-
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF AN INNOVATIVE PRECAST COLD-
FORMED STEEL FERROCEMENT AS COMPOSITE BEAM
TALAL M H F ALHAJRI
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
DECEMBER 2014
-
iii
To My Parents
Faten Ali, Mubarak Alhajri
And
My Wife and Children
Nora, Mubarak Talal, Abdulaziz Talal, Faten Talal and
AbulhadiTalal
-
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I would like express my thanks to Almighty
ALLAH on
successful completion of this research work and thesis
I hereby, express my sincere and profound gratitude to my
supervisors
Professor Dr. Mahmood Bin Tahir, and professor Dr. Mohammad
Ragaee for their
continuing assistance, support, guidance, and understanding
throughout my graduate
studies. Their trust, patience, knowledge, great insight,
modesty and friendly
personality have always been an inspiration for me and will
deeply influence my career
and future life.
The author is grateful Faculty of Civil Engineering, UTM for
their support,
assistance and friendly treatment that not only facilitated the
work, but also made it
pleasant. The author is grateful to the Housing and Building
National Research center
in Egypt for the support and provided to carry the experimental
work.
I also wish to express my deep gratitude to my friends in
Malaysia, Egypt and
Kuwait for their invaluable support and encouragement through
the years. Special
thanks are due to last but not the least my heartiest
appreciation goes to my parents,
wife and children for their endless patience and understanding
towards my work and
everlasting love.
-
v
ABSTRACT
This research investigates the structural behaviour of simply
supported composite
beams, in which a ferrocement slab is connected together with
cold-formed steel (CFS)
beam by means of shear connectors. This system, called Precast
Cold- Formed Steel-
Ferrocement Composite Beam System, is designed to utilise the
composite action between
the CFS sections and ferrocement slab where shear forces are
effectively transmitted
between the beam and slab via shear connectors.CFS sections have
been recognized as an
important structural element in developed countries, and
sustainable construction material
for low rise residential and commercial buildings. However, it
still is remains as
insufficient data and information on the behaviour and
performance of CFS as the
composite construction in composite action is yet to be
established. One limiting feature
of CFS is the thickness of this section that makes it
susceptible to torsional, distortional,
lateral torsional, lateral distortional and local buckling.
Hence, a reasonable solution is
resorting composite construction of structural CFS section
integrated with reinforced
concrete deck slab. An efficient and innovative beam system of
built-up CFS sections
acting compositely with a concrete deck slab has been developed
to provide an alternative
composite system for floors and roofs in buildings. In this
study, ferrocement is an
alternative solution as concrete deck of a slab. It is a form of
thin reinforced concrete
structure, in which a strong cement-sand mortar matrix is
reinforced with closely spaced,
multiple layers of thin wire mesh or small diameter rods,
uniformly dispersed throughout
the matrix of the composite. This study mainly comprises three
major components;
experimental work, theoretical analysis and finite element
analysis using ANSYS (version
11). Experimental works involved small-scale and full-scale
testing of laboratory tests.
The first phase of test program comprised often push-out test
specimens and eighteen full-
scale CFS-ferrocement composite beam specimens. Push-out tests
were carried out to
determine the strength and behaviour of the shear transfer
enhancement between the CFS
and ferrocement.Three types of shear connectors (bolts,
self-drilling screws, bar angle)
were tested and 2, 4 and 6 layers of wire mesh in ferrocement
cold formed were proposed.
The expression for predicting the capacity of shear connector in
which bolt with 12mm
diameter is best to be considered to transfer shear force into
steel section-ferrocement slab
interface. The second phase of test program comprised of a total
of eighteen full-scale
simply supported composite beams with variable parameters and
tested to failure. The
main variables considered in the study are the shape of section
(I- and C-section as beam),
thickness (2mm, 3mm and 4mm) of the CFS section and number of
wire mesh layer (2, 4
and 6 layers). Four points load bending system was used to test
the specimens. The plastic
analysis results depicted that the ultimate bending capacity of
a ferrocement CFS
composite beam can be estimated by using conventional
equilibrium procedures and the
constitutive laws prescribed by Euro codes. The finite element
and theoretical model
showed agreement with the experimental results based on the
moment versus deflection
curves of the proposed composite beam system.
