Surgical oncology ; introduction • Surgery is the treatment of choi ce for most localized, solid ne oplasms. • Surgery has recognized limits in its application. • Surgery is increasingly combined with other treatment modalities.
Dec 19, 2015
Surgical oncology ; introduction
• Surgery is the treatment of choice for most localized, solid neoplasms.
• Surgery has recognized limits in its application.
• Surgery is increasingly combined with other treatment modalities.
Role of the Surgical Oncologist
• Consultant
Special training or skills
Tumor board
• Organizer and Leader
Cancer programs
Cancer committee
Tumor registry
Oncology section
• Educator
Cancer conferences
Teaching programs
• Researcher
Clinical protocols
Roles of Surgeon in Management of Cancer Patients
• Prevention
• Diagnosis
• Definitive treatment
• Palliation
• Rehabilitation
Prevention
• Educating patients about carcinogenic hazards
• Surgical intervention for the preventable cancer
Sugery That can Prevent Cancer
• Underlying conditioncryptochidism
polyposis coli
familial colon cancer
ulcerative colitis
MEN type II, III
familial breast cancer
familial ovarian cancer
• Prophylactic surgeryOrchiopexy
Colectomy
Colectomy
Colectomy
Thyroidectomy
Mastectomy
Oophorectomy
Role of Surgeon in Management ofCancer Patients
• Prevention
• Diagnosis
• Definitive treatment
• Palliation
• Rehabilitation
Needle biopsy ; advantages
• Simplest method
• Inexpensive
• Causes minimal disturbance of the
surrounding tissue
Needle biopsy ; disadvantages
• Danger of implanting tumor cells in a
needle tract
• Not representative of the total tumor
• The needle misses the lesion
Needle biopsy ; types
• Fine needle aspiration biopsy
• Large bore needle biopsy ;
Vim Silverman needle
Tru cut needle
Principles of the performance of allsurgical biopsies
• Needle tract or scar should be removed as part of subsquent definitive surgical procedure
Principles of the performance of allsurgical biopsies
• Do not contaminate new tissue plane
during the biopsy
Principles of the performance of allPrinciples of the performance of allsurgical biopsiessurgical biopsies
• Choice of biopsy technique should be
selected carefully in order to obtain
an adequate tissue sample for the
needs of the pathologist
TNM Classification System
Describes the anatomic extent of disease
based on assessment of three components
T Primary tumor size and extent
N Regional lymph node involvement
M Distant metastasis absent or present
TNM Classification System
• Primary tumor (T)
TX Primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0 No evidence of primary tumor
Tis Carcinoma in situ
T1,T2 Increasing size or local extension
T3,T4 Increasing extent of primary tumor
TNM Classification System
• Regional lymph nodes (N)
NX Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
N0 No regional lymph node metastasis
N1,N2,N3 Increasing involvement of regional
lymph nodes
TNM Classification System
• Distant metastasis (M)
MX Presence of distant metastasis cannot be
assessed
M0 No distant metastasis
M1 Distant metastasis (may be further specified
according to size of occurrence)
Role of Surgeon in Management ofRole of Surgeon in Management ofCancer PatientsCancer Patients
• Prevention
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Palliation
• Rehabilitation
Considerations in choosing therapy
• Disease and results obtained from each type of therapy
• Patient’s general conditions and co-existing disease
• Patient’s life situation and psychological makeup
American Society of AnesthesiologistsPhysical Status Classification
CLASS DESCRIPTION
Ⅰ Healthy patient
Ⅱ Mild systemic disease, no functional limitation
Ⅲ Severe systemic disease, definite functional limitation
Ⅳ Sever systemic disease that is a constant threat to life
Ⅴ Moribund patient unlikely to survive 24 hours with or without operation
From Miller RD: Principles and Practice of Anesthesia, 2nd ed. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1986, with Permission.
Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Performance Scale and Corresponding
ECOG-PS GRADE
DESCRIPTION KARNOFSKY RATING
0 Fully active, able to carry on all predisease activities without restriction
100
1 Restricted in physically strenuous activity, but ambulatory and able to carry out work of a light or sedentary nature
80-90
2 Ambulatory and capable of all self-care, but unable to carry out any work activities; up and about more than 50% of waking hours
60-70
3 Capable of only limited self- care; confined to bed of chair 50% or more of waking hours
40-50
4 Completely disabled; cannot carry on any self-totally confined to bed or chair
≤30
Major Challenges Confronting theMajor Challenges Confronting theSurgical Oncologist ISurgical Oncologist I
• Accurate identification of patients who can be cured by local treatment alone
Major Challenges Confronting theMajor Challenges Confronting theSurgical Oncologist IISurgical Oncologist II
• Development and selection of local
treatments that provide the best balance between local cure and the impact of treatment morbidity on the quality of life
Major Challenges Confronting theMajor Challenges Confronting theSurgical Oncologist IIISurgical Oncologist III
• Development and application of
adjuvant treatments that can improve
the control of local and distant
invasive and metastatic disease
Cancer surgery ; principles
• Enucleation or incomplete excision of tumo
r mass is never indicated as a therapeutic m
easure
• Prevention of tumor cell implantation during sur
gery• Prevention of vascular dissemination at surgery
Types of cancer operations
• Local resection
• Radical local resection
• Radical resection with en bloc excision of lymphatics
• Extensive surgical procedures
Adequate margin of Resection
• A complete margin of normal tissue around the primary lesion
• Frozen sections used to evaluate tissue margins in instances of doubt
• Complete removal of involved regional lymph nodes
• Resection of involved adjacent organ
• En bloc resection of biopsy tracts and tumor sinuses
Roles of Surgery in the Treatment of Roles of Surgery in the Treatment of CancerCancer
• Definitive surgical treatment for primary cancer
• Surgery for reduce the bulk of residual disease
• Surgical resection of metastatic disease with curative int
ention
• Surgery for treatment of oncologic emergencies
Surgery for residual diseaseSurgery for residual disease
• In selected cancers, surgical resection
of bulk disease may lead to
improvement in the ability to control
residual gross disease that has not been resected
Surgery for metastatic diseaseSurgery for metastatic disease
• Resection of pulmonary metastasis in
patients with soft tissue and bony sarcomas
• Resection of pulmonary metastasis in
patients with colon cancer
• Resection of hepatic metastasis in patients with colorectal cancer
Surgery for oncologic emergenciesSurgery for oncologic emergencies
• exsanguinating hemorrhage• perforation• drainage of abscess• impending destruction of vital organs
Role of Surgeon in Management ofRole of Surgeon in Management ofCancer PatientsCancer Patients
• Prevention
• Diagnosis
• Definitive treatment
• Palliation
• Rehabilitation
Surgery for PalliationSurgery for Palliation
• To improve the quality of life
• Examples ; relief of intestinal obstruction,
removal of mass causing pain
Role of Surgeon in Management ofRole of Surgeon in Management ofCancer PatientsCancer Patients
• Prevention
• Diagnosis
• Definitive treatment
• Palliation
• Rehabilitation
THE CANCER SURGEON
• AS A CARE PROVIDER Brings surgical skill and compassionate care to patien
ts
Leads screening, prevention, and risk assessment programs
Facilitates molecular characterization of tumor and surrogate tissues
Coordinates mu1tidisciplinary clinical care teams
THE CANCER SURGEON
• AS A RESEARCHER
