Summary of High School Chemistry

7/30/2019 Summary of High School Chemistry

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Chemical Principles:The Quest for Insight

Fourth Edition

Fundamentals (Part I) A and B

Organzied by Tarzan, FTS()Copyright 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company

Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang

Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones

Chapter 0


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Discipline, Center of Science: 2 Directions

1. Physics: Atoms and Molecules

Chemistry

2. Biology: Life

Introduction and Orientation


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Chemistry , Technology and Society:Fig.1 Stone Age (Minerals) Bronze Age (Cu + Sn) Iron Age (Fe)

4 Bronze swords date from 1250 to 850 BCE

A collection in Naturhistoricsches Museum, Vienna

a short sword

an antenna-type sword

a tongue-shaped sword

Liptau-type sword


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Fig.2. Nature Science

Cold weather triggers

chemical processes that

reduce the amount of the greechlorophyll in leaves,

aoolwing the colors of

various other

Pigments to show.


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Fig.3.

When magnsium burns in air,

it gives off a lot of heat and light.

The gray-white powdery productlooks like smoke.


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Fig.4.


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Chemistry: A Science at Three Levels

Fig.5


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Fig.6. A summary of the principal activities that

constitute a common version of the scientific mehtod.

At each stage, the crucial activity is

experiment and its comparison with

the idea proposed.

How Science Is Done


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Fig.7. Scientific research today

often requires sophisticatedequipment and computers. This

chemist is using an Auger electron

spectrrometer to probe the surface of

a crystal. The data collected will

allow the chemist to determine

which elecments are present in the

surface


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(The Branches of)Chemistry

Organic..

Inorganic..

Analytical..

Physical..

Practical (Experimental)..

-----------Bio (logical)..

Medicinal..

Computational..

Theoretical..

Molecular Biology

Material Science

Nanotechnology

.Sustainable

Environmental..

Green Chemisty

How to Master Chemistry?


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Mastering Chemistry(Bases)A. Matter and EnergyB. Elements and Atoms

C. Compounds

D. The Nomenclature of CompoundsE. Moles and Molar Masses

F. Moles and Molar Masses

G. Determination of Chemical FormulasH. Mixtures and Solutions

I. Chemical Equations

J. Aqueous Solutions and PrecipitationK. Redox Reactions

L. Reaction Stoichiometry

M. Limiting Reactants


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Fig.A.1. A molecule representation of the three states of matter.In each case, the spsheres represent particles that may be atoms,

molecules or ions

Solid phase Liquid phase

Gas phase

A. Matter and Energy (Physical Change: Pure Substance)


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Fig.A.2

Mass is an extensiveproperty,

but temperature is intensive.

These two samples of iron(II) sulfate

solution were taken from the same

well-mixed supply; they have

different masses but the sametemperature.

Solution: Homogeneous Mixture

Extensive (V, M,) vs. Intensive (T, P)

For example: PV=nRT


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Fig.A.3

and

A Representation of

Measurements that

are

(a) Precise andAccurate

(b) Precise but

Inaccurate

(c) Imprecise butAccurate

(d) Both Imprecise

and Inaccurate


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Example A.1: Converting Unit

1,7 qt = ? L

Conversion factor(Appendix 1 B) =

1 qt

0.94635251 L

1 qt

1,7 qt

1 qt

0.94635251 L

1.6 L

0.94635251 L


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5.0 g silver solid = ? cm

Solution: V= m / V = 5.0g / 10.50 gcm

=0.48 cm

Example A.2: Calculating the volume of a sample3

-3/

// /

3


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Fig.A.4 When a force acts along the direction of travel, the speed (the magnitude of thevelocity) changes, but the direction of motion does not. (b) The direction of travel can be changed

Without affecting the speed if the force is applied in an appropriate direction. Both changes in

velocity correspond to acceleration.

Force and Work


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Fig.A.5When bromine is poured

on red phosphorus, a chemical

change takes place in which a lot

of energy is releasedas heat and light.

Chemical Change and Energy:


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Fig.A.6 The energy requiredTo raise the book that you are

now reading from floor to

tabletop is approximately 14 J.The same energy would be

released if the book fell fro

tabletop to floor.


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Fig.A.7 The potential energyof a mass m n a gravitationalfield is proportional to its

height h above a point (the

floor), which is taken to the

correspond to zero potential

energy.


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Example A.3: Calculating Kinetic EnergyHow much energy does it take to accelerate a person and a bicycle of total -

1mass 75 kg to 20 mph (8.9 m . s ), starting from rest and ignoring frictionand wind resistance?