-
vi
ABSTRAK
Penyelidikan ini mengkaji sifat-sifat struktur rasuk rencam
disokong mudah, di
mana papak ferosimen disambungkan dengan rasuk keluli tergelek
sejuk menggunakan
penyambung ricih. Sistem ini dikenali sebagai Rasuk Rencam
Pratuang Keluli Tergelek
Sejuk-Ferosimen, di mana sistem ini direkabentuk supaya daya
ricih antara papak dan
rasuk dapat diedarkan secara berkesan melalui penyambung ricih.
Keluli tergelek sejuk
telah dikenali sebagai elemen struktur penting di negara maju
dan bahan pembinaan lestari
untuk pembinaan bangunan kediaman dan perniagaan ketinggian
rendah. Walau
bagaimanapun, maklumat berkaitan dengan sifat-sifat keluli
tergelek sejuk dalam
pembinaan komposit masih kekurangan. Salah satu kekurangan
keluli tergelek sejuk
adalah ketebalan keratan yang nipis menyebabkan kilasan dan
lengkokan mudah berlaku
pada keratan. Oleh demikian, salah satu penyelesaian adalah
menggunakan pembinaan
rasuk rencam yang melibatkan keratan keluli tergelek sejuk
diperkukuhkan dengan papak
ferosimen. Satu sistem rasuk rencam yang cekap dan inovasi telah
dicipta sebagai salah
satu pilihan untuk pembinaan lantai bangunan. Dalam kajian ini,
ferosimen digantikan
sebagai bahan pembinaan untuk papak lantai. Bahan ini dibina
dengan menggunakan
simen dan pasir diperkukuhkan dengan lapisan wire mesh nipis
atau rod kecil, bertaburan
sama rata sepanjang matriks komposit. Kajian ini terdiri
daripada tiga komponen utama,
kerja eksperimen, analisis teori dan analisis unsur terhingga
dengan menggunakan
ANSYS (versi 11). Kerja eksperimen melibatkan ujian skala kecil
dan ujian skala penuh
di makmal. Kerja eksperimen fasa pertama mempunyai sepuluh
spesimen ujian menolak-
keluar dan lapan belas ujian rasuk rencam skala penuh. Ujian
menolak keluar bertujuan
menetukan kekuatan dan sifat-sifat penyambung ricih antara
keluli tergelek sejuk dan
ferosimen. Tiga jenis penyambung ricih (bolt, skru gerudi
sendiri dan rod) dengan 2, 4 dan
6 lapisan wire mesh ditanam dalam papak ferosimen telah diuji
dalam kajian ini. Merujuk
kepada keputusan ujian, bolt dengan garis pusat 12mm telah
dicadangkan untuk
mengedarkan daya ricih antara keluli tergelek sejuk dan
ferosimen. Kerja eksperimen fasa
dua melibatkan lapan belas ujian rasuk rencam skala penuh dengan
pelbagai parameter
dan diuji sehingga gagal. Parameter yang dikaji adalah bentuk
keratan rasuk (keratan I-
dan C-), ketebalan keratan (2mm, 3mm and 4mm) dan bilangan
lapisan wire mesh (2, 4
dan 6 lapisan). Sistem lenturan empat titik beban telah
digunakan untuk menguji spesimen
rasuk rencam. Keputusan analisis plastik menunjukkan bahawa
kekuatan lenturan
muktamad rasuk rencam boleh dikira dengan menggunakan kaedah
keseimbangan selaras
dengan Eurocode. Model kaedah unsur terhingga dan kaedah
analisis teori menunjukkan
persetujuan yang baik dengan keputusan ujian eksperimen.