Facilitates laboratory research
Coordinates epidemiologic studies
Conducts clinical trials research
Develops novel approaches to education
THE CANCER SURGEON
• AS A TEACHER
Ensures excellence in surgical care
Leads a multidisciplinary team to implement
integrate oncology training
Stomach and DuodenumStomach and Duodenum• AnatomyAnatomy
• PhysiologyPhysiology
• Operative proceduresOperative procedures
• Gastric disordersGastric disorders
peptic ulcer diseases
tumors
structural disorders
inflammatory and infectious diseases
traumas
Tumors of the StomachTumors of the Stomach
• Adenocarcinoma
• Lymphoma
• Stromal tumors
• Gastric carcinoid
• Metastasis to the stomach
• Gastric polyps
• Miscellaneous
Gross Classification of Advanced Gastric Cancer
• Borrmann 1 형 : 융기형 (fungating, polypoid type)
• Borrmann 2 형 : 궤양 - 융기형 (ulcerofungating type)
• Borrmann 3 형 : 궤양 - 침윤형 (ulceroinfiltrative type)
• Borrmann 4 형 : 미만형 (diffuse infilrative, linitis plastica type)
• Borrmann 5 형 : 분류 불능 (unclassified type)
Gastric Cancer – As a Public Health Gastric Cancer – As a Public Health ProblemProblem
• Accounts for about 10% of cancers worldwide• Is the 2nd leading cause of cancer death worldwide(after lung
cancer)• Has a low 5-year case survival(approx.20%)
Gastric Cancer – Epidemiological TrendsGastric Cancer – Epidemiological Trends
• Regional variations:
- Low incidence in economically developed “western” pop. (+ India)
- Risk reductions reported in migrants moving to low Regions
Gastric Cancer – Epidemiological TrendsGastric Cancer – Epidemiological Trends
• Incidence higher in:
- Males (male-to-female ratio approx. 2 to 1)
- Older age groups (eg, 70+ yrs)
- Lower socio-economic groups
- Some races (eg, in the USA: Black and
Asian pop.)
Gastric Cancer – Epidemiological TrendsGastric Cancer – Epidemiological Trends
• Secular reductions in:
- Incidence
- Mortality (more so)
- Case fatality(?)
• Diminished secular reductions in incidence/mortality
Gastric Cancer incidence in KOREAGastric Cancer incidence in KOREA
Seoul(1992-94) Kangwha(1986-92)
Male Female Male Female
Crude rate 45.7 26.7 80.2 34.4
ASR 71.4 30.4 65.9 25.0
Cancer of the Gastric Cardia-EpidemiologiCancer of the Gastric Cardia-Epidemiological Trendscal Trends
• Higher male-to-female ratio
- approx. 4 to 1 c/f 2 to 1 for other gastric cancers• Younger age distribution• Regional variations:
- High incidence in economically developed “western” pop.(+ China)
- Preponderance in males higher in economically developed “western” pop. (+ China)• Secular increases in incidence
Risk Factors associated with gastric Risk Factors associated with gastric cancercancer
• Nutritional factors
• Environmental factors
• Social factors
• Medical factors
Nutritional factors
• Low intake of fruit & vegetables• High intake of salted food & smoked, cured & pick
ed foods• (?) High intake of high-nitrate & high
Starch foods• Low intake of allium products (eg,garlic and onion
s) and green tea
Environmental factors
-Lack of refrigeration
-Ionizing radiation
-(?)Alcohol and tobacco
-Helicobacter pylori
Medical factorsMedical factors
• previous gastric surgery• Helicobactor pylori infection• gastric polyp• achlorhydria and pernicious anemia• atrophic gastritis• intestinal metaplasia• giant hypertrophic gastritis
Patterns of Spread
• Local extension
• Lymphatic metastasis
• Peritoneal metastasis
• Hematogeneous dissemination
Definition of TNMDefinition of TNMPrimary tumor (T)
• TX primary tumor cannot be assessed
• T0 no evidence of primary tumor
• Tis carcinoma in situ
• T1 tumor invades lamina propria or submucosa
• T2 tumor invades muscularis propria
• T3 tumor invades adventitia
• T4 tumor invades adjacent structures
Regional lymph nodes (N)
• Nx regional lymph node scannot be assessed • N0 no regional lymph node metastasis
