Studies in Population, Labour Force and Migration Project Report No 8 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POPULATION IN PAKISTAN: FINDINGS OF THE POPULATION, LABOUR FORCE AND MIGRATION SURVEY 1979-80 ZEBA A. SATHAR SYED MUBASHIR ALl G. MUSTAFA ZAHID December 1984 PAKISTAN INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS POST BOX 1091, ISLAMABAD (PAKISTAN)
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Studies in Population, Labour Force and Migration
Project Report No 8
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICSOF THE POPULATION IN PAKISTAN: FINDINGS OF THE
POPULATION, LABOUR FORCE AND MIGRATIONSURVEY 1979-80
ZEBA A. SATHARSYED MUBASHIR ALlG. MUSTAFA ZAHID
December 1984
PAKISTAN INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
POST BOX 1091, ISLAMABAD
(PAKISTAN)
Project Director
Professor Syed Nawab Raider NaqviDirector, PIDE
Project Manager
Dr. Mohammad IrfanChief of Research (Economics)
Project Team Members
1. Dr. Iqbal Alam, Chief of Research (Demography)
2, Mr. M. Naseem Iqbal Farooqui, Research Demographer
3. Mrs. Naushin Mahmood Qureshi, Research Demographer
4. Miss Nasreen Abbasi Research Demographer
5, Mr. Ghulam Yasin Soomro Research Demographer
6. Miss Zubeda Khan, Research Demographer
7. Miss Talat K. Alauddin, Research Economist
8. Mr. S. Mubashir All, Staff Demographer
9. Mr. H. B. Siyal, Staff Demographer
10. Mr. Khalid Hameed Sheikh, Staff Demographer
11. Mr. Ghulam Mohammad Arif, Associate Staff Economist
12. Mr. M. Javed Tariq, Associate Staff Economist
13. Mr. Ghulam Mustafa Zahid, Associate Staff Demographer
14. Miss Rashida 1-Iaq, Associate Staff Economist
15. Mr. Zafar Mucen Nasir, Associate Staff Economist
16. Mr. Sharlf-ul-Haq Grewal, Research Assistant
17. Mr. Mohammad Rafiq , Senior Computer Programmer
18. Mr. Mohammad Khalid, Senior Computer Programmer
19. Mr. Furqan Ahmed Farooqui, Computer Programmer
20. Syed Tariq Ahmed, Computer Programmer
21. Mr. Masood Ashfaque 7 Computer Programmer
22. Mr. Javed Akbar Gil, Computer Programmer
PREFACE
The need for 'endogen.izing'. demographic variables in development
planning is now widely recognized..The planners have to-spread-their
analytical net wider to capture ,in one 'go' both the demographic and
socio-economic variables, This requires an explicit recognition of the
two-way .ink between changes in fertility on the one hand and those in
labour markct,.wages, income distribution, consumption j savings, investment
and other vhriablcson the other. The research work done so far in Pakistan
has inadequately addressed itself to this two-way linkage between demographic
and socio-economic phenomena, Researchers, constrained by limitations of
both data and analytical framework, have tendd.to study the demographic
phenomenon of fertility in isolation from such related maters as labour
force participation, rural-urban migration and income and expendituie
patterns. These studies have failed to analyse simultaneously the
demographic, production and consumption decisions of households, For
tnatance, high fertility rates are generally attributed to biological
determinants alone which can be influenced by large supplies of such
clinical devices as contraceptives, Such notions about the fertility
behaviour of the households have given birth to ineffective government
policies. That the many population planning adventures, taking mostly
the form of crash programmes, undertaken so far have foundered should not
surprise anyone Fertility, like love that sustains it, is a many-
splendoured thing. It must be seen in a broader socio-economic context.
• The nature of the influences of economic forccs,both direct and
indirect, on fertility behaviour should therefore Constitute a major area
of. concern for social scientists and policy makers. To make a start in
.1this direction, the inter-linkages between such variables as fertility, labour
force participation and migration and their effects on the household income and
expenditureT bh lid ir .i hs üdicdYSuchà 1rhbiil'd pe'rnft iii toundständ better the tide sthn-mak'ih prbcsbf , the htLs .ehldiwhiChLis the
basiènit 'in: -both ^-t d ogph.ic -studies of
this genre have already been carried out in many other developing countries
and have provided gainful insights into th determinants of household
economic-demographic behaviour.. rlowever, in Pakistan th present exercise
is the first of its kind.. I
In 6iderunders tand .better the economic-demographic interace the
öje.t entitled "Studies in Population, Labour Force and Migration" has been
undertakeri :by thePakitànInstitutcof Development Economics in collaboration
with the'ILO and UNFPA. The prdect is a 'four-in-one' venture bsed on a
ziinatioul sampl the field-wofk .f or which was undertaken by the Sttstics
Division , (forrnerly called Central Statistical Office, or C$Ofr shor)
coveri,nglQ,88 households. The ,survey generated a:;wealth of .dataon:the
houehold- dècision-inaking process concerning the- behayiour of 'the connected
four!omv1Z. fertility,'.migraton,labour force. participation and income
and expenditure. Every effort has been made to ensure reli ability . q,frthe data.
