Syntax & Stylistics5

Syntax and Stylistics

Passive, Theta Roles, and Wh-movement

Generative Grammar

Phrase StructureRules

Lexicon

Deep Structure

Surface Structure

TransformationalRules

T-rules:SAIPassiveWh-move

Overgeneration

• Ungrammatical– The boy relied on the girl.

• Ungrammatical– * The boy relied the girl.– *The boy relied.

• Grammatical, but Semantically Odd– *The boy frightens sincerity.– *Sincerity kicked the boy.

Subcategorization frames

• Verbs come in different flavors:– Vi: The woman walked

– Vt: John loves Mary

– Vdt: Mary gave Peter flowers

– Vs: I know that she likes you

• This can be expressed as a kind of frame associated with the lexical entry for each verb:– walked, Vi, [ ___ ]

– love, Vt, [ ___ NP]

– put, Vdt, [ ___ NP NP]

– know, Vs, [ ___ S]

Connecting PS and V frames

S

NP VP

V

put [ ___ NP PP]

the

The boys PP

P NP

on the porch

NP

dinner

The frame puts selectional restrictions on where a particular verb can appear.

Argument Structure

• Through subcategorization, the verb makes sure that it has all the arguments it requires.

Exercise #1

• Workout the subcategorization frame of each of the lexical items: aspire, declare, conduct, aware, transport, arrange, deliver, silent

Subacategorization

• But what about: – The dinner was put on the porch.

• No direct object for put.• Won’t take one:

– *The dinner was put the steak on the porch.

Passive Transformation

• Demotion of the subject to an adjunct introduced by by.

• Promotion of the object to subject status.• Introduction of an auxiliary verb:

– English be or get

The chlidren ate the chocolate. --> The chocolate was/got eaten by the children.

Transformational Grammar and Movement Rules

S

NP VP

The kids V NP

ate the chocolate

Deep Structure

S

NP VP

The chocolate V PP

was eaten by the kids

Surface Structure

Meaning preserving tree-to-tree mapping

The Passive T-rule

1. The children ate the chocolate.

2. The chocolate was eaten by the children.

SD: X - NP1 - V - NP2 - Y

SC: X - NP2 - AUX - V +en - by NP1 - Y

Passives

• Why do writers often mistakenly think that some sentences are passive, when they are not?– My friend suffered an injury while we were

canoeing.

Semantic Roles are different from Grammatical Relations

• Subjects can play different roles in the sentence:– The clothes were washed by the woman.– The clock broke.– The rock shattered the window.– The window shattered.– The ship sank.– The students received awards.

Motivation for the existence of Semantic Roles

– John opened the door with a key.– The key opened the door.– The door opened.– The door was opened by John with a key.

• Semantic roles explain what the meanings of these sentences have in common even though their grammatical relations and subcategorization frames are different.

• The key fills the instrument role, whether it is the subject of the sentence or a prepositional phrase.

• John fills the agent role, whether he is the subject or in a prepositional phrase.

• The door fills the theme or patient role, whether it is a subject or direct object.

Thematic Roles

• Because linguists like to make up technical-sounding words, they usually refer to semantic roles as “Thematic Roles” or just “-roles.”

Examples of Theta Roles

• Agent: an agent acts volitionally or intentionally– The students worked.– Sue baked a cake.

Examples of Theta Roles

• Experiencer and Stimulus: An experiencer is an animate being that perceives something or experiences an emotion. The stimulus is the thing that the experiencer perceives or the thing that caused the emotional response. – The students like linguistics.

• (emoter and stimulus)– The students saw a linguist.

• (perceiver and stimulus)– Linguistics frightens the students.

• (emoter and stimulus)– The students thought about linguistics.

• (cognizer and stimulus)

Examples of Theta Roles

• Patient: A patient is affected by an action.– Sam kicked the ball.– Sue cut the cake.

• Beneficiary: A beneficiary benefits from an event– Sue baked a cake for Sam.– Sue baked Sam a cake.

• Malefactive: Someone is affected adversely by an event.– My car died on me.

• Instrument: – The boy opened the door with a key.– The key opened the door.

Theta Roles for Directed Motion: Ray Jackendoff

• Theme: changes location, is located somewhere, or exists

• Source: the starting point of the motion.