-
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLEOF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION xxi
LIST OF APPENDICES xxiii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General Appraisal 1
1.2 Background and Rationale 4
1.3 Problem Statement 4
1.4 Aim and Objectives 6
1.5 Scope of the Study 6
1.5.1 Push tests 7
1.5.2 CFS-Ferrocement composite beam
tests 7
1.6 Significance of the Research 8
1.7 Thesis Layout 9
-
viii
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Cold-Formed Steel Structures 11
2.2.1 Cold-Formed Steel Beams 12
2.2.2 Structural Behaviour - Modes of
Failure Due To Bending Buckling 13
2.2.3 Connection of CFS I-Beams 19
2.2.4 Flexural Strength of CFS Beams 20
2.3 Ferrocement 21
2.3.1 Ferrocement Versus Reinforced
Concrete (Distinct
Characteristics) 22
2.3.2 Ferrocement as a Laminated
Composite 22
2.3.3 Mechanical Properties of
Ferrocement 23
2.3.4 Durability 34
2.3.5 Thermal / Sound Conductivity 36
2.4 Historical Background of Composite
Construction 36
2.4.1 Fundamentals of Composite
Action 37
2.5 Design Approach for Composite Beam 41
2.5.1 Elastic Behaviour of Composite
Beam 41
2.5.2 Ultimate Strength Analysis of
Composite Beam 41
2.6 Shear Connectors 43
2.6.1 Push Test 43
2.6.2 Headed Stud Shear Connector 46
2.7 Review of Previous Investigations 52
2.7.1 Composite Beams with CFS 52
2.7.2 Ferrocement as Structure
Members 58
-
ix
2.7.3 Studies on Finite Element Analysis
of Structures 60
2.8 Summary 62
3 EXPERIMENTAL WORK 63
3.1 General Research Outline 63
3.2 Materials 64
3.2.1 Tensile Test of Steel 64
3.2.2 Mortar Compressive Strength
Test 67
3.3 Experimental Study 67
3.4 Push-Out Test 68
3.4.1 Test Specimens 68
3.4.2 Description of Specimens 71
3.4.3 Instrumentation of Tests 71
3.4.4 Testing Procedure 72
3.4.5 Design Equation 73
3.5 Full-Scale Flexural Test 73
3.5.1 Test Specimens and Arrangement 75
3.5.2 Test Procedures 81
3.5.3 Numerical Analysis 83
3.5.4 Theoretical Analysis 83
3.6 Summary 88
4 NUMERICAL MODELING 89
4.1 General 89
4.2 Finite Element Formulation 90
4.2.1 Basic Finite Element
Relationships 90
4.2.2 Strain-Displacement Matrix 93
4.2.3 Element Stiffness Matrix 96
4.3 Material Constitutive Relationships 97
4.3.1 Ferrocement Mortar 97
4.3.2 Steel Wire Mesh 104
-
x
4.3.3 Cold–Formed Beam 105
4.4 Material Modeling 106
4.4.1 Representation of Ferrocement
Slab 106
4.4.2 Representation of Wire Mesh 107
4.4.3 Representation of CFS Beam 109
4.4.4 Representation of Shear
Connectors 110
4.5 General Procedure for Nonlinear Solution 111
4.5.1 Incremental Method 111
4.5.2 Newton-Raphson Iterative
Method 112
4.5.3 Step-Iterative Method (Mixed
Procedure) 113
4.6 Convergence Criteria 113
4.7 Finite Elements Mesh 116
4.8 Loads and Boundary Conditions 117
5 PUSH-OUT TESTS 120
5.1 Introduction 120
5.2 Material Properties 120
5.2.1 Cold-Formed Steel Sections 121
5.2.2 Fasteners 122
5.2.3 Ferrocement 123
5.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 131
5.3.1 Failure Mechanisms 131
5.3.2 Load-Deflection Curve 134
5.3.3 Parameters Studied 136
5.3.4 Comparison Between the
Experimental, Theoretical Analysis
and FE Results 138
5.4 Summary 141
6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 142
-
xi
6.1 Introduction 142
6.2 Materials Properties 142
6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 143
6.3.1 Beam Behaviour 143
6.3.2 Strain Analysis 154
6.3.3 Discussion of Slip 168
6.3.4 Verification of Shear Connector
Capacity 172
6.4 Parameters Studied 172
6.4.1 Effect of Different Types of Beam
Sections 172
6.4.2 Effect on Increasing the Number of
Layers of Wire Mesh 174
6.4.3 Thickness of CFS 175
6.5 Numerical Model 180
6.5.1 Failure Mode 180
6.5.2 Load-Deflection Curve 183
6.5.3 Ultimate Load at Failure 186
6.5.4 Deflected Shape 187
6.6 Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical
Results 189
6.7 Discussion on the Flexural Stiffness 190
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FURTHER WORK 193
7.1 Introduction 193
7.2 Strength and Ductility of Shear Connectors 194