• N1 metastasis in 1 - 6 regional lymph nodes
• N2 metastasis in 6 - 15 regional lymph nodes
• N3 metastasis in >15 regional lymph nodes
Stage IA T1 N0 M0 Stage IB T1 N1M0 T2 N0 M0 Stage II T1 N2M0 T2 N1 M0 T3 N0M0 Stage IIIA T2 N2M0 T3 N1M0 T4 N0 M0 Stage IIIB T3 N2M0 Stage IV T4 N1, N2, N3 M0 T1, T2, T3 N3 M0 Any T Any NM1
위암수술의 기본요건위암수술의 기본요건
• 근치성 (Complete resection with
no residual tumor)
• 안전성
• 기능보존성
• Quality of life 의 유지 및 향상
Basic Information Required for Surgical Basic Information Required for Surgical Decision MakingDecision Making
• Epidemiology
• Grading and tumor growth pattern
• Rules of tumor progression
• Location and Lymphatic drainage
Location
1995 1999
Lower third 44% 45%
Middle third 34% 32%
Upper third 10% 12%
Entire stomach 2% 3%
Gastric Resections
• Total gastrectomy
• Distal gastrectomy
• Proximal gastrectomy
• Wedge resection
• Segmental gastrectomy
Function preserving procedures
• Endoscopic mucosal resection
• Laparoscopic wedge resection
• Segmental resection
• Pylorus preserving distal gastrectomy
• Vagus nerve preserving gastrectomy
• Proximal gastrectomy
A limited fundectomy includes limited resection of the upper stomach, limited dissection of lymph nodes along the resected stomach (right cardia, lesser curvature, left cardia, and upper part of greater curvature), and preservation of the vagal nerve. The reconstruction was performed using the single jejunum in 21 patients and the jejunal pouch in 13 patients.
Pouch(13)Single Jejunum(21)
SR. The middle portion of the stomach, including the cancerous lesion, is resected and the pylorus is preserved. Lymph node dissection is limited to nodes near the resected portion of the stomach (DO-1). The omentum is preserved. The hepatic and celiac branches of the vagal nerve are completely preserved. Reconstruction is performed as a gastro-gastrostomy.
Segmental Resection
Combined resections
• Spleen
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Transverse colon
• Gall bladder
• Adrenal gland
• Ovary
Total gastrectomy with splenectomy and pancreas-preserving dissection of lymph nodes along splenic artery. The splenic artery is cut at the distal site of branching of the dorsal pancreatic artery.
Extended operation-left upper abdominal exenteration plus Appleby’s method. The whole stomach, pancreas body and tail, spleen, transverse colon, gallbladder, and left adrenal are removed en bloc. The celiac artery is resected at the root.
Lymph node dissection
• D0 ; no dissection or incomplete dissection
• D1 ; dissection of the N1 group ( MRD )
• D2 ; dissection of N1 and N2 group ( SRD )
• D3 ; dissection of N1, N2, and N3 group ( ERD )
• D4 ; dissection of N1, N2, N3, and N4 group ( SERD )
Controversies in lymph nodes dissection
• Local or systemic disease
• Difference of biological characteristics
• Stage migration phenomenon
• Patient’ factors
• Surgeon
• Randomized prospective study
Aims of palliative surgery
• Relief of symptoms to improve quality of life
• prolongation of comfortable survival without
producing new symptoms or incurring excessive
mortality or morbidity
Palliative surgery ;preoperative consideration
• Reasonable length of life
• cost-benefit equation
• balancing symptoms with operative
morbidity and postoperative symptoms
years after operation
Survivals in Gastric Cancer
CADO,1985
0
50
100%
5 10 ys
stage Ⅳ
stage Ⅲ
stage Ⅱ
stage Ⅰ
21.9
47.6
79.2
91.6
82.0
66.9
36.4
14.7
Gastric Cancer SurgerySurvival - US vs. Japanese vs. Korea
US Japan KoreaStage (%) 5-yr sur (%) 5-yr sur (%) 5-yr sur I (18.1) 50 (45.7) 91 (28.9) 89 II (16.2) 29 (11.9) 72 (15.0) 69 III (35.6) 13 (21.8) 44 (43.3) 38 IV (30.1) 3 (20.6) 9 (13.2) 9
Maruyama et al., World J Surg 11:418-25, 1987
Surgical Treatment for Gastric Cancer
Adjuvant Chem.*
SCH* Study Gx : Gastrectomy
Depth M elevated
depressed
SMMP
SSSE-SI
Scirrhous ca.
