Student Guide to ELA 2007

8/9/2019 Student Guide to ELA 2007

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Guide forStudents


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Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English Student Guide (September 2006)Page 1

Introduction .....................................................................................................................2Reading............................................................................................................................ 4

Becoming a Better Reader .........................................................................................................4Reading Strategies (Practical and Philosophical) ...............................................................5Reading Tips............................................................................................................................6Levels of Reading Literature ..................................................................................................7Reading for Theme Rather than Plot.....................................................................................9Effective Reading Behaviours Checklist ............................................................................10

Short Story Theory ...................................................................................................................11Characteristics of the Short Story.......................................................................................11

Poetry Theory............................................................................................................................12Deriving Meaning from Poetry .............................................................................................12Understanding and Appreciating Poetry ............................................................................13

Writing............................................................................................................................15Managing Your English Assignments ....................................................................................15

Title Page................................................................................................................................16Format for All Written Work .................................................................................................17Writing for Theme Rather than Plot.....................................................................................18Quoting from Literary Sources ............................................................................................19

Prose Forms That Develop Personal Response to Texts .....................................................22The Essay ..................................................................................................................................25

The Parts of an Essay ...........................................................................................................25Essay Writing.........................................................................................................................26Writing an Outline for an Essay...........................................................................................27Hints for Writing Good Essays ............................................................................................28The Thesis Statement: Some Caveats and Examples ......................................................29Suggestions for Self-Editing and Peer Editing ..................................................................30

Grammar ....................................................................................................................................32Parts of Speech .....................................................................................................................32Sentences...............................................................................................................................33 Problems with Sentences.....................................................................................................35Improving Your Grammar.....................................................................................................37Punctuation Guide (Simplified)............................................................................................40

Style............................................................................................................................................43 How to Write Without Sounding Sexist...............................................................................43Transitional Words and Phrases .........................................................................................45Improving Your Style ............................................................................................................46

Speaking and Listening................................................................................................ 48

Overcoming the Fear of Speaking in Class............................................................................48Listening Skills..........................................................................................................................48

Viewing...........................................................................................................................51The Language of Film...............................................................................................................51The Role of Visual Communication.........................................................................................52

The Visual Elements .............................................................................................................53Understanding Fonts ............................................................................................................53

Presenting...................................................................................................................... 60Making Class Presentations ....................................................................................................60


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Appendix A .................................................................................................................... 66Literary Terms for Grade 10 Students ....................................................................................66

Appendix B .................................................................................................................... 67

Commonly Confused Words....................................................................................................67

Appendix C .................................................................................................................... 70Strategies for Taking Multiple Choice Tests..........................................................................70


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Introduction

This Guide for Studentswas developed by our teachers to help students learn and understand thetechnical skills that form the basis of a successful high school experience in the English LanguageArts. Like our students, it is a work in progress; that is to say that it is neither a final and finishedwork, nor is it perfect. It will grow, change, and improve with you as you progress through youreducation.

As you begin your first year at Sir Winston Churchill High School, we welcome you with enthusiasmand optimism. We have every expectation that you come to us prepared to work, to learn, and tosucceed.

The English Language Arts Department has an enduring and proud tradition of academic excellence

and achievement. With the hope that you will continue to develop habits of successful scholarship,we offer you some advice based on our experience with the thousands of outstanding students whocame to us before you:

Review your English notes and literary terms regularly, even if this is not assignedhomework.

Read actively, writing notes and keeping track of observations as you read.

Articulate your learning goals.

Determine the best ways of studying or preparing for different types of tests andassignments.

Consciouslyplan the most effective strategies to approach a test or assignment.

Consistentlyread pieces of literature that we are studying more than once, even if this isnot assigned by your teacher.

Enthusiastically contribute ideas in small group discussions.

Willingly and frequently contribute ideas in large group discussions.

Consistently use class time effectively and efficiently.

Read regularly, even if reading is not assigned for homework.

Read newspapers, magazines, short stories, plays, essays or novels for pleasure.

Connect the ideas in the literature that we read to your own life and experiences, andconnect ideas presented in the texts we study

Think about the ideas presented in the literature we are studying even after we havefinished discussing the piece in class.

Develop a strong, clear, and internalized understanding of the language of literature.(That is, know and properly use the terms that are used to discuss literature intelligentlyand effectively.)

Do not rely on what other people say in class to form the basis of your interpretation of apiece of literature.


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Seek extra help when you are unsure of a concept or need some feedback on a project.

Follow up with your teacher if you miss a class for any reason to find out what must bedone for class that day. (Or, phone a friend you can trust.)

Keep up to date on world events (by watching the news or reading the newspaper regularly)and connect these events with the ideas presented in the literature we read.

Take advantage of opportunities to participatein the arts by attending theatrical or musicalperformances.

Pay attention to the details in the works that we read and consistently ask yourself thequestion why might the author have included this?

Be familiar with at least 10 reading/reflecting strategies you can access to help you come toan understanding of a piece of literature.

Regularly bring a dictionary to class.

Always look up a reference in a work that you are not familiar with.

Be comfortable working individually, and in small and large group settings.

Understand what skills are required to make effective oral presentations.

Have a valid Calgary Public Library card.

Be consistently conscious of spelling and grammar.

Always spend time editing and proofreading your work. Look closely at markingguidelines to ensure your work meets the necessary criteria.

Understand the conventions of writing a proper theme statement.

Be familiar with several strategies to use in the introduction of a piece of writing.

Recognize and understand the elements of design and the strategies used in visual text. Develop strong critical viewing skills.

Give every assignment your best effort.

Enthusiastically accept challenges.

Willingly explore new ideas and concepts.

Be an active participant in explorations.

Speak and write honestly and passionately about your ideas and opinions.

CARE!

The Department of English Language ArtsSir Winston Churchill High School


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ReadingReading provides students with a means of accessing the ideas, perspectives and

experiences of others. By using effective reading strategies, students construct meaning and

develop thoughtful and critical understandings and interpretations of a variety of texts. They

also use reading strategies to reconstruct the meanings of others.*

Becoming a Better Reader**

Reading involves a combination of skills which must be practiced; so, read every day. You have toread a lot to become a good reader.

When you read, picture in your mind what you read. This is very important. It is called "visualizing."Good readers see in their heads what is happening in a story. Many students today have a difficulttime visualizing what they read because they have gotten so used to watching television and movieswhere things are laid out in front of them without having to think. A good reader needs to see whatshe or he is reading. One has to think. The more you read, the better reader you will be.

When you find a reference (called an allusion) to something you do not know much about, such as ahistorical occurrence, a myth or a Bible story, look it up. This will help you to understand why theauthor has referred to that event or story, and try to relate it to the story you are reading.

Remember that even when you are reading fiction you can learn. Good readers, over time, come toknow a lot about many things, which they pick-up when they are reading. In addition, the more youlearn, the more you will understand. It is like a snowball rolling downhill: the farther it rolls, the biggerit gets. The more you read, the more you will understand.

*Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:

http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/**

Adapted from documents prepared by AACTchRdg, AAC Staff. Use of this material is protected under America Online andother copyright. Any use of this material must cite AOL's Academic Assistance Center and the author as a source. (editedby AACTchrAmy) (05/99)


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Reading Strategies (Practical and Philosophical)

1. Maintaining Focus While you read, avoid distractions such as conversation, music especially music with

lyrics, and thoughts unrelated to what you are reading. Contrary to popular belief, wecannot thoroughly understand multiple messages at the same time;

White noise is okay for most people;

If you own the book and do not mind writing in it, use a highlighter to bring out importantpassages you will want to review; use a pen or pencil to write interactive notes;

Keep a separate sheet, with page references, for your impressions of characters and theirimportant actions, thoughts, values, morals, and for important quotations

If the book is not yours and you cannot write in it, use yellow stickies to mark andcomment upon important passages;

Whenever possible, buy used books that are already highlighted and with marginaliathethoughts of others might focus your own.

2. Reading Habits and Preferences Learning to approach literature in a thoughtful and reflective way is rewarding and

enjoyable; however, it is also challenging. Developing the ability to take an analyticalapproach towards literature requires practice and discipline.

Literatures grand themes require us to think about characters and their choices. Theyalso require us to think about, and make sense of, these choices in terms of our ownlives. Fiction that is action driven does not; so, it does not develop the vital ability to beintrospective about ones life and connected to the world around us. (In other words, ifyou are currently reading popular fiction, expect to think critically in order to getLiterature.);

Television programs and other media that are dumbed-down (i.e., their messages areso blunt that you need not interpret them), can dull our ability to interpret ideas objectively

and insightfully because they convey the simple view that there are only two ways to lookat a given situation.

3. Unfamiliar Words Buy a dictionary and thesaurus, and use them;

Work at understanding word origins (etymology) and groupings. Seeing patterns in roots,prefixes, and suffixes, will help you guess meaning more accurately;

Decode meaning through the way a word is used (usage) and the words around it(context);

Read diverse material to build a varied vocabulary and to see the same words used withdifferent connotations (associated meaning) and denotations (dictionary definitions);

Convince yourself that nothing is more important than human language, the origin ofwords, their meaning, and their use;

Understand that everything you want to do in life requires language; Because English has borrowed words from just about every other culture, studying other

languages will help you see the same words in a different way; taking Latin will increaseyour vocabulary the most, especially if you plan on entering any profession, such as law,medicine, zoology, or archaeology, that still demand more than a rudimentary familiaritywith Latin words;

Learning the logic of another languages grammar should also help you see the logicin the grammar of English.


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4. The Reading and Writing Connection Your ability to read intelligently and deeply is directly related to your writing skill,

especially in Thought and Detail. (How can you possibly write intelligently about a work

of literature that you have not understood beyond the basics of who does what where?);

Reading TipsThis list of reading tips is by no means comprehensive. It does, however, provide you with a set ofstrategies to help you begin to develop your interpretation and analysis.

1. Size up the piece before we begin. Articulate your genreexpectations and adjust your readingaccording to the typeof literature you are reading (short story, play, novel, poetry, essay, article,etc.)

2. Examine the piece to get a sense of what it is. (Check out the cover, the print size, the title, theadditional information given, the illustrations, the hook, etc.)

3. Read assuming the author is trying to reveal a truth.4. Try to relate the literature to your own life and experiences.5. Find keylines. Write these out (or underline, or highlight). Mark up the piece. It may be worth

copying a particularly challenging story so that you can highlight important parts and makeannotations.

6. Re-read. Just like a good CD gets better as you play it more, a well-written story should improveas you re-read it. Subtle complexities may only be revealed after several readings.

7. Look for the basics. Identify the setting, the conflict(s), the main characters, and the point of view.Note any repetition.

8. Determine whether or not the piece is a recollection.9. Ask yourself whether or not setting seems to be significant. If so, what role(s) does it serve?10. Pay attention to how language reveals characters personalities and motivations.11. Turn the title into a question to help you predict what the story might be about.12. Picture the story in your mind. Make movies in your head. See the setting and feel the mood.

13. Read slowly to hear in your head. You may need to slightly exaggerate the punctuation in orderto do this effectively.

14. Identify the literary devices and try to determine their purpose and effect in the story. (Forexample, what is the symbol and what does it symbolize? What is the impact of the dramaticirony? What purpose does the figurative language serve?)

15. Review the questions at the end of the piece.16. Paraphrase difficult passages into your own language. In some places, it may be useful to

rearrange or reorder sentences.17. When circumstances allow, read the piece out loud and/or discuss it with others.18. Ask questions as you are reading. (For example, ask yourself what the author is trying to tell you.

Or, ask yourself, Why is this here?)19. Pay attention to word choices. Identify connotations and look up the denotations of any words

that are not familiar to you.

20. Research any allusions that are not familiar to you.21. If you are really stuck, research the author. It may provide a clue as to where to start your

analysis.22. Ask yourself if you (as the reader) are feeling what the main character is feeling.23. Check pronoun references. (This is particularly important in poetry and Shakespeare.)


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Levels of Reading LiteratureReading occurs on three critical and equally important levels. We cannot read at the deeperlevels without first understanding the surface levels, but sometimes these processes occurconcurrently.

Level One: Reading for Information

Summary:When reading at this level, we are gathering information that is not open to interpretation.This information would answer some or all of the who, what, when, and wherequestions.

Questions: Who is in the story or poem? (Character) What actions do they take? What actions are taken upon them? (Plot)

Where and when does the story take place? (Setting)

In what manner is the story told? (Narration)

Observe: Characterization (discussed later) Plot/Conflict (discussed later)

Milieu (social, religious, political, economic, and cultural influences uponsetting)

Narration (discussed later)


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Level Two: Reading for UnderstandingSummary:When reading at this level, we are grasping the subtleties of the Conflict. (Conflict is

central to literature and exists everywhere in life; without Conflict, literature would not exist as such orwould be deathly dull and non-instructive.)

Questions: What is the story or poems central conflict or tension? What is the motivation of each character? (What do these characters want

from themselves, others, the situation, and life?)

What do their motives reveal about them?

Observe: Characterization (How do these characters reveal themselves via theirthoughts, words, and actions?)

Plot/Conflict (What is the motive of each character?)

Narration (What does the author reveal to us about character? What doesthe author have others say or think about the character?)

Relationships between characters:

Family Class, Status, and Power

Friends and Foes

Natural and Supernatural

Level Three: Reading for Application

Summary:When reading at this level, we are processing and then applying theme (a universal truthabout or insight into humans, human behavior, and human nature); we ask (and answer for)ourselves what major idea the work explores. While doing these things, we are applying this newidea in our thoughts, feelings, and, eventually, actions.

Questions: What would my life be like if I were like these characters? What would the world be like if everyone/no one were like them? What in the behavior of these characters do I see in myself and wish I didnt?

What in the behavior of these characters do I not see in myself and wish Idid?

Observe: Characters that undergo a major change, or receive a major insight, known asan epiphany.

This change or epiphany will often tell you what the story or poem is aboutor means. (Their learning experience can be your learning experience.)

Other Questions: For Gaining an Appreciation for and Understanding ofLiterature:

1. What are the predominant characteristics of the major characters in the story?2. Do you know people with these characteristics?3. How do these characteristics help or hinder them in life? (How do these characteristics solve

or create conflict?)4. If the world were run by the antagonist or the protagonist, what would it look like?5. What statement about people and life is the author making through these characters and their

conflicts?

6. What meaning does this have in your own life or the lives of the people around you?


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Reading for Theme Rather than PlotIt is important to note that, at the high school level, plot will rarely be the focus of literaryanalysis. Theme may be described as the authors commentary on the central idea of awork and the affect of that idea on our lives.