7.3 Strength and Stiffness of Composite
Beams 195
7.4 Recommendations 197
REFERENCES 199
APPENDIX A 210
-
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Deflection limit of beams due to unfactored imposed loads
17
3.1 Specimens for push-out test 71
3.2 Details of the composite beams 76
5.1 Material properties 123
5.2 Properties of chemical admixtures 124
5.3 Properties of mix (by weight kg/m3) 128
5.4 Material properties of mortar 130
5.5 Spread for the mix 130
5.6 Failure mechanisms 132
5.7 Summary of capacity of results on the effect of Pu value
of
different types of shear connectors used 137
5.8 Summary of result on the effect of Pu value as number of
layers of wire mesh increased 138
5.9 Comparison of theoretical results with experimental and
FE
results 139
6.1 Experimental results of full-scale beam testing 143
6.2 Results of experimental strain 155
6.3 Results of calculated strain 156
6.4 Comparison of test and theoretical results on strain
analysis 167
6.5 Experimental results of end slip 168
6.6 Ultimate strength of composite beams with different
section
type 173
6.7 Ultimate strength of composite beams with different layer
of
wire mesh 176
-
xiii
6.8 Ultimate strength of composite beams with different
thickness of CFS 177
6.9 Ultimate loads and deflection from experimental test and
finite element analysis 187
6.10 Comparison of experimental and theoretical analysis 190
6.11 Comparison of experimental results 192
-
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Composite Sections 2
1.2 Typical CFS sections 3
2.1 Cold-formed symmetrical I-sections: (a) two channels
using
bolts: (b) section using clamps 12
2.2 Modes of buckling of lipped channel in bending (Hsu and
Chi, 2003) 13
2.3 Lateral buckling of an I-section beam (Rhodes, 1991) 16
2.4 Deflection history of I beam due to lateral buckling
(Yu,
2001) 17
2.5 Ferrocement versus reinforced concrete (cross sections)
(Naaman, 2000) 22
2.6 Ferrocement as laminated composite (Naaman, 2000) 23
2.7 Typical cross sections of reinforced concrete and
ferrocement 24
2.8 Schematic load-elongation curve of reinforcement
concrete
and ferrocement in tension (Naaman, 2000) 26
2.9 Typical load-elongation curve of ferrocement (Naaman,
2000) 27
2.10 Typical qualitative influence of specific surface of
reinforcement on properties of ferrocement (Naaman, 2000) 28
2.11 Mesh orientation (IFS-10, 2001) 28
2.12 Effect of mesh orientation on load carrying capacity of
ferrocement in tension (Arif et al., 1999) 29
2.13 Typical load deflection response of ferrocement
illustrating
various stages of behaviour (Naaman, 2000) 31
-
xv
2.14 Load versus various mesh layers of ferrocement in
flexure
(Arif et al., 1999) 32
2.15 Influence of wire mesh orientation in bending (Arif et
al.,
1999) 33
2.16 Comparison of deflected beams with and without
composite
action 38
2.17 Strain variations in composite beams (adopted from
Salmon,
1996) 40
2.18 Elements resistance of a composite cross-section 42
2.19 Push test specimen in accordance with BS5400 44
2.20 Push test specimen in accordance with EN1994-1-1 44
2.21 Load-slip curve of push test specimen (adopted from
EN1994-1, 2004) 45
2.22 Headed stud shear connector (adopted front Vianna et
al.,
2009) 46
2.23 Geometry of CFS box-section as composite beam (Abdullah
et al., 1999) 53
2.24 Geometry of CFS composite filled beams (Hossain, 2003)
53
2.25 Geometry of composite beams with CFS sections (Hanaor,
2000) 54
2.26 Geometry of composite girders with CFS U section by
(Nakamura ,2002) 55
2.27 Floor joist of iSPAN composite floor system 56
2.28 BTTST Shear connector 58
2.29 LYLB Shear connector 58
3.1 Tensile test set-up of materials 66
3.2 Layout of specimen for push-out test 69
3.3 Types and fixing of shear connector 69
3.4 Preparation of test specimen 70
3.5 Schematic diagram of the push-out test 72
3.6 Full-scale test arrangement–strain gauges and
transducers
(All dimensions in mm) 74
3.7 Layout of CFS-ferrocement composite beam specimen (All
