T9: Soils, Water & Environment Research

عليها ” انزلنا فاذا هامدة االرض وترىكل من وانبتت وربت اهتزت الماء

بهيج “زوجالعظيم الله صدق

Prof. Dr. Aly I. N. AbdelAalDirector of

Soils, Water & Environment Research Institute (SWERI),Agricultural Research Center (ARC)

Ministry of Agriculture and land Reclamation,El-Gammaa St. Giza, Egypt

[email protected]

Loc

atio

n o

f E

gypt

Egypt is the global heart

• Egypt forms the northeast corner of Africa

•Egypt lies within the dry tropical region, except for the northern parts that lie within the warm moderate region.

The Nile Delta and the Nile River Valley of Egypt, is one of the oldest agricultural areas in the world, having been under continuous cultivation for at least 5000 years.

The arid climate of Egypt, characterized by high evaporation rates (1500 – 2400 mm/year) and little rainfall.

Agriculture in Ancient Egyptian

The River Nile is the life of the country serving:

• Fresh water supply for agriculture, industry and domestic use

• Hydro-electric power generation• Navigation.

The agricultural sector still accounts more than 30% of the gross national product and 80% of export earnings.

Egypt, however, is now facing a challenging problem of how to increase the rate of growth in agricultural production to provide food that is sufficient for a high annual rate of population increase at about 2.5%.

The agriculture sector is the largest user and consumer of water in Egypt accounting for more than 85 percent of the total gross demand for water. On a consumptive basis, the share of agricultural demand is even higher at more than 95 percent.

Water supplies and demands in EgyptWater supplies and demands in Egypt

2025 2000 1990 I. Water supplies

57.5

6.3

8.02.4-

57.5

5.1

7.01.11.0

55.5

2.60.54.70.2-

Nile waterGroundwater: In the Delta and New Valley In the desertReuse of agricultural drainage waterTreated sewage waterManagement and saving wasted water

74.2 71.7 63.5 Total

II. Water demands

61.55.18.60.4

59.93.16.10.3

49.73.14.61.8

AgricultureHouseholdsIndustryNavigation

75.6 69.4 59.2 Total

After: Abu-Zeid, 1995, Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2002.

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

1897

1907

1917

1927

1937

1947

1960

1966

1976

1986

1996

2006

2016

2025

2035

2050

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.52.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.55.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

Population Growth (1897-2050) Per-Capita Water Allocation

EGYPT: Population Growth & Per-Capita Water Allocation1897 - 2050

Po

pu

lati

on

Gro

wth

(M

illi

on

)

Per-C

ap

ita W

ate

r A

llo

cati

on

(1

00

0 m

3 )

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

1897

1907

1917

1927

1937

1947

1960

1966

1976

1986

1996

2006

2016

2025

2035

2050

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.52.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.55.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

Population Growth (1897-2050) Per-Capita Water Allocation

EGYPT: Population Growth & Per-Capita Water Allocation1897 - 2050

Po

pu

lati

on

Gro

wth

(M

illi

on

)

Per-C

ap

ita W

ate

r A

llo

cati

on

(1

00

0 m

3 )

Horizontal Expansion Plan Till Year 2017 (3.4 Million Feddan)

Area/fed Location

413300 Sinai

647730 East Delta

108820 Middle Delta

1012900

West Delta

99150 Middle Egypt

468100 Upper Egypt

50000Beachs of Naser lack

60000Halaib nad Shalatin

540000 Toshiky

3400000

Total

Present and Future ChallengesPresent and Future Challenges1. Desertification

2. Climatic Change

3. Waterlogged, saline and sodic soils

4. Urbanization Encroachment

5. Soil Pollution

6. Water Pollution

7. Awareness deficient

1. Desertification

A stony plain

Distribution of groundwater salinity in ppm in the lower Nile delta for 50 m depth, showing intrusion of saline water into the northeastern part and brackish water in the northwestern part including Alexandria (modified from Gaamea, 2000).

Sea-water Intrusion

2) Effect of Climatic Changes2) Effect of Climatic Changes

Shoreline Erosion

Shoreline Erosion

Land Productivity Declined

Land Productivity Declined

Map of the Nile delta shows main vulnerability degree (15% artificially protected sectors, 30% unprotected sectors and 55% naturally protected sectors) and the existing structural mitigations along the Nile delta coastal zone.

Salt Affected Soils

4) Urbanization Encroachment

Due to the high increase in population and the dominant of social living the urban encroachment is occurred.