Reading For Plot vs. Reading For Theme

Plot is concrete. You can (or should beable to) read a story and say it is abouta certain topic, with certain characters,features a certain plot progression, ittakes place in a certain setting(s), andso on.

Theme is abstract. When you read astory on a thematic level, it is more aboutyou(and the people you know, orhumanity as a whole) than it is about acertain set of characters and a certainplot. When reading for theme, youshould ask yourself how the story affectsyou and what the world would be like ifeveryone in it were like the people in thisstory.

When reading for plot, character is notas important as events or action.

When reading for theme, character,especially characters motivation, is vital.Whycharacters do what they do is asimportant if not more so than whatthey do.

When reading for plot, conflict isimportant only because it advances theplot.

When reading for theme, conflict, andthe way characters respond to it, shouldgive us insight into ourselves, (and/orhumanity). In this context conflictreveals deeper aspects of humanity.

When reading for plot, the resolution ofthe conflict means that the story hascome, or is coming, to an end.

When reading for theme, the resolutionof the conflict is the beginning ofreflection for the reader. It allows us tosee what life, especially our lives, wouldbe like if we employed the samebehavior or made the same choices asthe characters in the story.

When reading for plot, the readersengagement with the story ends whenthe story ends. There is little, ifanything, learned, and no application forthe story. Such stories do not tend tostick in the readers mind.

When reading for theme, the end of thestory signals a phase of deeperengagement with the conceptsgenerated by the story. Anything thatmight have been learned may remainwith the reader for years to come.


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Effective Reading Behaviours Checklist*

When What Never Sometimes Usually Often Always

BeforeReading, I

activate prior knowledge

understand task and set purpose

choose appropriate strategies

DuringReading, I

focus attention

anticipate and predict

use fix-up strategies whenunderstanding breaks down

experiment with intonation andemphasis

read fluently with attention to

phrasing and expression use contextual analysis to

understand new terms

recognize important vocabulary andreferences

use text structure to assistcomprehension

organize and integrate newinformation

understand that the ultimate goal isunderstanding

self-monitor comprehension

You know that you are stuck when Your inner voice stops its conversation with the text, and you only hear the voicepronouncing the words.

The camera inside your head shuts off, and you can no longer visualize what ishappening as you read.

Your mind begins to wander.

You cannot remember or retell what you have read.

You cannot get your clarifying questions answered.

Characters are reappearing in the text and you cannot recall who they are.

AfterReading, I

reflect on what I read

recognize that success is a result ofeffort

summarize the major ideas of the

piece evaluate the success of my

comprehension and reread pointswhere confusion occurred

seek necessary outside informationto clarify

ask questions

apply information/ discoveries to anew situation

*Adapted from Tovani, Chris, I Read It, But I Dont Get It.


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Short Story Theory

Characteristics of the Short Story1. General Characteristics

a. a fictional piece of prose, telling of an incident or eventb. based on one characterc. usually has three to six charactersd. deals with a conflict, thereby creating suspensee. usually has, but does not require, a definite conclusion or outcome.

2. Point of View

The story may be written from a variety of perspectives:

a. omniscient the thoughts and feelings of most characters are known by narrator

b. limited omniscient the thoughts and feelings of one character are knownc. objective from the perspective of an outside observerd. first person a character within the story tells the story using the word I.

3. Elements of Plot in the Short Story

a. Exposition background information needed by the reader to help make sense ofthe story.

Exposition includes time, place, antecedent action (prior events that helpthe reader make sense of subsequent events and may provide motivation),atmosphere or mood.

b. Initial Incident the first incident in the conflict or suspense of the storyc. Rising Action complications that cast doubt on the resolution of the conflict.d. Conflict There are four main types of conflict:

Man versus Man the protagonist is pitted against another person or group Man versus Himself the protagonist is pitted against some aspect of his

personality or nature

Man versus Nature or the Environment the protagonist is pitted againstlarge external forces.

Man versus Society the protagonist is pitted against the values or ideasof his society.

e. Climax A moment of great intensity in a literary work, generally bringing events to ahead and leading to the conclusion.

f. Resolution / Denouement the set of events that bring the story to a close. Theauthor may explain the climax or what happens to the characters following theclimax. There are three basic types of endings:

Happy in which the protagonist successfully resolves the conflict Unhappy in which the protagonist suffers from, or is beaten by the forces

against him

Indeterminate in which the protagonist neither wins nor loses. Theconflict is not solved.


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Poetry Theory

Deriving Meaning from Poetry

1. What event, situation, or experience does the poem describe or record?

2. Why has the poet written this poem? What message does he or she want to communicate?

3. What is the strongest emotion in the poem? Does it change?

4. What does the poet want those who read or hear the poem to feel?

5. Is the poems form important?

6. If you are having trouble applying the above questions, try the following. Poems are:

Concrete and Abstract

The poem will describe someliteral event. If you do notunderstand this literal event, youwill not understand the poem andyou will not be able to derive anymeaning at a deeper level.

Poetry is, above all, about feeling,which will almost always bepersonal, but it will also beuniversal in that any reader (with abit of work, experience, andunderstanding) can identify it andidentify with it.

Poetry can be about situations weare not that familiar with, but itmust present us with, or make usfeel, feelings with which we arefamiliar. If it fails to do this, thepoet has failed to communicateand, thus, has failed to write apoem.

This literal event will probablysymbolize or stand for something else.The poet might or might not give yousigns as to the meaning of thesesymbols. If they are there, you mustfollow them; if they are absent, and thepoem cannot be understood byworking with just the literal level, youmust work with the context of thepoem to gain an understanding of thefigurative level.

Because human nature is shared andconstant, poetry appeals to that whichall of us, regardless of race, religion,creed, politics, wealth, gender, and soon, have in common or canunderstand. Thus, when it challengesus, it should challenge our ability tograsp ideas, values, moral, ethics, andso on.

All of this means that you are asresponsible as the poet for makingmeaning in poetry. As long as youcan point to the concrete text to

support your abstract text, yourinterpretation is valid

Do not forget that, in addition to interpreting the poem, if you are working with a Personal ResponseQuestion, you must keep the question in mind and look for key words in the poem and the question.Your interpretation of the concrete and abstract meanings of the poem should be reshaped by thePersonal Response Question. Your response should include your interpretation shaped by thequestion, references to the poem, and references to your experience.


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Understanding and Appreciating Poetry

In order to understand and appreciate a poem, consider the following:

1. The Craft of Poetry Subject What event, situation, or experience does the poem describe or record?

Theme Why has the poet written this poem? What message does he or she want tocommunicate?

Mood What is the strongest emotion in the poem? What does the poet want those whoread or hear the poem to think or feel?

Technique What literary and poetic techniques has the poet employed?

Structure How is the poem structured? (See Types of Poems, below). What is thepoems metre(See scansion, also below).

Language Is the poets use of words effective. Are the words appropriate to the

poems theme?

Imagery What figures of speech (see below) does the poet employ? Are theyeffective?

Movement, Sounds-- Does the poem rhyme? What is the effect of this rhyme, or lackthereof? Does the poet use sounds such as onomatopoeia, alliteration, or assonance?

2. Figures of Speech

Based on Comparison-- Look up the following terms: simile, metaphor, personification,analogy, hyperbole.

Based on Association-- Look up the following terms: symbolism, metonymy.

Based on Sound-- Look up the following terms: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia.

3. Other Effects of Language

Look up the following terms: apostrophe, antithesis, paradox, rhyme.