dimensions in mm) 77
-
xvi
3.8 Preparation of the composite beam specimen 80
3.9 Locations of transducers 80
3.10 Instrumentation setup 81
3.11 Lateral restrain 82
3.12 Rigid plastic analysis of CFS-ferrocement composite section
84
3.13 Cases for PNA lies in CFS-ferrocement composite section
86
4.1 Idealized uniaxial stress-strain curve for ferrocement
matrix 99
4.2 Adopted uniaxial stress-strain curve for ferrocement
matrix
(ANSYS 11) 100
4.3 Failure surface in principal stress space with nearly
biaxial
stress states 103
4.4 Idealized uniaxial stress-strain curve for steel wire mesh
104
4.5 Adopted uniaxial stress-strain curve for steel wire mesh
(ANSYS 11) 104
4.6 Bilinear stress-strain relationship of steel beam 105
4.7 Adopted uniaxial stress-strain curve for CFS (ANSYS 11)
105
4.8 SOLID 65-3D Reinforced concrete element 107
4.9 Models for reinforcement in concrete; (a) discrete, (b)
embedded and (c) smeard 108
4.10 Reinforcement orientation for distributed model 109
4.11 SHELL43 geometry 109
4.12 Modelling of shear connectors (longitudinal view) 110
4.13 Scheme of the solution procedure ina nonlinear problem
115
4.14 Finite element mesh 117
4.15 Distribution of applied loads 118
4.16 Boundary condition for supports 119
5.1 Stress-strain curves of tensile test 121
5.2 Tested specimens 122
5.3 Tested bolts 122
5.4 Preparation of test specimen 125
5.5 Tensile test for wire fabric reinforcement 126
5.6 Mixing procedures 127
5.7 Mortar 127
5.8 Properties of the mortar testing set up arrangement 129
-
xvii
5.9 Spread of the mix 131
5.10 Mode of failure in 10 mm diameter bolts 132
5.11 Mode of failure in 12 diameter bolts 133
5.12 Shear failure of headed stud 134
5.13 Load-slip curves for push test specimens 135
5.14 Comparison between the experimental and FE results 140
6.1 Load against mid-span deflection curves of GROUP 1, 2
and 3 specimens 145
6.2 GROUP 1, 2 and 3 specimen after test 146
6.3 Load against mid-span deflection curves of GROUP4
specimens 148
6.4 GROUP4 specimens after test 149
6.5 Load against mid-span deflection curves of GROUP 5 and 6
specimens 151
6.6 GROUP 5 and 6 specimens after test 153
6.7 Strut and tie model for longitudinal crack formation 154
6.8 Strain distribution of beams 165
6.9 Load-end slip curves 171
6.10 Shear connector after test 172
6.11 Effect of different types of beams on moment-deflection
response 174
6.12 Effect of number layers of wire mesh on
moment-deflection
response 177
6.13 Effect of thickness on moment-deflection response 179
6.14 Comparison of mode failure 182
6.15 Load-deflection curve 186
6.16 Deflection shape at ultimate load 188
file:///E:/Convert%20UTM/Talal/FINAL%20PRINT%20-%20TALAL/FINAL%20PRINT%20-%20TALAL/Formatted/Talal_Thesis_Formatted_Stylish2.docx%23_Toc402393934
-
xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
λ = Slenderness ratio
fy = Strength of the steel section
t = Thickness
L = Span of beam
Fshear = Connection force
Fc = Longitudinal resultants in the concrete element
Fs = Longitudinal resultants in the steel element
M = Total resisting moment
z = Distance between the center of the concrete and steel
element
εc = Strain of the concrete
εs = Strain of the steel
slip = Slip strain
Ec = Modulus of elasticity of the concrete element
Es = Modulus of elasticity of the steel element
Ac = Cross-sectional areas of the concrete element
As = Cross-sectional areas of the steel element
Ic = Moments of inertia of the concrete element
Is = Moments of inertia of the steel element
yc = Distances of the lowest fiber and uppermost fiber of
the
concrete Element, measured from the neutral axis
ys =
Distances of the lowest fiber and uppermost fiber of the
steel element, Measured from the neutral axis
s = Longitudinal slip
u = Longitudinal displacement component
Ac = Concrete area
n = Modular ratio, Es / Ec
-
xix
Es = Elastic modulus of structural steel
Ec = Elastic modulus of structural concrete
Rs = Axial strength of the steel element
Rc = Axial strength of the concrete element