Solution: Ek =mv = (75 kg) x ( 8.9 m . S ) = 3.0 kJ

Example A.4: Calculating the Gravitational Potential Energy

Someone of mass 65 kg walks up a flight of stairs between two floors of a

building that are separated by 3.0 m. What is the change in potential energy

of the person?

Solution:Ep = mgh

= (65 kg) x (9.81 m . S ) x (3.0 m)

= 1.9 kJ

2

-1

-1 2

-2


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Fig.A.8 the variation of the Coulomb

potential energy of two opposite charge(one represented by the red circle,

the other by the green circle) with

their separation . Notice that the

potential energy decreases as the chargeapproach each other.


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Fig.A.9

An electromagnetic fieldoscillates in time and space.

The magnetic field is

perpendicular to the electric

field . The length of an arrow atany point represents the

strength of the field at that

point. And it orientation

denotes its direction . Both

fields are perpendicular in thedirection of travel of the

radiation.


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Fig.A.10

Kinetic energy(represented by the height

of the light green bar) are

interconvertable, but their

sum ( the total height of

the bar) is a constant in the

absence of external

influences, such as airresistance. A ball through up

from ground loses kineticenergy as it slows, but gains

potential energy. The reverse

happens as it falls back to

Earth.


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Fig.B.1Samples of

common elements.

Clockwise from the

Red-brown liquid

Mercury and the

Solids iodine,

Cadmium,Red phosphorus,

and copper

B. Elements and Atoms


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Fig.B.2John Dalton (1766-

1844), the English

schoolteacher who use

experimental

measurements toargue that matter

consists of atoms.

The atoms of anelement are not all

exactly the same,

because they can

differ slightly in mass.

(B.3 isotopes)

B.1 Atoms


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Fig.B.3 Individual atoms can be seen as bumps on the surface of a solid bythe technique called scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). This is of silicon.

B 2 Th N l M d l ill di i Ch 1


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B.2 The Nuclear Model will discuss in Chater 1

(Fig.1.1 Joseph John Thomson(1856~1949), With the apparatus that he used

to discover the electron)


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(Fig.1.2 The apparatus used by Thomson to investigate the properties of electrons.An electric field is set up between the two plates and a magnetic field is applied

Perpendicular to the electric field.)


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(P.2 ) Fig.1.3 A schematicdiagram of Milikans oil-drop

Experiment. Oil is sprayed as

a fine mist into a chamber

containing a charged gas, andthe location of an oil droplet

is monitored by suing a

microscope. Charged

particles (ions) are generatedin the gas by exposing it to x-

ray. The fall of the charged

droplet is balanced by the

electric field.


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P.4 Fig.1.4Ernest Rutherford

(1871~ 1937), who

was responsible for

many discoveries

about the structure ofthe atom and its

nucleus.


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P.3 Fig.1.1 Part of the experimental arrangement used by Geiger and Marsden.Theparticles came from a sample of the radioactive gas radon. They weredirected through a hole into a cylindrical chamber with a zinc sulfide coating on the

inside. Theparticles struck the platinum foil mounted inside the cylinder, andtheir deflections were measured by observing flashes of light (scintillations) where

they struck the screen. About 1 in 20000particles was deflected through very

large angles; most went through the thin foil with almost no deflection.


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Fig.B.4Think of a fly at the center of this

stadium: that is the relative size of the

Nucleus of an atom if the atom were

magnified to the size of the stadium.


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(


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2004 :(David J. Gross (UC,Santa Barbara), Frank

Wilczek(MIT) and H. David Politzer(CIT))

(quirk)for the discovery ofasymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"

The Standard Model and the four forces of NatureThe Standard Model and the four forces of Nature


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3


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Fig.B.5 A mass spectrometer is used to measure the masses of atomsAs the strength of the magnetic field is changed, the path of theaccelerated ions moves from A to C. When the path is at B, the ion

Detector sends a signal to the recorder The mass of the ion is proportional to the

strength of the magnetic field needed to move the beam into position.

B.3 Isotopes


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Fig.B.6

The mass spectrum of neon

The location of the peaks tell

us the relative asses of the atoms,

and the te nsties tel us the relativenumbers of atoms having

each mass.


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Fig.B.7 The nuclei o different isotopes of the sameelement hve the same number of protons but different

numbe of neutrons. These three diagrams show the

composition of the nuclei of the three isotpes of neon.

On this scale, the atom itself would be about 1 km in

diameter These diagrams make no attempt to show

how the protons and neutrons are arranged inside the

nucleus.


