASH’s publishing and advertising policy, please visit www.tash.org.

TASH Mission & VisionAs a leader in disability advocacy for more than 35 years, the mission of TASH is to promote the full inclusion and participation of children and adults with significant disabilities in every aspect of their community, and to eliminate the social injustices that diminish human rights. These things are accomplished through collaboration among self-advocates, families, professionals, policy-makers, advocates and many others who seek to promote equity, opportunity and inclusion. Together, this mission is realized through:

w Advocacy for equity, opportunities, social justice and human rights

w Education of the public, government officials, community leaders and service providers

w Research that translates excellence to practice

w Individualized, quality supports in place of congregate and segregated settings and services

w Legislation, litigation and public policy consistent with the mission and vision of TASH

The focus of TASH is supporting those people with significant disabilities and support needs who are most at risk for being excluded from society; perceived by traditional service systems as most challenging; most likely to have their rights abridged; most likely to be at risk for living, working, playing and learning in segregated environments; least likely to have the tools and opportunities necessary to advocate on their behalf; and are most likely to need ongoing, individualized supports to participate in inclusive communities and enjoy a quality of life similar to that available to all people.

TASH has a vision of a world in which people with disabilities are included and fully participating members of their communities, with no obstacles preventing equity, diversity and quality of life. TASH envisions communities in which no one is segregated and everyone belongs. This vision will be realized when:

w All individuals have a home, recreation, learning and employment opportunities

w All children and youth are fully included in their neighborhood schools

w There are no institutions

w Higher education is accessible for all

w Policy makers and administrators understand the struggles of people with disabilities and plan – through laws, policies and regulations – for their active participation in all aspects of life

w All individuals have a way to communicate and their communities are flexible in communicating in alternate ways that support full participation

w Injustices and inequities in private and public sectors are eradicated

w Practices for teaching, supporting and providing services to people with disabilities are based on current, evidence-based strategies that promote high quality and full participation in all aspects of life

w All individuals with disabilities enjoy individualized supports and a quality of life similar to that available to all people

w All individuals with disabilities have the tools and opportunities to advocate on their behalf