5) Soil, Water and Air Pollution5) Soil, Water and Air Pollutiona) Soil pollution:

• Agricultural area in Egypt is 4% of the total area (3.2 million ha) • Agriculture is very intensive (2-3 crops/year).• The demand for raising productivity led to an increase in fertilizer

use • High imbalances in crop nutrition in favour of nitrogen (absence of

accurate information on nutrient needs for different crops under different conditions)

CCoouunnttrryy NN PP22OO55 KK22OO FFrruuiitt yyiieelldd ((ttoonnnneess//hhaa))

kkgg//ttoonnnnee UUnniitteedd SSttaatteess 2.3 1.5 2.5 > 48 MMoorrooccccoo 4.6 3 4.5 36–48 EEggyypptt 19.5 4 0.5 14–20

Amounts of nutrients applied to produce one tonne of orange and yield in different countries

Agriculture in Egypt has always been confined to the Nile Valley and Delta which comprise only 3.6% of the country’s land surface.

Exceptions are a few oases in the western Desert and some recently reclaimed desert lands adjacent to the River Valley and Delta.

Soils, Water & Environment Res.

Inst., ARC, Established in 1903

The cultivated area in Egypt to 8.4 million feddans, representing only 5% of Egypt total area (I million Km2)

Soil Resources Management

Rehabilitation of irrigation systems

Wide furrow

FurrowLining of irrigation

canalGated pipes

Wide furrow

SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT

Modern Irrigation Systems

Land Leveling

Soil Amendments

Wastes Agricultural Recycling Biogas Technology

Compost To Produce Energy

Seanobactreen

okadin

Mixed bacteria solution

Seanobactreen

okadin

Mixed bacteria solution

Ascobeen

Phosphoreen

Microbeen

Serialeen

Ascobeen

Phosphoreen

Microbeen

Serialeen

Nemales

Potaples Solutions

Yeast Active

Pioveen

Nemales

Potaples Solutions

Yeast Active

Pioveen

Bio-Fertilizers and Biological Agents

Drainage Save Egyptian Soil From Deterioration

The pilot areas and drainage technology deals with research topics covered over a decade of activities varied among design, implementation and maintenance problems which originate from the field practices of drainage project in Egypt.

• A number of pilot areas have been constructed in the Nile Delta

The Main Research Objectives:• Evaluation of the impact of drainage on

agriculture

Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology

The Main Research Objectives:• Evaluation of the impact of drainage on agriculture in

relation to: (i). Degree of watertable control under various agricultural,

hydrological and soil condition (ii). Degree of salinity control under various irrigation

practices and subsequent drainage rates• Assessment of the impact of future drainage projects on

crop production and water use under various design and/or construction concept

• Evaluation and testing of different drainage material and auxiliary structure, installation techniques, operation controls and maintenance equipment

• Development of monitoring methods to evaluate the effectiveness of the drainage projects.

Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology

Case Study

Salty Clay Soils under Saline Shallow Watertable Depth

in The Northern Eastern Nile

Delta, Egypt

INTRODUCTION• Most of deteriorated salty clay soils are found

throughout the northern periphery of the Nile Delta.• The clay cap is about 40 meters. • It is the highly saline shallow ground water, which

creates soil water logging, salinity and/or alkalinity associated with severe decline in soil structure and soil aeration.

• Since leaching water may pass only through macro-pores and not within clay peds. Consequently improving leaching efficiency through artificial re-structure would be a possible solution.

Drainage Experimental Field

Manzala Lake

The clay about 60%The hydraulic conductivity is 0.0669 m/day. The average water table salinity is 25dS/m

The Aims

• The aim is to study crop production as affected by drainage types for evaluating improvement soil condition to sustain land use for maximizing crop production and prevent soil deterioration.

General and long-term objectives

• Developing locally applicable and easy techniques for reclamation and sustainable land use.

• Avoiding soil deterioration.

• Improvement of the socio-economic situation of small-scale farmers.

• Improvement of international cooperation.

Specific objective to be achieved by the proposal

• Improve the management of irrigated soils by introducing mole drainage.

• To study the stability and suitability of the fine textured Egyptian soils for mole drainage.

• Develop suitable tillage and mole drainage techniques for:

- the reclamation of saline and sodic soils, and - the continuous control of groundwater tables and salinity.• To solve the complex management of the

problem areas of heavy clay saline soils with shallow saline water table in the northern part of Egypt by testing new auxiliary drainage techniques.

Drainage Experimental Field

Manzala Lake

Mole Experiment

Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

I II III IV V

Before Moling AfterMoling

20 m Drain Spacing

Seasons

Dra

wdo

wn

rate

mm

/ day

Above Below

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

I II III IV V

Before Moling AfterMoling

40 m Drain Spacing

Seasons

Dra

wdo

wn

rate

mm

/ day

Drawdown rate before and after moljng under different drain spacing treatments

Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt

Soil salinity before and after moling under different drain spacing treatments.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

I II III IV V

Before Moling AfterMoling

20 m Drain Spacing

Seasons

EC

, dS

m

-

1

Upper layerDeeper layer

0

24

6

8

10

12

14

I II III IV V

Before Moling AfterMoling

40 m Drain Spacing

Seasons

EC

, dS

m

-

1

Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt

Mean groundwater depth (cm) and salinity in the successive years for both

drainage treatments.