Rq = Longitudinal shear strength of the shear connector
η = Degree of shear connection
Qu = Ultimate shear capacity of the stud connector
f'c or fck = Concrete cylinder compressive strength
fu = Tensile strength of stud material
Vc = Shear strength due to concrete pull-out failure
λ1 = Factor dependent upon type of concrete (1.0 for normal
density concrete, 0.85 for semi-low density concrete, 0.75
for structural low density concrete)
PRD = Strength of the stud connector
tf = Flange thickness of channel shear connector
tw = Web thickness of channel shear connector
H = Height of the channel
Be = Effective width of composite beam
Pu = Ultimate shear resistance
PRk = Characteristic shear resistance
PFEM = Finite element method load
δi = Initial slip
δu = Slip capacity
δPu = Slip at ultimate load
Mu = Moment capacity
Mu,theory = Predicted plastic moment capacity
I = Second moment of area
δ = Deflection of the CFS-concrete composite beams
bc = Effective breadth of concrete slab
hc = Depth of concrete slab
Ds = Depth of CFS
tf = Thickness of CFS
tl = Lip length of CFS
-
xx
bf = Width of CFS
Rshear = Longitudinal shear resistance of the shear
connectors
RCFS = Resistance of the CFS beam
Rconc = Resistance of the concrete
δc = Deflection of the composite beam with full shear
connection
δo = Deflection of the steel beam acting alone
Icomp = Second moment of area of the composite section
Ig = Second moment of area of uncracked section
Ip = Second moment of area of cracked section
P = Load
Pp,exp = Experimental elastic load
Mu,exp = Experimental ultimate moment
Me,exp = Experimental elastic moment
Mu,theory = Theoretical ultimate moment
dp = Depth of PNA
dp,conc = Depth of PNA in the concrete element
dp,CFS = Depth of PNA in the CFS element
yb = Depth of ENA
εy = Yield strain
fcu,mean = Average concrete strength
fy,mean = Average CFS strength
L/d = Span to depth ratio
-
xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACI American Concrete Institute
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
ASTM American Standards for Testing of materials
BS British Standards
BTTST Bent-up Triangular Tab Shear Transfer
CM Chicken Mesh
CFS Cold-Formed Steel
DSM Direct Strength Method
FC Ferrocement
FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymer
IFS International Ferrocement Society
IBS Industrialized Building System
LYLB Lakkavalli and Liu Bent-up Tab
LVDT Displacement Transducers
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
RC Reinforced Concrete
SM Square Mesh
SP Superplasticizer
USA United States of America
UTM University Technology Malaysia
NAS North American Specification
PNA Plastic Neutral Axis
EC4 Eurocode 4
CDAS Control and Data Acquisition System
ENA Elastic Neutral Axis
NA Neutral Axis
-
xxii
FEM Finite Element Method
HRWR High Range Water Range
SCM Self Compacting Mortar
SG Strain Gauge
-
xxiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Sample calculations for predicted capacity, Mu, theory
and deflection, δ of CFS-ferrocement composite beam
210
-
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Appraisal
The use of composite beam in buildings is becoming popular due
to the
increase in loading capacity and stiffness. The benefits of the
composite beam have
resulted in significant savings in steel weight and reduce the
depth of the beam. To
obtain more economical structural design against the cold-formed
steel (CFS) beams,
composite beam is designed by taking the advantage of
incorporating the strength of
concrete slab by means of shear connectors. These advantages of
composite beam have
contributed to its the dominance in the commercial buildings in
steel construction
industry. The advantages of composite construction have been
further extended with
the use of ferrocement with possible use as pre-cast composite
beam. Composite action
is characterized by interactive behaviour between structural
steel and concrete
components designed to use the best load-resisting
characteristics of each material.