This study, which is being brought out in the form of a series of seven 'first'
reports, would enhance our understanding of the behaviour.of households with
.1
respeèt to the' various ways in which they go about fulfilling their 'basic
needs EvenEven more important, it should lay the foundations of economic
aethbgraph) in Pakistan, opning up new areas of multi-disciplinary' research
that could not be perceived before. This study should also provide the
researcher with a sufficient-feel for the real world to permit formal economic-
demographic modelling exercises. In this respect the present reports are truly
pioneering both in intent and in purpose.
Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi
I..-
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THEPOPULATION IN PAKISTAN: FINDINGS OF THE POPULATION,
LABOUR FORCE AND MIGRATION SURVEY 1979-80
Introduction:
A profile, of the socio-economic and demographic characteristics
of the population is undisputably a necessity for planning, accounting,
housing, education and other innumerable purposes. So far Pakistan's
stock of such data is based on four Population Censuses (1951, 1961, 1972
and 1981) and several national surveys (PGE 1963-65, PGS 1968-71 &
Ofcourse supplementary information is also available for some cities
such as Rawalpindi (Babar 1977) and Karachi (Hashmi 1963) but its value
is limited in terms of describing national characteristics. In theory
the censuses have complete coverage of the population but due to the limited
number of questions included in census schedules they suffer from lack
of detail. On the-other hand the surveys cited above, cover only a sample,
supposedly representative on a national basis, but because of their sma-
ller size are able to include many more questions than census schedules.
Together the two sets of sources provide us with information on population
size, density, breakdown by provinces and urban-rural residence, age and
sex structure, housing, labour force and educational characteristics. The
Population, Labour Force and Migration Survey 1979-80, (PLM) is another
such most recent exercise, conducted by PIDE/ILO in 1979-80 with funds
from the UNFPA. It is however, uniquely rich due to tfle information
collected through detailed questionnaires comprised by the tour modules
-2-
on Labour Force, Income and Expenditure, Migration and Fertility. The
interlinkages between the modules lead to extensive information at the
household level. It must be highlighted that the PLM is a pioneering
venture in the history of data collection in Pakistan because the un-
kage between the standard Labour Force Survey and Household Income and
Expenditure Schedule with a Fertility and a Migration survey ?rovide a very
comprehensive picture of household social, economic and demographic be-
haviour. Previuosly, data were available for individuals (censuses) or
for women (PFS 1975, NIS 1968) and the Labour Force and Income and Ex-
penditure Surveys by themselves were rather scanty in their household
level.information about areas other than labour force or income and ex-
penditure. This attempt at linking four modules fits in well with the
established consensus in recent years that an inter-disciplinary app-
roach was necessary to analyze household behaviour more meaningfully.
Sample Description:
The distribution of households sampled is given below in Table
1 however, out of the 11288 households in the sample only 10244 were act-
ually enumerated, the remainder consisted of households whore there was
no . response. The sampling was done on the basis of the 1972 census samp-
ling frame, adjusted for the estimated population in 1979-80. Howavor,
the rural-urban distribution did not match with t one found in the
sus. The urban population was infact oversampled and consequently "rai-
sing factors" need to be used when national estimates are derived from
the sample. The 10244 households actually enumerated, were administered,
-3-Table: 1
NUMERICAL AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION :OF THE SAMPLED
HOUSEHOLDS IN PAKISTAN AND ITS PROVINCES BY URBAN-RURAL A!EAS
Areas SAMPLED HOUSEHOLD
Urban Rural Total
Pakistan 4613 6675 11288
(40.9) (59.1) (100)
2388 4087
(36.9) (63.1)
1425 1200
(54.3) (45.7)
6475(57.4)
2625(23.2)
Punjab
Sind
NWFP 500 875 1375
(36.4) (63.6) (12.2)
Baluchistan 300 513 813
(36.9) (63.1) ( 7.2)
Source: PLM Survey 1979-80
the Labour Force Survey and the Household, Income and Expenditure Survey
during the last two quarters of 1979, whereas the Miqrationafld Fertility
modules were completed from September 1979 to April 1980.-Households
containing women eligible for the fertility survey (i.e ever-married women
aged 50 and less) were selected on the basis of households included in
the Migration survey. Some details on selection are presented later in
the paper, however, only 8397 households were covered for the Fertility
- module.