4. Scansion

a. Scansion is seeing the way the emphasis falls on syllables the poet uses. Thisemphasis creates a rhythm the poet and reader must observe ( Stressed = / ) (Unstressed = u ).

Iamb( u / ), Anapest( u u / ), Trochee( / u ), Dactyl( / u u ), Spondee( / / ), Pyrrhic( u u ).


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b. Scansion is also counting metre, the number of syllables in a line.

Monometre= one foot,

Dimetre= two feet, Trimetre= three feet,

Tetrametre= four feet,

Pentametre= five feet,

Hexametre= six feet,

Heptametre= seven feet,

Octametre= eight feet.

c. Scansion is also paying attention to the length of stanzas, or groups of lines.

Couplet = two lines,

Triplet= three lines,

Quatrain= four lines,

Cinquain= five lines,

Sestet= six lines, Septet= seven lines,

Octave= eight lines.

Types of Poems

Look up the following terms:

Ballad LyricBlank Verse NarrativeConcrete Poetry OdeDramatic Monologue Prose PoemElegy Imagination of Poetry

Epigram SonnetFree Verse TercetLight Verse Found Poetry


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Writing

Writing enables students to explore, shape and clarify their thoughts and to communicate

these thoughts to others. By using effective writing strategies, students discover and refine

ideas, and compose and revise with increasing confidence and skill.*

Managing Your English Assignments

A. When submitting an English assignment, please:

1. Staple and hand in your assignment in the following order:

Title Page (if one is required by your teacher; note: you need not illustrate it);

Good Copy (i.e., your final draft);

Rough Copy (i.e., earlier draft; if one is required by your teacher);

Outline (if one is required by your teacher);

2. Do not use a cover;

3. Place your assignment where directed by your teacher, or else risk losing it;

4. Do not staple different assignments together or place them together;

5. Expect your assignment back within four days or four weeks, depending on yourteachers marking load;

6. Please note that some assignments, because of their nature or purpose, will not bereturned.

B. When receiving a marked English assignment:

1. Read it with the marking criteria to see how your mark was determined;

2. Meet with your teacher to address your questions;

3. Take it home for your parents to see;

4. Learn from your teachers comments, if s/he makes them, and make corrections (note:some teachers prefer to give verbal rather than written feedback);

5. Conference with your teacher if you are having trouble or if s/he requests it;

6. Appeal outside of class, not in class, unless your teacher has time;

7. Keep all marked assignments until the end of the semester.

*Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:

http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/


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Title Page(if required for your assignment)

* Your title should do two things:

Tell your reader what he or she is about to read, and;

Make the reader want to read it.

How to Submit Assignments*

By

Your Name(or/and Your ID Number)

Teachers Name ELA 10-1, Period ____Or ELA 10-2, Period ____

Date Here


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Format for All Written WorkThe following are some simple guidelines for formatting your future assignments. Some of theseguidelines apply to all written assignments. Others are specific to word-processed or hand written

forms.

1. At the top right corner of the first page of your assignment, indicate the following:

Your First and Last Name (or ID number, if required by your teacher)Date (e.g., October 24, 2005)English 20-1Your Teachers Name

2. Centered, above your assignment, indicate the following:

The Title of Your Paper (or Name of Assignment)

3. At the top right corner of the second page, and subsequent pages, indicate the following:

Your last name and the page number(e.g., Doe, page 2)

4. Word-processing:

For most assignments, use a standard font. Do not get creative with font choiceunless there is a very good reason for doing so (i.e., it is a creative project.)

Use 10 point Arial or 12 point Times Roman type

Double space (1.5 spacing is also acceptable).

Leave a 1 inch margin on all sides

5. Hand written work:

Use blue or black ink. Assignments in any other colour, or in pencil without prioragreement, are unacceptable.

Double space (to allow room for me to write comments).

Use white, 8 x 11, clean edged paper (i.e., not ripped from coil notebooks)

6. All assignments:

Use only the front of the page (punched holes on the left side of the page).

Correct mistakes with correction fluid or one neat stroke through the error. If youuse correction fluid, wait for it to dry before writing on it.

Staple or bind all pages together.

Indent new paragraphs. It is not necessary to skip a line for new paragraphs.

Proofread and edit all written work!


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Writing for Theme Rather than Plot

It is important to note that, at the high school level, plot will rarely be the focus of literaryanalysis. Theme may be described as the authors commentary on the central idea of awork and the affect of that idea on our lives.

Writing for Plot vs. Writing for Theme

When writing about plot, there is toomuch summary and too little analysis of,or focus on, meaning. Remember thatthe reader of your paper already knowsthe story so you do not need to retell itto them.

When writing about theme, the primaryfocus is on the meaning(s) generated bythe story and the insights about thesemeaning(s) taken by the reader.

When writing about plot, analysis isusually incidental, and is probably thereonly to support the summary of the plot.

This writing is derivative (in other words,it is more the authors than it is thestudents).

When writing about theme, any summaryis incidental, and is there to supportanalysis. Such writing should beprimarily about the insights andobservations that the student has takenfrom the story.

Writing about plot is rather shallow moreoften than not. By the high school levelyour teachers expect you to only useplot as a means of delving into deeperreflections.

Reading for theme leads to insight intodeeper meaning(s), and encourages thereader to make judgments about suchinsights. So, when writing with athematic focus, the student has a fargreater chance of creating a paper that isauthentic and original.


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Quoting from Literary Sources*

When writing an essay based on a literary work, it is sometimes necessary to quote from the work tosupport or illustrate your assertions. The following is a guide for doing so.

1. Quotations have three parts:a. You must Set the Contexttell your reader a bit about the context in which the

quotation occurs.

Who is speaking? To whom is this person speaking? Why? What will the reader of your paper need to know about the quotation to make

sense of the story, the assignment, your thesis, or the particular point you aremaking?

b. Give the Quote. Set it in proper quotation marks, ascribe it properly, and end itproperly. (See below)

c. Analyze the Quote. The quote is meaningless until you talk about its meaning inrelation to the literature, the assignment, your thesis, or the particular point you aremaking.

2. A series of properly introduced, quoted, and ascribed quotations do NOTan essaymake.

In other words, it is better to refer accurately and discuss clearly than it is tomerely memorize and string a bunch of accurate quotations together withoutconnection or apparent understanding.

3. Quotations should either be Embedded or Blocked:a. Embedded quotations are, oddly enough, embedded into your sentence. For

example:

Hemingways writing in The Old Man and the Sea is vivid and pulsating. For example,when describing the fishing expedition, he says It was difficult in the dark and oncethe fish made a surge that pulled him down on his face and made a cut below his eye(p.52), making readers feel the intensity of the pursuit and catch.

They can be embedded with some of your writing preceding, following, or both.

b. Blocked quotations are used for quotations of more than four lines (or 40 words) and,especially, for dialogue in plays so that you can ascribe this dialogue without thebulky devices of he said . . . and then she said . . . and then he replied . . . and thenshe went

When blocking a quote, justify it from the left and the right, single-space it (the rest of your essay should be double-spaced, and do notuse quotation marks. The fact that you have single-spaced it,

separating it physically and intellectually from the rest of your essaytells your reader that it is a quotation. Place the page number at theend on the right. (p.52)

*Adapted from: Mr. Jones Course Guide, Page 26-29


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If you are blocking dialogue, you do not need to justify:

Romeo: I dreamt a dream tonight.Mercutio: And so did I.

Romeo: Well, what was yours?Mercutio: That dreamers often lie.