Steel and concrete composite system, which together resists the
entire set of loads
imposed on the structure, is generally more efficient in
resisting the applied loads.
An illustrative concrete-steel composite cross-section, commonly
used in
composite beam, is shown in Figure 1, where the concrete carries
compressive forces,
while steel, a ductile material, carries the tensile forces in
the composite unit. For
concrete and steel to act compositely, mechanical connections
are generally provided
in the form of headed shear studs at the interface of the two
materials to resist
longitudinal shear. Thus, the resulting system is an integrated,
strong, safe, and cost-
effective composite structure.
-
2
The effectiveness of shear connectors at the steel concrete
interface is a key
element for achieving composite action in composite structural
members. For
conventional hot-rolled steel composite structures, extensive
research has already been
carried out (Deierlein, 1988; Viestet et al., 1997) to develop
the most efficient and
commercially viable shear connectors. Welded headed shear studs
are most
prominently used in conventional composite structures as shear
connectors. Due to the
thinness of the CFS sections, welding of shear studs is not
viable (Hanaor, 2000);
hence, the development of shear connectors for CFS and concrete
composite structures
is of utmost importance and require further research.
Figure 1.1 Composite Sections
CFS sections are made by bending a flat sheet of steel at room
temperature.
The use of CFS members in building construction began in the
1850s in both the
United States of America (USA) and Great Britain. The CFS
structural members have
numerous advantages over hot-rolled sections, such as reduced
thickness, lightness,
ease of prefabrication and mass production, speedy erection, and
installation. The use
of CFS sections for secondary beams offer many potential
advantages, particularly in
unusual or special design circumstances. One of the established
commercial
applications of CFS and concrete is conventional composite beam
system, where a
concrete topping layer is placed on top of CFS metal deck.
However, the structural use
of CFS sections began in the mid of 20th century especially for
industrial and
-
3
commercial buildings (Hancock et al., 2001). The typical
sections widely used as
purlin and truss members are “Z” and “lipped C” sections (Figure
2).
Figure 1.2 Typical CFS sections
Composite construction of CFS sections and concrete began in the
mid-1940s
in Europe and was mainly used for floor systems, where a steel
deck made from CFS
was used to act compositely with concrete (Sabnis, 1979).
Ferrocement is a form of thin reinforced concrete structure in
which a brittle
cement-sand mortar matrix is reinforced with closely spaced
multiple layers of thin
wire mesh or small diameter rods, uniformly dispersed throughout
the matrix of the
composite (Naaman, 2000). Ferrocement has taken a significant
place among
components used for construction, for its specification of
durability and strength, and
its small thickness, which makes it a component suitable for
constructing many
lightweight structures. Ferrocement appears to be an economic
alternative material for
roofing; however flat or corrugated roofing system is quite
popular (ACI 549-R97).
This study investigated the structural behavior of composite
beam system with
CFS as beam and ferrocement as slab. A new shear connector is
proposed in this thesis.