Scope of Survey: - -
As pointed out before, out of the four schedules comprising the PLM,
two were identical to the ones used by the Central Statistical Office (CSO
to collect information annually on the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and on
Household Income and Expenditure (HIES). Although their function is to
-4-
collect time series data, which is annually comparable, the last Labour
Force Survey had been conducted in 1974-75and the last Income and Expen-
diture Survey in 1971-72. Despite the lamentable gap in the time sexies,
it is still qiit&fothnate that thetwoschedules-ara comparable with
data from past periods. Similarly, the Fertility Schedule was identical to
the one administered under the Pakistan Fertility Survey of 1975 and thus
trends in fertility and related characteristics are directly comparable
from 1975 to five years latar. The miaration questionnaire is not compa-
rable with any other survey. The schedule was especially dosignd for the
PLM with separate components for non-migrants, potential migrants, in-mig-
rants, out-migrants and return-migrants. The data thus collected are
unique as such detailed national level information on migrants has been
unavailable so far. Particularly th possibility of matching all four
schedules allows us mor information on fertility of migrants, of incoxmu
and expenditure behaviour of migrants etc.
It is our intention to provide an overview of tho findings from the
four schedules. No multivariate analysis has been carried out, and th
report is by and large a descriptive piece of work. However, in places
figures from the PLM have been supplemented by data from comparable sources.
This report is organized into eight sections, dealing with age and sex
structure, household structure, marital structure, education, labour force,
income and expenditure, migration and finally, fertility behaviour.
Age and Sex Structure:
The age and sex composition of a survey population is the first item
examined in this report. If the sample is, as in this case, thought to be
nationally representative, then it gives us an idea of the structure of
-5-
Table 2: Age and Sex Distribution of the Survey
• SPopulation as Compared with the 1981 Census
AgePL" SI!"FV 1°S1 Cersus
Group Sex Male Female Sex Male FemaleRatio Ratio
0-4 106.1 15.8 16.3 95.7 14.3, 16.5
5-9 109.8 17.0 17.0 108.0 15.8 . 16.2
10-14 114.0. 12.9 12.2 120.4 13.7 12.6..
15-19 115.3 9.6 9.1 119.6 9.3 9.0
20-24 93.9 7.0 8.2 104.9 7.6 8.0
25-29 100.1 6.2 6.7 112.7 6.7 6.6
30-34 100.5 5.2 5.7 107.2 5.5 5.7
35-39 - . 105.6 4.7 4.9 102.1 4.9 5.3
40-44 105.7 4.2 4.4 100.7 4.5 4.9
45-49 105.5 4.0 4.1 110.3 3.7 3.7
50+ 129.7 13.5 . 11.4 130.0 13.4 11.4
Source: PLM Survey (Migration module); Census of Pakistan1981.
Note: Rounding of percentages to the nearest decimalplace lead to their not adding upto 100 percent.
the Pakistan population, Age-sex data from the PLr1 ought also to be fairly
comparable to population data colicctd in the 1981 Census Table 2 pre-
sents the results for both sources.
The .ae . ,n sex distribution from the sample survey and th Census
is s1ight1ydice"nt:in the PLM a higher - proportion of the population is
under 15 as compared to the Census. The differences appear more so in
the sex distribution of the two populations. Whereas the Census finds a
deficit of males in the 0-4 category, this is not the case for the PLM
figures. The findings of the 1981 Census are puzzling since it is only
at ages less than one year that male mortality is higher than female more-
tality and after age 1 the pattern by sex is reversed Lln and Cleland, 19847..So a relative deficit of male children may be due to distortions--' in age
reporting. On the other hand, the PLM contains an excess of women in the
20-24 age group, which may be due to excessive mole migratiox in that
group. However, the Census shows no such irregularity. Generally, apart
from these two exceptions, there are more men than women in all the brood
5 year age groups because of lower male mortality. However, this excess
is greatest in the 50+ age where both in the Census and the PLM there is
an almost' 30 erànt'ee' of males. W sx Tti'o's also quite high
for the 10-14 and 15-19 groups.