(Act I, scene iv, lines 52-55)

4. Never begin a body paragraph with a quotation.

The Essay is a form that allows you to express your opinions and perhapspersuade readers that they should share them. The thoughts of others cannotreplace yours.

5. Never end a paragraph with a quotation.

If you use a quotation, you need to comment on it.

6. Never use a quotation without good reason.

Dont throw one in simply because you feel you have to. If it does nothing, itdetracts from your argument rather than adding to it.

7. Make sure the quotation you are using is the best (the most apt) available.

The more your quotation supports your point, the more clear and forceful yourpoint will be.

8. Do not ignore quotations that contradict your argument.

Acknowledging a portion or all of an opposing argument is an excellent way toremove it.

9. The meaning of the quotation must not be changed.

Mr. X drinks a lot . . . is vastly different from Mr. X drinks a lot of water and it is

intellectually dishonest of you to fool your reader this way.

10. If you exclude words from a quote, show where with ellipsis (three dots, four in a rowif they end your sentence).

11. If you add or change words, show where with square brackets.

Use these only for clarity, not because your hand or brain is tired and you do notfeel like writing or typing the whole passage.

12. Quotations appear in double quotation marks, followed by the page number inparenthetical marks, followed by your punctuation, if necessary.

Punctuation is usually either a period, if you are ending your sentence, or acomma, if you are incorporating the quote into the rest of it.

13. When you are quoting a passage that includes another quotation or dialogue, usedouble quotation marks for the main quote and single quotation marks for thesecondary quote.

For example, Juliet said to Romeo, If they do see thee, they will murder thee.

14. `When embedding poetry or a play in verse, use a slash to indicate line endings (sothat you do not have to end your line every time the poet or playwright does).

15. When quoting poetry, give the line numbers, even if you have to count them yourselfto do so.


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When quoting plays, give act number, scene number, and line numbers, if theplay gives them.

If the text uses Arabic numerals, use them; if it uses Roman numerals, you maychoose between them and Arabic numerals.

Line numbers will always be in Arabic numerals. If the text is using Roman numerals, the Act will be in upper and the scene will be

in lower. You can formulate it as follows:a. Act I, scene i, line 1b. I, i, 1

16. A quick primer on Arabic and Upper- and Lower-Case Roman numerals:

1 I i2 II ii3 III iii4 IV iv5 V v

6 VI vi7 VII vii

8 VIII viii9 IX ix10 X x50 L l

100 C c

1000 MM mm

17. The titles of novels, books, plays, and longer poems are underlined.

The rule is if they can be published on their own, in their own book, they getunderlined.

18. The titles of short stories and poems appear in quotation marks.

The rule is that they are so short they must appear with others in an anthology, acollection of literary works, which is then underlined.

19. The titles of films can appear either underlined or in quotation marks, NOT both.

They are, usually, in formal writing, in BLOCK LETTERS.

20. Titles of songs are in quotation marks.

21. There is never an instance or reason to both underline a title and put it intoquotation marks!

22. All Major Words in a Title Get Capitalized.

Non-Major Words, such as as, a, an, or, or the, Get Capitalized Only if TheyBegin the Title.

23. Always include a page number when quoting from a literary source.

If the title of the work is apparent from your title, you do not need to give it. If it isnot, give it only the first time you quote from the work.

If you are referring to more than one work, you may refer to them by the name ofthe author; unless two or more of the works are by the same author.

24. You do not need a page number if you are referring rather than quoting.

25. Buy and consult a good reference book for Examples of Bibliographic Forms.

26. Consult with your teachers; they may have personal preferences when it comes tothese rules.


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Prose Forms That Develop Personal Response toTexts*

Note: all forms require a beginning, middle and an end. How each is developed and the manner ofexpression depends on the prose form. Ultimately, remember that there are timeconstrictions and that your audience is a group of educated and literate evaluators.

Form Development Style/Tone (Voice)

Blog Identify context,Reverse chronologicalorder, Combines textand images, Opinionbased

includeTitle, Body,URL, Post

Depends on audience. Whowill be reading this and why?

Usually some level of opinionand persuasion.

CD Inlay List of songs Biography of the

performer(s)

Discussion of themusic

Depends on the audienceand the style of music.

Dialogue Identify context Discussion developed

around ideas

Summary Statements

Dependent upon participantsand intended audience.

Editorial Column Identify the contextand establish youropinion

Examples to supportopinion

Reasons for opinion

Restate opinion

Evokes an emotional reactionTone depends on subjectmatter

Interview Identify context Questions and

Answers

Summary Statements

Dependent on interviewerand interviewee. Theseshould reflect the intendedaudience.

Journal/Diary Identify context Develop ideas

Draw conclusion

*With thanks to C.P. Hetherington from Central Memorial HS.


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Letter Greeting Introduce Idea

Develop with support

Closing

Depends on the audience.(i.e. friend, relative, businessassociate, editor, etc.)

Memoir Rationale Develop ideas

Draw conclusion

Depends on audience. Whowill be reading this and why?

Newspaper Article Inverted pyramid plan Begin with the

essentials 5 Ws

Add details in order ofimportance

Report objectivelyLimit details to the facts

Obituary Deceaseds full name

and date of birthRecount the mainevents in the personslife.

Acknowledgesurvivors

Announce when andwhere the funeral,burial, wake and/ormemorial service willtake place.

sombre, nostalgic,

reminiscent

Pamphlets /

Travel Literature

Headings

Identify context a few small images

which contribute tothe text

clear, concise and coherent

depends on the purpose andaudience

Parable SCP (setting, conflict,point of view)

Moral / Theme

Tone is a convention as arethe style choices. (e.g.,Characters are often animals)

Rant (Caution!) Introduce Idea Develop with support

Closing

Style is still developing.Incorporates an adamanttone and usually strong on

poetic devices.

Reflective Writing(Essay)

Identify inspiration forreflection.

Develop ideasregarding the topic.

Draw conclusions

Writing may be developedthrough metaphors, personalexperience, literaryreferences, etc.


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Script Similar to short storyin that SCPTs(setting, conflict, point

of view, theme) mustbe included

Form is with separation ofdialogue and context.

Short Story SCPT Intended target audience:Children, teens, men/women,athletes, artists, etc.

Speech Greeting Introduce Idea

Develop with support

Closing

Depends on the audience.(club members, political rally,colleagues, family reunion,etc.)

Tabloid Article Mirrors format ofNewspaper article

Inverted pyramid plan

Begin with theessentials 5 Ws

Add details in order ofimportance

Report subjectivelyDetails have little to do withfactsExaggeration and Rumour


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The Essay

The Parts of an EssayThe Introduction

1. The Lead

a. Get the readers attention.b. May be an anecdote, a challenge, a joke, a shocking statistic, one persons experience, a

description, a question, or a quotation.

2. The Connector

a. A transitional phrase or sentence that serves as a bridge from the lead sentence to thethesis (main idea) statement.

3. The ThesisStatement

a. The most important part of the introductory paragraph.b. A generalized statement that tells the reader:

i. What the topic (main idea) is.ii. How you will limit the topic.iii. How you will organize the topic.

c. May be one or more sentences, depending on the complexity of the thesis.d. A thesis clearly and concisely conveys the writer's main argument in an essay, and it

allows readers to clearly grasp the focus of the essay, which will be developed in thebody of the work.i. An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple yes or no.

e. Example:

i. Judy Syfer's essay, "I Want a Wife," exaggerates the marital expectations facingwomen in our society today. Those expectations include managing a household,

maintaining a career, and having a good relationship with a spouse.

