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SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORTATION:RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Christopher A. Kennedy,Dept. of Civil Engineering,
University of Toronto.
Contents:
Comparison of Public and Private Transportation in GTA
Role of Transportation in the Urban Metabolism
The Four Pillars of Sustainable Urban Transportation
Integrated Methodologies and Solutions
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N
Halton
Peel
York
Durham
City of Toronto
!
Greater Toronto Area0
kilometres4020
Lake Ontario
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY
SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
Energy and Resources
Local Air Pollution
Global Air Pollution
Biodiversity
Accidents
Innovation
WealthDiversity
External Trade
Internal Costs
Employment
Service/Accessibility
$$
~~
~~
~~
Quality of Life
Figure 2 Assessing the role of transportation in urban
sustainability from economic, environmental and social
perspectives.
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Private Automobile Public Transportation Economic Auto. parts
and assembly industry
accounts for $4.6 billion in the GTA economy (1993)
Cost per person-km (1996) $ 0.55 GO transit: $0.24 local
transit: $0.35
Cost per person-km in traded dollars (1996), including
sensitivity.
$ 0.24 (+0.06) local transit: $0.07 ( 0.03)
Table 1. Summary of the role of public and private
transportation in the Greater Toronto Area(Table 13 from Kennedy,
2002).
Private Automobile Public Transportation Environmental Estimated
impacts of air pollution (City of Toronto only - upper
estimates)
408 premature mortalities 1606 hospitalizations
1 premature mortality 6.5 hospitalizations
Greenhouse Gas Production 14.9 Tg CO2 approx. 170 g C
/person.km
TTC: 0.021 Tg CO2 3 - 14 g C /person.km
Energy intensity 1.47-1.58 MJ/seat-km 0.42-0.84 MJ/seat-km
Table 1. Summary of the role of public and private
transportation in the Greater Toronto Area(Table 13 from Kennedy,
2002).
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Table 1. Summary of the role of public and private
transportation in the Greater Toronto Area(Table 13 from Kennedy,
2002).
Private Automobile Public Transportation Social Level of Service
(estimates from EMME2 model)
av. speed: 47 km/hr. 50% accessibility in 37 minutes
av. speed: 12 km/hr. 10% accessibility in 37 minutes
Employment 67,000 in auto parts and assembly (1993); 25,000 in
auto. maintenance (1988)
TTC: 10,000 GO: 1,011
Accidents (annual) 100,000 accidents producing 220 deaths and
42,000 injuries
rare (crash in 1995: 3 killed and 30 injured)
Insurance Costs (annual) $1.8 to 2.3 billion TTC: $10 million
accident claim costs
GTA1999
Electricity
Water
Food
Wastewater
Residential Solid Waste
CO2
BOD5
32,700
183
0.84
14,000
157
0.9
0.27
Hong Kong1997
Electricity
Water
Food
Wastewater
Residential Solid Waste
CO2
BOD5
17,542
138
0.68
4,800
102
31
0.38
Comparison of urban metabolisms: Hong Kong 1997 and GTA 1999
(all units in tonnes/cap, except electricity MJ/cap, CO2 kg/cap,
BOD5 kg/cap).
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Category 106t / yr 1987 1999
% change (over 12 years)
INPUTS Food 3.4 4.3 + 27 Gasoline 2.9 3.7 + 27 Diesel 0.65 1.1 +
67 Electricity (GWh) 38,505 46,121 + 24 Water Supply 752 931 +
24
OUTPUTS Emissions
GHG (CO2 eq.)CO2
73 59
83 71
+ 18 +27
Residential Solid Wastes
1.5
1.4
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Wastewater Discharged
BOD5SS
770 0.01 0.012
798 0.005 0.010
+ 4 -56 -16
Trends in selected inputs and outputs fluxes in the GTA
1987-1999 (Table 16 of Sahely et al., 2002b)
FoodGasoline
Diesel
Electr. WaterGHG
CO2
Solid Waste
Wastewater
BOD
SS
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Changes in the GTAs urban metabolism 1987-1999, normalized by
population growth.
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SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORTATION
ENVIRONMENT
SOCIETY ECONOMY
NEIGHBOUR-HOODS
GOVERNANCE INFRA-STRUCTURE
FINANCING
Four Pillars of Sustainable Urban Transportation
Establish an effective body for integrated land-use
transportation planning
Create a fair, efficient and stable funding mechanism
Make strategic investments in major infrastructure
Support investments through local neighbourhood design and
policy
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Governance
The greatest failure of our organization of planning is its
inability to coordinate
each agency has organized their governance and funding
structures in ways that may not necessarily represent what theory
would define as an effective metropolitan agency
Yet the fragmented political authority in most metropolitan
areas makes it difficult to address regional transportation impacts
and needs.
Governance
Local / community
Non-electedprofessional
Elected
Higher level government
Free market Command and control
HierarchicalDecoupled
Representation
Structure
Democracy
Market philosophy
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Financing
Road tollsCongestion pricingParking feesTransit user fees
Development feesTransit impact feesRight of way feesLeverage
real estate assets
Location-related
Fuel taxesVehicle license feesNew vehicle or vehicle parts sales
taxesVehicle use feesEmissions fees
General tax baseLocal transportation levy
Non-location-related
Vehicle-relatedNon-vehicle related
Table 3.1 Potential sources of funding for urban transportation
systems.
What is the Optimal Transit Subsidy?
EXPRESS
EXPRESS
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Infrastructure
Transit Infrastructure: LRT vs. BRT? How to design
infrastructure for alternative
fuel vehicles? ITS infrastructure?
Neighbourhood Design
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Does pedestrian-friendly neighborhood design actually encourage
travel by sustainable modes?
19 %17 %37 %31 % (walking)
2 %5 %21 %13 % (walking)
Shopping Social-recreationalWork trips (main mode)Access trips
to BART for work
Rockridge(traditional neighborhood)
Lafayette (contemporary neighborhood)
Type of trip
Percentage of trips by non-auto modes by residents of two
communities in San Franciso Bay area (Cervero and Radisch,
1996)
Design for Pedestrians
Pushkarev, B and J. Zupan (1975) Urban Space for Pedestrians, A
report of the regional plan association. The MIT Press: Cambridge.
Massachusetts
Tables and figures detail: space per pedestrian at maximum flow;
coefficients of pedestrian flow equations; speed-flow
relationships; speed-density relationships.
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Jammed Flow (Figure from p.90 of Pushkarev and Zupan; space per
pedestrian is about 0.35 m2 on the lower end of the speed-flow
curve).
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Four Pillars - Summary
What is the ideal form of regional governance?
How should infrastructure be financed? (location? vehicle?
private vs. public?)
What infrastructure? (LRT, BRT, alt. fuels, ITS)
Does neighbourhood design matter?
Integrated Methodologies and Solutions
Coupling of regional transportation and economy
Sustainable design at micro and macro scales
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Generation of infrastructure investment alternatives
considering:
business competitiveness environment social equity innovation
potential
Base case scenarios
Infrastructure
Management
System
Regional
Economic
Model
Land-use /
Transportation
Model
Capital & Maintenance
Costs
Growth
Labour Productivity
Agglomeration
Income
GDP Employment Wealth
Environmental Impacts
Consumer Surplus
Accidents
Figure 6. Summary of an urban infrastructure investment
framework (Kennedy and Miller, 2002)
Transportation Model
Regional Economic Model
Economic drivers of the demand for transportation services
Changes in accessibility impact the productivity of different
sectors
Figure 8. Feedback mechanisms between regional economicand
transportation models
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Baetz & Churchill, 1999.
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