' table 3 conthins the age-sex distribUtions for urban-rural areas. It
is interesting to note that the deficit of males in the 20-24 group, noted
in the aggregate table for all Pakistan, is quite sharp in rural areas
and is accompanied by a fairly high sex ratio in urban areas. This may
reflect rural-urban and rural to out-migration. A slight deficit of males
Table 3: PERCE1TAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SURVEY POPULATION B y AGE ANDSEX FOR URBAN AND RURAL AREAS
RURAL SURBAN
Age Both Sex Sex Ratio* Both Sex Sex Ratio
Groups Sexes Male Female Ratio (Labour Force) sexes Male. Female Ratio (Labour Force)
*The see. ratios deived from the Labour Force module which alsocomprises Age- sex structure breakdown 'is included as it confirnsthe compositional patterns depicted by the Migration module of thePLM which differ quite substantially from the 1981 Census (Table 2)
0-4
16.45-,9
17.310-14
12.315-19
8.720-24
7.2
25-29
6.4
30-34
5.635-39
4.840-4/445-49
4.150-54
3.455-59
2.660-64
2.865+
All
100
-8-
is noted, however, in the urban artas thcnselves in the 25-29 group and
may congruously r;eflect substantial external migration of nvilcs at these
ages.
Household Structure:
As pointed out in the introduction, the unit on the basis of which
information was collected in the PLM was the household. Usually the defi-
nition' of household is "a single person living alone or group of persons
who normally live and eat together" /HUES 19797. 'However the living
situation varies enourmously accross cultures and it is at time difficult
to discern betwen those persons sharing a roof but who do not ven eat
together (a boarding house) with an extended family living on street
pavement.. The examples are rather extreme but are included to highlight
the problems of defining a household and accordingly to be aware of -
differences in household size which may result. -
Table ,4 contains average household size as calculated by previous
surveys, alongwitl- the PLM, for all Pakistan and for urban and rural areas
separately. The PLM has the same average household size of 6.3: as the
PFS 1975. Also dverage households are larger in. urban areas than in rural
areas This differential is also found in all the three sources cited in
-.the table. It has been 'found that other Asian countries also record this
pattern of higher average household size in urban areas and in 'a cross-
national study this finding was attributed to the larger presence of non-
family members, i.e., relative and domestic servants and thb shortage of
housing in urban areas LKbir, 1980/. As alrcidy pointed.out, the cultural
set up in urban and rural areas may differ also leading to a large discre-
pancy in the app]Iicability of definition of what contitutes a household.
-9-
Table: 4
AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD SIZE FOR PAKISTAN, URBAN AND RURAL AREAS FORPLM 1979, PFS 1975, NED 1973 AND PGS 1976
AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD SIZESurvey - Pakistan Urban Rural
Production and Transport 24.8 0.9 33.'l 11.8 49.3 18.-7 0 7 43.9 13.'8 . '41.6 45.1 1.1 29.9 9.0 59.9equipment operators etc. .
Workers not clas4ifjabieDy Occupation
-22-
Household Income and Expenditure:
The Household Income and Expenditure module of the PLM was identical
to that, for which the report has been published by the CSO /HIES 1979/.
The difference is that the PLM income and expenditure component contains
data from two quarters whereas the rain HIES was done over all four quar-
ters. However, it is thought that data from two quarters is as repesen-
tative of annual estimates.
We include here in Table 13 the monthly houshold income, distribution
by rural and urban areas. The proportion of huusGholds in the lower
income groups is higher in rural areas than in urban areas; this also
applies to the proportion of the- population. Of the various income groups,
most monthly incomes fall otween 600 and 1500 ru in rural arc-,as anu
between 80d and 2000 rupees in urban areas. Only 6.8 percurit of the total
monthly incomes reported in rural areas werL above 3501 rups
in urban aras 22.1 percent of households fall in that rangc.
Table 14 presents the beakdown of the average of number of carriers,
the percentae of earners that are not household heads and average income
controlled b4 income groups. There scorns to be a larger number of ear- -, -
ners overall in rural than in urban areas. Also this number 's increases
with income i4 both areas. Thus additional earning members lead to an
enhancement oi monthly household income and congruously with .increase- ifl -
income, the proportion of- earners cQmprising household heads diminishes.