Body Paragraphs

1. TopicSentence

a. Alerts the reader as to which aspect of the thesis statement you are covering in thisparticular paragraph.

b. Usually located at the beginning of the paragraph.

2. Specific Support

a. Provide details from the literary text as evidence to persuade the reader to believe whatyou are saying.

The Conclusion

1. Rephrase or summarize the thesis.2. Restate the key points that you covered in the body paragraphs.3. Conclude with a statement that proves your thesis (main idea).


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Essay Writing

4.

Re hrase

Recap SupportingEvidence

Explain what you concluded about theessay

Big Idea Related to Thematic IssueSummarize how the information in the body of your

essa roves our oint.

Body Paragraphs

Be sure to include all of the following components:

topic sentence

supporting evidence in the body sentences

a closing sentence.

Follow this same format as you write the second and third body paragraphs.

Save your best point for the last paragraph

Start with your second-best point

Lead: Get the readers attention with:An anecdote A Challenge A JokeA shocking statistic One Persons Experience A DescriptionA uestion A Quotation

ConnectorUse a transitional phrase or sentence that clearly showsthe relationship of the initial ideas in the paragraph to the

concluding thesis statement.

Thesis

Summarize the subject of the essay

The last sentence of the introductoryparagraph, it should clearly state themain point the paper makes

Tell the reader what to expect.


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Writing an Outline for an Essay

If you could sit down to write what you have thought and not sit down to think what youwill write, the difficulties in actually putting words to paper would lessen. You can do so if

you approach writing gradually by planning ahead or pre-writing.

Harry Shaw, Handbook of English, page 381.

Brain-storming, thought-webbing, mind-mapping, and other similar techniques are great for gettingyour ideas flowing, but not great for putting them in logical order. All writing, regardless of type, has abeginning, a middle, and an end. The Essay, however, is more formal and thus has more rigid anddisciplined requirements. It also has a beginning, a middle, and an end, but certain things must bedone in each section.

Please note:An Essay for English and an Essay for Social Studies are vastly different. In anEnglish Essay, your Introduction states your thesis, and the rest of the Essay proves it or, at least,explains it; in a Social Studies Essay, your Introduction explores a concept that you work towardaccepting or rejecting in your conclusion.

1) Introductory Paragrapha. Lead Sentence (Get the readers attention.)b. Connector Sentence (Connect your lead sentence to your thesis statement)c. Thesis Statement (Introduce the key points, preferably at least three that you will

expand further in your body paragraphs.)

2) Body Paragraph #1a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph the second most important key

point from the thesis statement.)b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text beingstudied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)

c. Transition Sentence (Indicate that you are moving to the next paragraph and topic.)

3) Body Paragraph #2a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph the third most important key

point from the thesis statement.)b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being

studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)c. Transition Sentence (Indicate that you are moving to the next paragraph and topic.)

4) Body Paragraph #3a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph the most important key point

from the thesis statement.)b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being

studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)

5) Conclusiona. Rephrase the Thesis Statement in the first sentence of the Conclusion.b. Briefly summarize the key ideas presented in the three body paragraphs.c. Make a broad sweeping statement about the central theme of your essay.


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Hints for Writing Good Essays

1. Writing should be logically sound and grammatically correct.a. Leave out irrelevant information.b. Try not to appeal strictly to emotion (When writing Literary Essays, strive to

be objective rather than subjective, and rational rather than emotional).c. Present your thoughts and supporting details clearly and coherently.d. Be concise (i.e., Economy of Style), using the fewest words necessary to

convey your meaning.e. Grammar should be correct, and your voice should reflect usage by the

educated population.

2. Diction (word choice and arrangement) should be precise and specific.a. Avoid slang. Use the correct word to convey your meaning (e.g., Do not use

paranoid when you mean suspicious.)b. Anticipate questions; arrange your message so that the reader cannot

misunderstand you. If the reader is confused about the writers meaning, itis the writers problem.

3. Consider your audience.a. Use words that the reader will understand and appreciate.b. Use a respectful tone to your reader and to your topic.c. Organize your points in a logical and emphatic manner.

4. Consider revising your work.a. Make as many revisions as necessary to ensure that

1. it says what you want it to say, the way you want to say it;2. it is clear, concise, and coherent;3. it is grammatically correct.

5. Proofread carefullya. You want the reader to take your work seriously show that you do too!


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The Thesis Statement: Some Caveats and Examples *

A thesis is a Statement of Opinion or Fact.

A thesis is never a question. Readers of academic essays expect to have questionsdiscussed, explored, or even answered.

A thesis is never a list.

A thesis should never be vague, combative or confrontational. It can, however, be original,challenging, and thought provoking.

An effective thesis has a definable, arguable claim.

A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible. Avoid overused, general terms andabstractions.

*Copyright 1999, Maxine Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University


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Suggestions for Self-Editing and Peer EditingHave you ever been told to peer-edit or self-edit without being told howto do either of these important

tasks? There is, a method for editing, whether it is used for your work or for a classmates. If youbreak the work into its constitute parts and then examine those parts for certain things, you willimprove the quality of your writing, your ability to edit, and the quality of others' writing.

1. Begin with the work as a whole. In other words, examine the writer's purpose andorganization. Ask yourself: What does the writer want to achieve, and has the writing beenorganized in a way that achieves or facilitates that purpose? When editing a literary essay,ask yourself if the following necessary parts are present and doing what they are supposed todo. (Note: These tips are most suitable for the literary essay. See your teacher for thestructure of other types of essays and writing.):

Is there an Introduction that contains the Title, Author, and a Summary of the literatureto be discussed?

Does the Introduction have a ThesisStatement or ControllingIdea that is rational,defensible, and related to the brief summary of the literature?

Does the thesis statement include, or is it followed by, ThreeReasons or Hooks thatshow the thesis statement is the result of consideration of the literature and map thedirection in which the essay will develop?

Has any explanation of the reasons for the thesis statement been saved for the BodyParagraphs?

Do the Body Paragraphs follow the order the writer set out in the Introduction with thethree reasons?

Do the Body Paragraphs develop these reasons with supporting details, examples,explanations, references, and quotations?

Are any references to and quotations of the literature the best examples to prove thewriter's assertions?

Are all quotations commented upon and documented properly? Has the writer used transitions for supporting evidence within a paragraph and from

paragraph to paragraph?

Has the writer included a ConcludingParagraph that brings the writing to a sense offinality but at the same time makes the reader look beyond the paper to his or her life orthe lives of others?

2. Look at the ideas in the Body Paragraphs. Are they suitable to the literature and to thethesis statement expressed about it? Are they complex and well-stated or merely straight-forward and uninsightful or superficial? Do they increase your understanding of the literature,life, people around you, and yourself, or are they merely unoriginal confirmations orrearrangements of previous thoughts?

3. Examine the structure of each of the paragraphs. Are they of sufficient length toproperly develop a complex topic or argument? Do the Body Paragraphs have strong TopicSentences that are clearly related to the thesis statement and which clearly tell the readerwhat the Body Paragraph is to be about? Are these Topic Sentences followed byDevelopmental Sentences that develop and prove ideas? Do the Body Paragraphs endwith a Concluding Sentence that brings the paragraph to a close?