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0I II III IV IV

Seasons

Wat

erta

ble

dept

h c

m

20m 40 m

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

I II III IV IV

Seasons

Wa

tert

ab

le s

ali

nit

y

( dS

/ m )

20m 40 m

Mole Drainage for Maximizing Soil Productivity under Saline Groundwater Table, Egypt

No 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 mNo 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m

20032002

20012000

19990

4

8

12

16

20

EC

dS

m

Mole drain spacing

Without Gypsum With Gypsum

Soil salinity (EC) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments.

Desalinization Process

Soil alkalinity (ESP) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments.

No 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 mNo 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m

20032002

20012000

19990

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Exc

han

geab

le S

odiu

m P

erce

nta

ge

Mole Drain Spacing

Without Gypsum With GypsumDesodification Process

Rice yields (Ton/fd) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments

No 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 mNo 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m

20032002

20012000

1999

0

1

2

3

4

5

Ric

e Y

ield

(T

on

/fed

dan

)

Mole Drain Spacing

Without Gypsum With GypsumRice Grain Yield

Subsoilin

g + Dra

inage Experi

ment

• The experimental Treatment Design • Three drain spacing treatments separated by buffer zones:• (i) 15 m. spacing (calculated spacing according to the

steady state formula, (Houghoudt, 1940);• (ii) 30 m. spacing (conventional spacing adopted in the

surrounding areas); and• (iii) 60 m. spacing (double of the conventional spacing for

future secondary drainage treatments).• The sub-treatments are two types of subsoiling; the

distance between plowing 1.5 meters and the depth is 50 cm. There are:

• (i). One direction: Parallel orientation subsoiling type and perpendicular on tile drains, and

• (ii). Two directions: Net structure- subsoiling type.

The successive cultivated cropsThe successive cultivated crops were

wheat, sorghum, and clover. Total yield including straw and grains were determined. Sorghum plant samples were taken randomly from each plot to determine fresh weight and dry matter. For clover, berseem cut was measured for fresh and dry weight. The crop production data is analyzed statistically.

Wheat• Plant heights as well as dry content are highly

significant increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments. Subsoiling types are highly significant on the plant height (Figure1a & b). The total number of tillers per plant is highly significant increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments.

• The total yield is relatively (Wheat grain and straw) is relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 1c, 1d).).

• The net treatment is more effective for wheat traits and yield than parallel treatment.

Figure (1). Wheat as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling treatment, winter season 96/97: (a) Plant height. (b) Dry matter. (C) Grain Yield and (d) Straw Yield.

(a). (b).

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

20

30

40

50

Ave

rage

of

whe

at p

lant

hei

ght

(cm

)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

Ave

rage

of

wh

eat

dry

mat

ter

(g/p

lan

t)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

(c).

(d).

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

1

1.5

2

2.5

Av

era

ge

of

wh

eat

gra

in y

ield

(T

on

/fd

)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

2

3

4

Ave

rage

of w

heat

str

aw y

ield

(Ton

/fd)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

(b).

Sorghum• Plant heights as well as dry matter are relatively increased

with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 2a &b); the net subsoiling is the highest treatment for increasing the plant height. The best treatment is net subsoiling combined with drain spacing at 15 m; while the worst treatment 60 m without any subsoiling treatments.

• The soil treated with 60 m drain spacing combined with net subsoiling is much similar to the treatment of 15 m drain spacing on the sorghum plant height. The yields are relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 2c) and highly significant effect of subsoiling types on the sorghum yield. The net subsoiling is more increasing sorghum yield than the parallel treatments. The best treatment for increasing sorghum yield is drain spacing at 15 m combined with net subsoiling while the least treatment is drain spacing at 60 m.

Figure (2). Sorghum as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling treatment, summer season 96/97: (a) Plant height. (b) Dry matter and ( C) Sorghum Yield.

(a).

(b). (c).

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

90

110

130

150

170A

vera

ge o

f sor

ghum

pla

nt h

eigh

t (cm

)Subsoiling

No Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

2

4

6

8

10

12

Ave

rage

of s

orgh

um d

ry m

atte

r (g

/pla

nt) Subsoiling

No Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

2

4

6

8

10

12

Sorgh

um Yi

eld (T

on/fd

)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

Clover

• The fresh and dry weight content at second and third cut as affected by drain spacing combined subsoiling type (Figure 3a &b and Figure4a &b)) is relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments. There is a highly significant on fresh weight. The net treatments are mostly affected on increasing fresh weight more than the other treatments.