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B.4 The Organization of the Elements


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Fig.B.8 The structure of the periodic table, showing the names of some regions and

groups. The groups are the vertical colums, numered 1 through 18 The periods are thehorizontal rows, numbered 1 through 7(period 1 is the to row hydrogen and helium

and is ot numbered n the figure) The main-group elements are those in Groups 1,2,and

13 through 18, together with hydrogen. Some versions of the table use different

notations for groups, as in Groups III through VIII shown here We use both notations

for Groups 13 through 18.


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Fig.B.9The alkali metals eact with

water, producing gaseous

hydrogen and heat.Potassium, as shown here,

reacts vigorously,

producing so much heat that

the hydrogen produced is

ignited.


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Fig.B.10

The halogens are colored

elements.

From left to right, chlorine is ayellow-green gas, bromine is a

red-brown iquid (its vapor fills

the flask), and iodine is a dark

purple-black solid (note the smal

crystals)


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Fig.B.12 The locatin of the seven elements commonly regarded as metalloid :these elements have characterstic of both metals and nonmetas. Other elements,

notably beryllium and bismuth, are sometines included in the classificantion.

Boron (B), although not resembling a metal in appearance, is included because

it resembles silicon (Si) chemically.

C. Compounds


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Chemical Principles:The Quest for InsightFourth Edition

Fundamentals (Part II):C,D,E and F

Copyright 2008 by W. H. Freeman & CompanyEd. By Tai-Shan Fang


Chapter 0

C Compounds


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C. Compounds

C.1 What are compounds ?

Compounds are combinations of

elements in which the atoms of

the different elements are present

in a characteristic , constant ratio.A compound is classified as

molecular if it consists of

molecules and as ionic if it

consists of ionic if it consists of

ions.

C.2 Molecules and Molecular compounds


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Figure C.2 Representative of an ethanol


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molecule : (a) space-filling,

(b) ball-and-stick

Other kinds of images to depict molecular structure


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The tube structure

Density isosurface

The tube structure and Density isosurface


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Electrostatic potential

isosurface Elpot surface: red-tint (high,-) --- blue-tint(low, +)

A molecular formula shows the composition of a molecule in terms of

the numbers of atoms of each element present. Different styles of molecular

models are used to emphasize different molecular characteristics


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Metallic elements typically form cations, and nonmetallic elements typically

form anions; the charge of a monatomic ion is related to its group in the

periodic table


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D.3 Names of Ionic Compounds


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Ionic compounds are named by starting

with the name of the cation (with its

oxidation number if more than one chargeis possible). Followed by the name of the

anion; hydrates are named by adding the

word hydrate, preceded by a Greek prefixindicating the number of water molecules

in the formula unit.


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D.4 Names of Inorganic Molecular Compounds


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D.5 Names of Some Common Organic Compounds


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E. Moles and

Molar Masses


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E1. The Mole


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E.2. Molar Mass (M)


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F Determination of Chemical formula


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Figure F.1 The researchvessel Alpha Helix is

used by chemists at the

University Of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign tosearch for marine

organisms that contain

compounds of medicinal

value. Compounds found

to have antifungal or

antiviral properties are

then subject to the kindsof analyses described in

this section

F.1 F.1 Mass Percentage Composition (%)

F.2 Determining Empirical Formulas


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F.3 Determining Molecular Formulas

G Mixture and Solutions


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Chemical Principles:The Quest for Insight

Fourth Edition

Fundamentals (Part III) G to M

Copyright 2008 by W. H. Freeman & CompanyEd. By Tai-Shan Fang


Chapter 0

G Mixture and Solutions


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G.1 Classifying Mixture


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G.2 Separation Techniques


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G.3. Molarity (M)


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H. Chemical Equations

H.1. Symbolizing

Chemical Equations


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H.2 Balancing

Chemical Equations


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I. Aqueous Solutions

and Precipitation


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and Precipitation

I.1 Electrolytes


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I.2 Precipitation Reaction I.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Reaction


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(a) (b)


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I.4 Putting Precipitation

to work


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J. Acids and Bases : J.1 Acids and bases in Aqueous Solution


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J .2 Strong and Weak

acids and Bases


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Arrhenius acids H + and bases (OH--)

Brnsted-Lwry


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J .3 Neutralization


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K. Redox Reaction

K.1 Oxidation and Reduction


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K.2 Oxidation and Reduction: keeping Track of Electrons


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K.3 Oxiditizing andReducing Agents


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K.4 Balancing Simple Bedox Equation


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L. Reaction Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry


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L.1 :Stoichiometry: Mole- to Mole Predictions


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L.2 :Stoichiometry: Mass- to Mass Predictions


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L.3 :Volumetric Analysis


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Example L.2 Sample exercise: Determining the molarityof an oxalic acid by titration


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M1 Reaction yieldM2 The Limits of Reaction

M3 Combustion Analysis


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Summary of High School Chemistry

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