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4. Consider the structure of each of the sentences in each of the paragraphs. Are thesentences complete? In other words, has the writer avoided sentence-fragments and run-onsentences? Do the sentences have variety? In other words, has the writer achieved a nicecombination of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences?

5. Look at the components of the sentences; in other words, examine the sentences for wordchoice, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and capitalization. (These are explained for youin your Course Guide or will be explained for you in class, but you should take ownership ofyour writing by getting guides such as The Elements of Style

1and The Elements of

Grammar2). Are choices superior, and are the mechanics correct?

6. Is the writing still missing something? Then it is probably still missing something! You aregoing to have to develop an intuitive feel for what writing needs. This will come with practiceand experience, but only if you admit writing can be improved, and only if you are ruthless inattempting to improve it.

1Strunk, E.B., and White, E.B. (2000), The Elements of Style, Toronto: Longman

2Shertzer, M. (1986), The Elements of Grammar, New York: MacMillan


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GrammarParts of Speech

Knowing the following terms will make your discussion of your writing more accurate.

1. Adjectives are used to modify or describe nouns or pronouns.

a. Descriptive Adjectivesoccur before the noun or pronoun they are describing:

e.g. redbook, shortanswer, loudnoise, softtouch.

2. Adverbs are used to modify a verb (ran quickly), an adjective (a very quickanswer), oranother adverb (ran fairlyquickly).

a. Most adverbs end in "ly."

b. Adverbs can be used to tell:

how (carefully),

when (today),

where (here), or

why (purposefully) an action was done.

3. Articles are a special type of adjective. There are three types: The, a, and an.

a. Theis called The Definite Articlebecause it refers to something specific.

e.g. Thebook; theman with thered hair.

b. A and anare called Indefinite Articles because they are not specific. They refergenerally to "any" or "one."

e.g. A dog refers to any dog; Ananswer means one answer.

c. Use ain front of a word that begins with a consonant sound (a book, a youth) andanin front of a word that begins with a vowel sound (an honour).

d. The nin ancreates a glide so we do not have to perform a difficult guttural stopbetween two vowel sounds.

4. Conjunctions are used to join words or groups of words and/or sentences. (seeSentences for more detailed notes)

5. Nouns name people, places, things, ideas, qualities, and actions. Nouns can be:

a. Common(boy),

b. Proper(Sally),

c. Concrete(book),

d. Abstract(Love)


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6. Pronouns take the place of nouns.

a. Pronouns can be

personal (he), relative (who),

indefinite (someone),

demonstrative (those), or

interrogative (whose?).

b. Use a singular pronoun to replace a singular noun (hefor boy) and a pluralpronoun to replace a plural noun (theyfor boys).

7. Prepositions are words that show a relationship between a noun or a pronoun and anothernoun, another pronoun, or a verb.

a. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against,"

"along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside,""between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for,""from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside,""over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under,""underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."

8. Verbs describe

a. action (hit, swim, eat) or

b. state of being (is, are, were, was).

Sentences(also known as clauses)

1. A complete sentence:

a. has a subject.

The Subject is a noun or pronoun that is the person, place, or thing that thesentence is about.

b. has a predicate.

The Predicate is a verb that states the subjects action (or existence).

c. expresses a complete thought.

A Complete Thought answers one or more of the who, what, when, where,why, or how questions.


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2. Sentence Types*

a. In English we have four types of sentences:

Simple Compound

Complex

Compound Complex.

b. Sentence types have nothing to do with sentence length; rather they are created bythe use of conjunctions (or the lack of conjunctions).

c. Simple Sentence (expression of one full idea, includes both a subject and predicate)

Bob went to the store.

Bob and Sue went to the store.

Bob and Sue went to the store on the corner near the centre of town to buy groceriesand to get some drinks for the party.

d. Compound sentences (two complete sentences joined with either a semicolon or acoordinating conjunction (BOYFANS) Remember: BOYFANS (but, or, yet, for, and,nor, so Forand socan also act as subordinating conjunctions)

Bob went to the store, and Sue went to the office.

Bob went to the store; however, he forgot his wallet at home.

e. Complex sentences. These sentences use subordinate conjunctions to join adependant clauseto an independent clause.

Frequently used subordinate conjunctions: after, since, when, although, sothat, whenever, as, where, because, than, whereas, before, that,wherever, though, whether, if, which, in order that, till, while, lest, unless,who, no matter, until, why, how, what, even though.

Because the problem proved difficult, they decided to from a committee.

They decided to form a committee because the problem proved difficult.

The issue, which we thought we had solved, came back to haunt us.

Subordinate conjunctions can be found both at the beginning or the middleof the sentence.

f. Compound Complex Sentences. A compound-complex sentence is made up ofat least one dependent clause, and two or more independent clauses. Thesesentences will include both a coordinating conjunction and a subordinating

conjunction. Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.

*Adapted from: http://www.class.uidaho.edu/adv_tech_wrt/resources/sentence_style/sentence_types.htm


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Problems with Sentences*

1. Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is not a complete sentence. It usually lacks either a subject or averb, or both.

For example, three dogs and a goat. (no verb - what did the animals do?)

Studying too hard on weekends. (no subject - who was studying?)

Because I couldn't find my shoes. (contains a subject and verb, but is adependent clause)

2. Run-on Sentences: Fused Sentences and Comma Splices

A run-on sentence is one in which two or more independent clauses areinappropriately joined.

Remember that the length of a sentence does not determine whether it is a run-onsentence: a sentence that is correctly punctuated and correctly joined can beextremely long.

Two types of run-on sentences are fused sentences and sentences with commasplice errors.

1. In a fused sentence, clauses run into each other with no punctuation.

The experiment failed it had been left unobserved for too long.

2. A comma splice refers to the error of placing only a comma between twocomplete sentences, without a connecting word such as and, but, or because.

The experiment failed, it had been left unobserved for too long.

3. A comma splice also occurs when commas are used before adverbialconjunctions. (i.e., therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover,consequently, as a result etc.) connecting two sentences.

NO: The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, therefore it failed.

YES: The experiment had been left unobserved for too long; therefore, it failed.

YES: He wasn't prepared to defend a client who was guilty; however, he could bepersuaded to accept a bribe.

4. To correct a fused sentence or a comma splice error, you can use eitheruse a period, semi-colon, coordinating conjunction, or subordinatingconjunction.

The experiment failed. It had been left unobserved for too long.

The experiment failed; it had been left unobserved for too long.

The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, so it failed.

The experiment failed because it had been left unobserved for too long.

* http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByFormat/OnlineResources/OnlineFastfacts/OnlineWritingFastfacts/FastfactsImprovingSentenceStructure.html


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3. Wordy Sentences

A loose sentence may result if you use too many "and" connectives when otherconjunctions would convey a more precise meaning.

John had a weight problem, and he dropped out of school.

Note the difference in meaning:

John had a weight problemso he dropped out of school.

John had a weight problembecause he dropped out of school?

A wordy sentence also results from weak sentence construction and the inclusion ofmany phrases and clauses in no particular order. For example:

1. In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with thenecessary personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in mind

a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled

for February 12.

2. NOTE: Writing the previous passage as several sentences would bemore effective.

4. Choppy Sentences

A succession of short sentences, without transitions to link them to each other, resultsin choppy sentences. (see transitions list)

NO: Our results were inconsistent. The program obviously contains an error. We need totalk to Paul Davis. We will ask him to review the program.

YES: We will ask Paul Davis to review the program because it gave us inconsistent results.