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

6

7

8

9

10

11

12A

vera

ge o

f cl

over

fre

sh w

eigh

t, s

econ

d c

ut

( T

on/f

d)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

Av

era

ge

of

clo

ver

dry

ma

tter

,sec

on

d c

ut,

(T

on

/fd

)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing

5

6

7

8

9

10

Aver

age

of c

love

r fr

esh

wei

ght,

thir

d cu

t (To

n/fd

)

SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

15 m 30 m 60 m

Subsoiling

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Ave

rage

of c

love

r dr

y m

atte

r w

eigh

t (To

n/fd

) SubsoilingNo Parallel Net

Figure (3). Clover fresh weight [(a) second & (b) third cut] versus drain spacing and subsoiling treatments.

Figure (4). Clover dry weight [(a) second & (b) third cut] versus drain spacing and subsoiling treatments.

Soil Salinity• The closer drain spacing with net subsoiling

realizes desalinization of the surface soil layers. There is also highly significant effect on lowering soil surface salinity by drain spacing and subsoiling (Figure 6). The drainage system should be combined with subsoiling in purpose to keep at least salinity in rootzone layer at a convenient level to sustain soil productivity and plant growth. This method is highly recommended for such condition to increase losing soil between drain spacing. The subsoiling either net or parallel helps increasing the watertable draw down for raising drainage efficiency. However, a narrow spacing could be expressive and not practical

Figure (6 ). Surface soil salinity as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling in the year of: ( 96/97 & 97/98. [(a) Drain Spacing & (b) subsoiling treatments.

15 m 30 m 60 m

Drain spacing treatment

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

To

ta

l so

ula

ble sa

lts %

Wheat 96/97

Clover 97/98

F **LSD (5%) 0.12 (1%) 0.016

NO Parallel Net

Subsoiling

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Total S

olu

ble S

alts (%

)

Wheat 96/97

Clover 97/98

F **LSD (5%) =0.012 (1%) =0.016

(a)

(b)

Watertable depths

• The importance of the different water table depths is the positions of them midway between drains during two- interval irrigations (Figure5).

• The drainage treatments have an enhancing effect on lowering the water table, particularly under narrow spacing between drains combined with subsoiling especially net treatment. Increasing downward water movement after irrigation gives the chance for the effective root zone to dry, shrink and form water pathways.

6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18

Days after irrigation

0

-30

-60

-90

-120

-150

Wat

er t

able

dep

ths

(cm

)

Drain spacing15 m 30 m 60 m

Parellel subsoiling

Net Subsoiling

winter96/97 winter96/97summer 1997 summer 1997winter97/98 winter97/98

The groundwater table depth during different seasons as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling type treatments.

ConclusionThe best treatment is drain spacing at 15 m

combined with net subsoiling. However, it is worthy to mention that treatment of wider drain spacing (30 m) combined with net subsoiling gives satisfactory results in lowering watertable and reducing salinity. It is also reduce drainage costs.

Auxiliary treatments must be combined with any drainage system in the management of heavy clay low permeable soil.

RECOMMENDATIONS • Alluvial soils owing heavy clay, water

logging, salts are associated with highly saline ground water and constitute a challenging problem.

• Solving must achieve lowering water table at the end of the irrigation intervals, accelerating the downward movement in the surface layers, to the drains so that irrigation water constitutes a temporary front separating the saline ground water table from the rootzone.

• The soil must not be left fallow for a long time.

The restructuring/ horizontal leaching may

provide a variable field technique for reclamation of poorly permeable saline-sodic swelling soils. Wider spacing combined with secondary drainage treatment such as moling, Subsoiling or deep ploughing is recommended.

Initial Soil State at El-Serw North Eastern Delta

General view of the selected area

Leveling using LASER

Leveling using LASER

Soil during Management

Soil After Management

Manholes to measure discharge at El-Serw Experimental field

Low soil productivity and scattered berseem plants.

Clean the surrounded open drain

Constructed an open drain in the middle of the site

General view of new constructed open drain

Gypsum Distribution process

Measuring Mole Drain distances

Tractor & Mole Drain Started from Open Drain

Penetration of Mole Drain Started from Surround Open Drain

View of Mole Plow Diameter

Constructed Mole Drain Line With an indicator in The Front

General View of Mole Lines

Barley Plant

Control

Barley Plant

3 m Mole Drain Spacing

Barley Plant

2 m Mole Drain Spacing

Barley Plant

1.5 m Mole Drain Spacing

Rice Plant

Field With Mole Drains

Rice Plant

Field With Mole Drains

Rice Plant

Field Farmer without Mole Drains

Field Farmer with Mole Drains

Scientists, Graduates and Farmers Visiting Mole Experiment

Mole Plow (Front View)

Mole Plow (Front View)

Mole Plow Connected with filling Box

Visitors