• Goal: the ending point of the motion.

• Path: the path of the motion.

Exercise #2:

• Define the theta roles of the underlined constituents.

(a) Joel gave the detective story to Kyra.

(b) Carolyn rolled the ball towards Kozo.

(c) The ball rolled towards the fence.

(d) Grandma had been cold all day.

(e) Becca likes detective stories.

(f) Love stories please Susan.

(g) Ian bought the book from Nathan.

LinkingDefinition: The term linking refers to the

relationship between thematic roles and grammatical relations.

Agent Goal Theme

John gave Tom the bottle.

Subject indirect object direct object

Linking

• In an unmarked declarative sentence, agents map to subject positions, themes onto object position, and goals onto indirect objects.

• Only arguments of the verb have a -role. • NPs can have only one -role at a time.

Generative Grammar

Phrase StructureRules

Lexicon

Deep Structure

Surface Structure

TransformationalRules

T-rules:SAIPassiveWh-move

-linking

• Theta-role prerequisite for the passive: – Object must be a patient!

• That means, the object must have been affected by the relevant event before it can be moved into the subject position.

Passives

• Only English allows for passivization of imperatives:– Don’t get bitten by snakes!

• German:– * Werde nicht von Schlangen gebissen! – Lass dich nicht von Schlangen beißen!

• Only German allows for passivization of intransitives:– In den Fluren wird nicht gerannt!

(subjectless)

• English: – Running is not allowed in the corridors.

Problems with Semantic Roles

• The definitions are vague:– If themes are things that moved, is his hand a theme in John

moved his hand?

• Linguists keep making up new role names without proper motivation. Proper motivation would be a test.

• Linguists keep writing about the same small set of verbs that have clearly identified roles. Many roles are not clearly covered. – He risked death.– We resisted the enemy.– She resembles her mother.

Generative Grammar

Phrase StructureRules

Lexicon

Deep Structure

Surface Structure

TransformationalRules

T-rules:SAIPassiveWh-move

-linking

Two kinds of Questions

• Yes/No questions:– Did you see the octopus? yes/no/*dog– Have you eaten yet? yes/no/*apple

• Wh-questions– Who was here last week? Fergus/*no– What do you have there? donuts/*yes

Wh-words

who

what

where

when

why

how

which X

Wh-questions involve movement

• I bought a book

• What did you buy _____

S

NP VP

I V NP

bought a book

S

NPVP

you V NP

bought t

What

CP

C

Where from?

What did you say [ was hit ______ ]?

gets theta gets theta role hererole here

cf. John hit the ball

Ends up hereEnds up here

How Far away?

What did you say Joel dreamed Kyra thought Ayla said [ was hit ______ ]?

still gets still gets theta role theta role herehere

Traces?

• want + to wanna– Whoi do you wanna kiss ti ?

– *Who do you wanna kiss the puppy?

– Whoi do you want ti to kiss the puppy?

intervenes, so blocks wanna contraction

Exercise #3

• Where does the wh-word receive its theta role in the following sentences (i.e., where is the trace)?– Who did your mother say the dog bit on the

leg?– What did the instructor tell the student?– Who did the guide say built the tower?

Generative Grammar

Phrase StructureRules

Lexicon

Deep Structure

Surface Structure

TransformationalRules

T-rules:SAIPassiveWh-move

-linking

Preposition vs. Particle

• Try the cleft-test on these:1. John ran into the street.2. Paul called up to Tim.3. The child slipped into the closet.4. I calmed down the clerk.5. The student filled in the blanks.6. Deer can leap over the fence.

• Why do only some work?

Sam climbed up the ladder.

Sam picked up the ladder.

N V P Det N

N V P Det N

NPNP

NP

VP

S

V

NP

VPPP

S

Tree 1

Tree 2

Particle Shift

• There is a transformational rule that allows the movement of a verb particle to the end of a sentence, as in the following sentence:

1. Jake threw out the trash.2. Jake threw the trash out.

Particle Shift

• Now consider the following sentences:1. *She stood up them.

2. She stood them up.

3. *I wrote down it.

4. I wrote it down.

5. *The bartender kicked out him.

6. The bartender kicked him out.

• Describe the circumstances under which the particle must be separated from its verb.