However, the head of household contributes a very large share of the monthly
income in all income groups but pa.rticulaly among the poorer households.,
Table; 13
DISTRIBUTION OF MONTHLY INCOME AMONG HOUSEWLDS AND SURVEYPOPULATION BY INCOME GROUPS
Monthly RURAL AREAS URBAN AREASIncome Groups Households PopulationMonthi.y Housho1ds Population Monthly(in rupees) Income Income
Upto 300 5.1 '2.6 1.5 1.8 0.7 0.3
301-400 9.0 6.0 3.8 4.0 2.1 1.1
401-500 12.3 9.5 6.7 7.2 4.7 2.5
501-600 14:0 12.0 9;2' 6.5 3.5
601-800 Q2.7 22.5 189 17.0 14.7 9.0
801-1000 14. 16.7 15.5 15.8 15.4 10.7
1301-1500 11.7 18.5 21.0 22.2 25.1 20.5
1501-2000 4.3 6.2 8.7 10.0 l2.8 12.9
2001-2500 17 2.7 4.6 4.9 6. -3: 8.2
2501-3003 0.6 1.1 1.9 2.5 3.3 5.2
3001-3500 .4 .7 1.5 1.7 4.2
3501 and above 0.9 1.6 6.8 4.4 6.1 22.1
Source: Household Income and Expenditure Survey, Federal Bureau ofStatistic, Government of Pakistan, 1979. -
Table 14: -•Distriution of Moth .ly Incomeby Type ofEarners and Income Groups
Average no. of Distribution of Earners by 'Headhjp Status Average Income ContribtdiiAll Garners per RUR,L . URBAN RURAL URBANgroups household Head of Non-head Head of ion-head Head of Nonhed Head of Non-head
There is a predominance of males amongst those who migrate, par-
ticularly out-migrants, 'excluding thuse who migrate for marriage Whereas
the expected even sex ratio prevails amongst non-migrants (i.e. 52 percent
are males) this proportion is highest anongst out-migrants (cxcluding
those who migrat. for marriage) and also quite high amongst potential-
migrants and return-migrants. In-migrants and out-migrants including those
migrating for marriage naturally includes geter proportions of females.
Literacy is highest amongst-out-migrants who are not migrating foi marriage
purposes (69.3%). The corresponding figure for other categories apart
from non-migrants is roughly similar at 42-45 percent. Thus it seems that
out-migrants (excepting those who migrate to marry) are most likely to
be single males, between the age of 20 and 34, largely from urban areas
and quite probably literate.
Fertility:
The fertility module was administered to ever-married women aged
between 10-and 50 years of age. To select eligible women for the fertility
sirvey, the migration survey was taken as a base and 10244 households were
enumerated. The households finally covered by the-fertility module were
8397. These were the households where at least one eligible female was
found and enumerated. hs shown in Table 16, the difference between the
- householdscovêred by the.migration survey and the fertility survey was not
• totally accounted for by -non-response because a substantial number of house-
holds enumerated by the migration survey were those where no eligible female
• was found. The distribution of the house ,holds covered by the fertility
-28- -
Table: 16PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLED HOUSEHOLD, HOUSEHOLD ENUMERATEDFOR MIGRATION AND FERTILITY MODULES FOR PAKISTAN, RURAL-URBAN AREAS
AND PROVINCES
Enumerated Household'sArea/ Sampled Total H.H.'s- H.H.'s House- Enumera- in the Fertility ModuleProvinces House- house- with with no hold ted house- by the number of eligi-
holds hold no women eligible with hold's for ble women interviewed.women eligible fertility
(63.1) (55.4) (2.3) (7.2) (90.5) (55.1) (83.0) (13.6) (1.4) (1.4) (06)An eligible female is a woman ever-married and less than or equal to 50 years of ageat the time of interview.
Source: PLM Survey 1979.
survey suggests that more than 33 percent of them have only one eligible
female, while.3 percent of households have three or more eligible females.
No distinct urban-rural differentials were found in the case of number of
eligible females per household. Findings based on the Pakistan Fertility
Household survey (1975) show that roughly 70 percent of households con-
tained one married couple living with their children. The provinces of
Sind and Baluchistan had relatively higher percentages of households with
more than one eligible women and this could be due to i greater prevalence
of traditional joint families or to higher incidence of polygamy.
However, it is interesting to note that this pattern was more obvious in
rural areas of Sind whereas in Baluchistan relatively more urban households
had more than one eligible female.