P1H1CY1M1
subtotal/total Gx + D2 dissection
s/t Gx + D2/Extended*
Extended ( LUAE ) *
Chemotherapy*
Adjuvant Chem.*
Adjuvant Surg.*
EMR*
EMR*
EMR*
EMR/Lim.Surg
Limited Surg*
Limited Surg*
0.1-1.0 1.1-2.0 2.1-
size
Limited Surgery for Early Gastric Cancer
Early gastric cancer is really cancer which has a potential to grow to advanced cancer.
( 1 ) Natural History( 2 ) Treatment
1 ) EMR2 ) Limited Surgery
Fundectomy for cancer in the upper stomach
Segmental Resection for ca. in the middleSCH
Interval from early cancer to advanced cancer
0
50
100%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Median : 37 months
Interval from the time of endoscopic diagnosis of early gastric cancer(months)
Survival Curve of Early Cancer
0
50
100%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100months
Median : 77 months
5-year survival rate :64.5%
Eligibility : Early Cancer ( M )Upper stomachLess than 5 cm longitudinallyOut of criteria of EMR
Surgical Methods :Proximal Gastrectomy ( -1/2 )D0-1 lymph node dissectionReconstruction using pouch jejunum
Proximal Resection
A limited fundectomy includes limited resection of the upper stomach, limited dissection of lymph nodes along the resected stomach (right cardia, lesser curvature, left cardia, and upper part of greater curvature), and preservation of the vagal nerve. The reconstruction was performed using the single jejunum in 21 patients and the jejunal pouch in 13 patients.
Pouch(13)Single Jejunum(21)
Results( Proximal Resection )
Surgical Risk blood Loss ( cc )
Postoperative Complication
anastmosis failure
pancreas fistula
stenosis
infection
gallstone
Prox. Gx Total Gx p
300±193 555±316 < 0.05
1 (2.9)
0
0
0
0
2 (5.0)
6 (15.0)
3 (7.5)
4 (10.0)
3 (7.5)
< 0.05
Segmental Resection
Eligibility : Early Cancer ( M )Middle stomachLess than 5 cm longitudinallyOut of criteria of EMR
Surgical Methods :Segmental Gastrectomy ( -1/2 )D0-1 lymph node dissectionGastro-gastro-anastomosis
SR. The middle portion of the stomach, including the cancerous lesion, is resected and the pylorus is preserved. Lymph node dissection is limited to nodes near the resected portion of the stomach (DO-1). The omentum is preserved. The hepatic and celiac branches of the vagal nerve are completely preserved. Reconstruction is performed as a gastro-gastrostomy.
Segmental Resection
Results( Segmental Resection )
Segm. Gx Distal Gx p
Surgical Risk
mean blood loss ( cc )Postoperative Complication
Gallstone
239 342 < 0.05
1
1
7
8
< 0.05
< 0.05
50 50
( 1 ) Common surgery in Japan safer D2 dissection lower incidence of postoperative complication
( 2 ) Survival rate in common operation ( D2 )is better than that in Western countries
( 3 ) Guideline of JGCA has no plan to compare D2 surgery and D1.
Subtotal/total Gx + D2 dissection
Pancreas Preserving D2 Dissection( Phase Ⅲ )
Eligibility :MP-SE advanced cancer in the upper/middle of the stomachcurative operation
Surgical Methods :Total Gx + Pancreatosplenectomy ( Group A ) vs Total Gx + Splenectomy ( Group B )
Endpoint :5 year survival rate, Surgical risk
Total gastrectomy with splenectomy and pancreas-preserving dissection of lymph nodes along splenic artery. The splenic artery is cut at the distal site of branching of the dorsal pancreatic artery.