5. Excessive Subordination

Excessive subordination is not an effective substitute for choppiness.NO: Doug thought that he was prepared but he failed the examination which meant thathe had to repeat the course before he could graduate which he didn't want to do because it

would conflict with his summer job.

YES: Doug thought that he was prepared, but he failed the examination. Therefore, hewould have to repeat the course before he could graduate. He did not want to do that because

it would conflict with his summer job.

6. Parallel Structure

Parts of a sentence which are in sequence must all follow the same grammatical orstructural principle.

NO: I like to swim, to sail, and rowing.

YES: I like to swim, to sail, and to row.

YES: I like swimming, sailing, and rowing.

NO: This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, andhow they were solved.

YES: This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, andthe solutions devised.


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Improving Your Grammar*

1. Subject-Verb Agreement A verb should always agree with its subject.

a. Subject and verb agree even when words come between them.

The teacher, as well as her students, was pleased with the results of the test.

The design with its intricate patterns is especially clever.

The group of students is meeting now to discuss the tuition increase.

b. Two or more subjects joined by andtake a plural verb.

The teacher and the students were pleased with the results of the test.

c. Singular subjects joined by oror nortake singular verbs; plural subjects joined byor or nortake plural verbs.

Neither the professor nor her spouse was happy with the salary adjustment.

Neither the students nor their friends were pleased with the tuition increase.

d. When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by oror nor, the verbagrees with the subject closer to it.

Neither the professor nor the students were happy with the results.

Neither the students nor the professor was happy with the results.

e. Words ending in one, thing, or body(such as everyone, anyone, anything, nobody,somebody, etc.) and words such as each, either, and neithertake singular verbs.

Everyone involved in implementing the company's new policies and procedures is here.

f. The agreement of pronouns such as any, most, all, many, more, some, who, that, andwhichdepends on the countable nature of the word or phrase to which the pronounrefers.

Most of the sugar is in the cup. (uncountable noun)

Most of the apples are ripe. (countable noun)

g. Collective nouns can take singular or plural verbs, depending on whether thesentence is referring to the group as a unit or as individuals.

The jury is announcing its verdict. (as a unit)

The faculty were in disagreement over their options. (as individuals)

h. When a sentence begins with thereor here, or when the sentence is in inverted wordorder, the verb still agrees with the subject which follows the verb in thesearrangements.

There are several answers to the problem.

There is one reason for his anger. Driving along the highway were several tanker trucks.

*Adapted from: http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByTopic/Writing/WritingMechanics/index.html


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2. Pronoun-Noun Agreement

a. A pronoun must agree in person(I, he, it, they, etc.) and number(singular or plural)with the noun to which it refers. Remember that whoand whomare used to refer to

people, and thatand whichrefer to everything else.

Mr. Smith took his work home with him.

Mr. Smith and Mr. Jones worked hard on their projects.

Neither John nor his parents enjoyed their afternoon. (The pronoun agrees with thesubject closest to it - as with subject-verb agreement with orand nor)

The woman who voted for an increase in pay looked happy.

The women who voted for an increase in pay looked happy.

Each apple was chosen for its rosy appearance.

Everyone must finish his or her work by Friday.

NOTE: Since frequent use of hisor hercould sound awkward, as in theprevious example, it may be preferable to substitute plurals.

Students must finish their work by Friday.

b. All pronouns must clearly refer to the noun they replace.

NO: Our patients are enjoying the warm days while they last. (Does they refer topatients or days?)

YES: While the warm days last, our patients are enjoying them.

c. Do not mix "persons" (i.e., second person "you" with third person "he/she/it") unlessmeaning requires it.

NO: To improve one's stroke, you have to learn the basics.

YES: To improve one's stroke, one has to learn the basics.

YES: To improve your stroke, you have to learn the basics.

3. Placement of Modifiers

a. Always place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify.

Confusing: The supervisor told me they needed someone who could type badly.

Better: The supervisor told me they badly needed someone who could type.

Confusing: The fish was found by a fisherman floating in the river. (Who wasfloating?)

Better: The fish was found floating in the river by a fisherman.

Or: The fisherman found the fish floating in the river.Confusing: Wearing high boots, the snake failed to injure the supervisor. (The

snake is wearing high boots)

Better: Wearing high boots, the supervisor was protected from the snake.

Or: Because the supervisor was wearing high boots, the snake did notinjure him.


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4. Use of Apostrophes

a. The apostrophe is used to indicate either a contraction or possession.

When two words are shortened into one, the apostrophe replaces the missingletter.

The rule for using an apostrophe with a contraction alwaysholds. (e.g., itisor it has = it's; who isor who has = who's; they are= they're; will not =won't[note change in spelling]; is not = isn't, etc.)

b. When showing possession, add 'sto the owner word. Then, if the word ends in adouble or triple s, erase the one after the apostrophe and leave the apostrophe inplace.

1. one table's leg OR several tables' legs

2. one student's name OR several students' names

3. one day's workOR several days' work

4. one woman's job OR several women's jobs (note the plural form womendoes not usean s)

5. one boss' house OR several bosses' houses

NOTE: Some grammar textbooks recommend keeping the -s'sor -ss'sending for words such as the Jones's party, boss's house, class'swork, congress's motion, and Jesus's lifefor easier pronunciation.

c. The exception to the possessive rule is that pronouns show possession withouttheuse of 's. (e.g., my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs, its,whose, etc.). Compare the use of apostrophes here:

That is my book. That book is mine. (no apostrophe for the possessive pronoun mine)

That is Bob's book. That book is Bob's. (apostrophe for the possessive noun Bob's)

d. Compare contractions versus possessive pronouns here:

They're hoping to increase their budget.

You're having trouble with your car.

NOTE: To test whether to use it'sor itsin a sentence, read your sentence replacingit'swith it is. If it isdoesn't fit, the word you need is its. Note that there is nosuch word as its'with an apostrophe following the s.

It's almost time to give the cat its medication.

e. Don't use an apostrophe for plurals of regular nouns.

NOT: Several students' went to the meeting.

NOT: The Smith's are on vacation.

f. Use an apostrophe for plurals of numerals, letters, and words being named.

He received mostly A's on the papers marked by TA's.

All she heard were no's in response to her proposal.

Exception: Technology advanced greatly in the 1990s.


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Punctuation Guide (Simplified)The following is a guide to using common punctuation marks. It is by no means exhaustive, and has

been adapted from Margaret Shertzer's The Elements of Grammar.

( . ! ? ) The Period, The Exclamation Mark, and The Question Mark are the three punctuationmarks used to end a sentence.

a. The Period comes at the end of an ordinary sentence

This is a punctuation guide.

b. The Exclamation Mark comes at the end of an exclamatory sentence ( asentences that shouts)

What an excellent punctuation guide!

c. The Question Mark comes at the end of interrogatory sentences(sentences that ask questions)

Is this punctuation guide a good one?

( , ) The Comma is used to:

a. introduce ideas, time, or placeb. separate parts or ideas in a sentencec. show that the second part of a sentence is logically dependent upon the

first part.

When I was a little boy, I loved English.

I like Shakespeare, Keats, and Shelley.

Because I like English, I teach it.

( ; ) The Semi-Colon*is used to:

a. link two independent clauses with no connecting words.

I am going home; I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnicanyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided tocamp for the night.

b. You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clausestogether with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that joinindependent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently,otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc

I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to haveour picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore,they decided to camp for the night.

*http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html


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Sir Wins

Student Guide to ELA 2007

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