Table 17 presents the age distribution of ever-married women
between 15-49 years of Pakistan and also for urban and rural areas for
the PLM fertility survey, The National Impact Survey 1968 and the Pa1ctan
FertilitySurvey, 1975. The table indicates that a maximum number of women
Table: 17
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EVER-MARRIED WOMEN BY AGE AND RESIDENCEillS 1968, PFS 1975 AND PLM 1979-80
PAKISTAN URBAN RURAL
Current NIS PFS PU! illS PFS PLM NIS PFS PLM
Age
15_19* 12 12.7 7.3 10 -. 6.0 13 - 7.7
20-24 20 17.0 17.3 18 - 15.8 21 - 17.7
25-29 21 18.4 19.0 23 - 20.6 20
30-34 16 16.6 16.6 17 - 16.7 15 - 16.6
35-39 16 12.6 14.7 16 - 14.9 16 -. 14.6
40-44 11 12.6 12.7 11 - 12.6 11 - 12.6
45-49 5 10.1 12.4 6 - 13.4 4 - 12.1
Median29.2 29.3 30.2 - - - - - -(Years)
* The women under age 15 are included in the age group 15-19 years
(an astoundingly high figure) have never used and do not intend to use
çQepv1n the future; 21.4 percent liav never used but intend to
-Use; 7.5percent are infecund and 3.4 percent are currently using or te
ri1ized. Current use and sterilization levels are higher with age of
women, and with number of living children. Also education, particularly
of secondary and higher level and urban residence lead to higher levels
of contraceptive use. Of those women who are fecund, 71.9 percent do not
intend using and 23.4 percent intend using but are never users. It is
inte resting to note that the proportion of womenwho report themselves
as-infecund are also related positively to age, duration of marriage and
number of living children. This must be reflective of the actual decline
in fecundity by these factors plus the perception of infecund status
which may-occur out of the-fact that intercourse is infrequent.
Summary: - -
This profile of the various social, economic and demographic aspects
of households in Pakistan,-ought to help the reader savourthe..expensive.:
data yielded by the four-in-one exercise of the Population, Labour Force
and Migration Survey of 1979. The major contribution of the survey is -.
in providing details about-fertility, migration, labour force and income
and expenditure behaviour at the household level. The profile presented
here confirms that the PLM.survey is comparable to the 1981 Census in
terms of-aggregated data. This is reassuring as . we can then assume en
more sound grounds that the results of the sample survey are also likely
to be nationally representative. It must be pointed Out that from the
onset this paper was not intended to provide a summary of possible fin-
dings from the PLM but only to act as a background paper for further analysis.
Some of the more interesting findings from this preliminary review
were of a greater proportion of nuclear households in rural than in urban
areas. Average household size was also larger in the latter.. A compari-
son of the age and sex distribution with the 1981 census showed a deficit
of males in the age group 0-4 years. Data on marital status confirmed
the trend of rising age at marriage for men and women which has been
established using earlier data set. Educational characteristics of the
population portray sharp inequalities in attainment levels across urban
and rural areas and across sexes but show some slight improvement over time.
The Labour Force module of the survey depicted low female labour
force participation rates, a characteristics found in most surveys in
Pakistan, and quite different patterns of urban and rural employment.
For instance, in rural areas there is a greater proportion of unpaid
family workers or self-employed whereas in urban areas, employees are
more predominant. Also the majority of those working in urban areas are
engaged in the production and transport sectors or in sales work while
agriculture absorbs the greatest number of workers in rural areas.
The Income and Expenditure Module found average levels of house-
hold income to be higher in urban than in rural areas and the households
in the former had on average larger number of earners. In all house-
holds, the head of household contributed the major share of total income
but additional earners were associated with enhancement of earnings.
The Migration component of the survey found that out-migrants,
excluding those who move to get married, tends to be urban, literate
males between the age of 20 to 3. Characteristics of in-migrants are
less marked but they usually comprise young adults who move in search
of work or to marry.
REFERENCES
1. Abbasi, Nasreen and Mohammad Ix±an, Socio .-Economic_Effects of
International Migration on the Families Left Behind. Studiesin Population, Labour Force and Higration Project Report No..7, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics: 1983.
2. -Alam, Iqbal and John G. Cleland, If:mt and Child Mortality: 7-12'endsand Deterninants. Fertility in Pakistan: A Review of Findingsfrom the Pakistan Fertility Survey. International Statistical
Institute, Voorburg, Netherland, 1984.
3. Booth4 Heather and Iqbal Alam, Fertility in Pakistan, LevelsTrends and Differentials World Fertility Survey Conference
Paper, London, July 1980.
4. Casterline, John, Fertility Differentials in Pakistan, WorldFertility Survey Conference Paper, London, July 1960.
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_L4I._
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