Results( Total Gx + pancreas preserving dissection )
Surgical Riskblood Loss ( cc )amylase ( drain )
≧( 10,000u/L )
Postoperative Complicationpancreas fistulaanastmosis failureliver dysfunctionbleeding
Dissected Nodesdissected nodesnodes with metastasis
Group A Group B p
994.0±473.7
16/55(29%)
8 (14.5)2 (3.6)2 (3.6)1 (1.8)
4.6±2.94/55(7.3%)
904.2±428.6
6/55(11%)
5 (9.1)2 (3.6)1 (1.8)0 (0)
4.1±2.63/55(5.5%)
< 0.05
Thoracotomy vs Conventional mediastinalnode dissection ( JCOG )
Eligibility :cardia cancer invading to esophagus ( <
3cm )curative operation
Surgical Methods :Thoracotomy vs Laparotomy
Endpoint :5 year survival rate
Under registration of patients
Extended Surgery
( 1 ) A phase studyⅢ : Para-aortic nodes dissection
( JCOG, ongoing )
( 2 ) A phase studyⅢ : Extended surgery ( Left
Upper Abdominal Exenteration : LUAE ) for
scirrhous gastric cancer vs Common surgery for
SGC ( JCOG, plan )
Para-aortic Lymph Node Dissection( JCOG )( phase Ⅲ )
Eligibility :SS-SI
curative operation
Surgical Methods :D2 node dissection vs D2 + para-aortic nodedissection
Endpoint :5 year survival rate
- Under follow-up after registration -
Extended Operation for Scirrhous Gastric Cancer ( LUAE )( phase Ⅱ )
Eligibility :Scirrhous gastric cancer ( Type 4 cancer )curative operation
Surgical Methods :Total Gx + pancreatosplenectomy vsLeft Upper Abdominal Exenteration :LUAE )
Endpoint :feasibility, 5 year survival rate
Extended operation-left upper abdominal exenteration plus Appleby’s method. The whole stomach, pancreas body and tail, spleen, transverse colon, gallbladder, and left adrenal are removed en bloc. The celiac artery is resected at the root.
Mortality and Morbidity
ComplicationLUAE ( +Apl )
(%)( Death )
Control
(%)
Pancreatic fistula 22(33) (1) 5 (16)
Liver dysfunction 9(14) (1) 5 (16)
Anastomosis failure 2 (3) 6 (19)
Infection 1 (2) -
Others 2 (3) 1 (3)
Survival Rates of Patients with Scirrhous Gastric Cancer ( stageⅢ )
0
50
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 SCH
%
Groups
1988-92
1983-87
1973-771978-82
Gastric Cancer SurgerySurvival - US vs. Japanese vs. Korea
US Japan KoreaStage (%) 5-yr sur (%) 5-yr sur (%) 5-yr sur I (18.1) 50 (45.7) 91 (28.9) 89 II (16.2) 29 (11.9) 72 (15.0) 69 III (35.6) 13 (21.8) 44 (43.3) 38 IV (30.1) 3 (20.6) 9 (13.2) 9
Maruyama et al., World J Surg 11:418-25, 1987
Gastric CancerSurgical Techniques
4 Randomized D1 vs. D2 StudiesHong Kong N.S.South Africa N.S.U.K. N.S.Holland N.S.
Gastric CancerSites of Failure
Local Regional (Total) 87%Distant (Only) 25%Local/Regional (Only) 53%
Adapted from Gunderson et al.
Studies
( 1 ) A phase studyⅢ : Total Gastrectomy + pancreato-splenectomy vs Total gastrectomy + splenectomy ( Furukawa, published )
( 2 ) A phase studyⅢ : Total gastrectomy + splenectomy vs spleen preserving total gastrectomy( JCOG plan )
( 3 ) A phase studyⅢ : Thoracotomy vs conventional mediastinal dissection ( JCOG ongoing )
Subtotal/total Gx + D2 dissection