This type of system could solve the problem of a low flexural
bending capacity of the
bare CFS as a beam. The proposed composite beam system enhances
the flexural
capacity and reduces the deflection due to the composite action
and also speeds up the
construction time as the proposed ferrocement slab acts as
permanent formwork.
-
4
1.2 Background and Rationale
The construction of industrialized buildings and sustainable
houses are in the
rise all over the world. In Kuwait, development and construction
activity is one of the
most important economic activities needed for both the citizens
and the huge foreign
labor in the state. It has spurred the demand for fast,
cost-effective and quality
residential buildings. The supply of houses by both the public
and private sectors is far
from meeting the demand. Rising cost of both building materials
and labor is another
problem which makes it imperative to study the economic and
systematic application
of new construction materials and systems.
Industrialization of Building System (IBS) by developing an
efficient
prefabricated composite structural element may deal with the
problem amicably where
the fabrication of the elements takes place in factory or
workshops and the elements
are installed with minimum construction time and minimum number
of labor at site.
1.3 Problem Statement
Ferrocement is a thin composite material made up of a cement
based mortar
matrix reinforced with thin layer of wire mesh closely spaced
together. Over the years,
applications involving ferrocement have increased due to its
properties such as
strength, toughness, water tightness, lightness, ductility and
environmental stability.
The success of ferrocement has been attributed to its a readily
available materials
components, the low level technology needed for its construction
and relatively low
cost of final products (ACI 549 R-97).
CFS sections, usually between 1.2 and 3.2mm thickness (Yu et
al., 2005), have
been recognized as an important contributor to sustainable
structures in the developed
countries, and a sustainable ‘green’ construction material for
low rise residential and
commercial buildings. Their usage however, is limited to
structural roof trusses and a
host of non-structural applications (Shaari and Ismail, 2003).
One limiting feature of
CFS is the thinness of its section that makes it susceptible to
torsional, distortional,
-
5
lateral torsional, lateral distortional and local buckling. The
thinness of CFS is also
incapable for CFS-concrete composite beam on the welding of
shear studs.
Prefabricated floor is used in the construction sector in many
parts of the world.
It is an alternative system used to overcome the formwork
problems (cost and delay in
construction) in addition to getting better quality control. It
was found, however, that
the prefabricated elements made of reinforced concrete are very
heavy and difficult to
transport and construct.
In this study, a new type of composite beam comprised of CFS
section with
ferrocement called Precast Cold–Formed Steel-Ferrocement
Composite Beam System
is proposed to reduce the weight as well as to enhance the
strength of the proposed
system. The advantages of this system, amongst others, are its
relatively lighter weight
as compared to typical reinforced concrete slab which result in
the reduction of loading
of the supported beams and columns. Key elements for precast
system are to stiffen
the structure and speed up the construction time. Ferrocement
with its versatile
properties is the most efficient system available to achieve a
light, thin, and stiff
structure.
In this study, Ferrocement as slab and CFS as beam are proposed
to form a
composite structure by means of shear connector. Its properties
are also evaluated and
compared with other competing materials. The following points
reflect powerful
properties of CFS and ferrocement which will be integrated
together to form a
composite action. This will develop the following
advantages:
High strength to weight ratio in behavior for ferrocement and
CFS as
they are integrated together to form a composite structure.
A new shear connector is proposed for the proposed composite
beam
system that works well for precast ferrocement slab and CFS
section.
-
6
1.4 Aim and Objectives
The main aim of this research is to study the behavior and the
properties of an
innovative precast proposed ferrocement-CFS composite beam-slab
structural system.
To achieve this aim, the following objectives are studied:
1. To propose new viable shear connectors for the proposed
composite
beam system.
2. To study the parameters used that can affect the performance
of the
proposed composite beam system.
3. To investigate the behaviour and performance of proposed
ferrocement
slab CFS as composite beam system.
4. To validate the behavior of the proposal composite beam
system by
Finite Element Analysis (FEA).
1.5 Scope of the Study
A new type of composite beam system is proposed comprising of
CFS sections
as beam with ferrocement as slab, called Precast Cold–Formed
Steel-Ferrocement
Composite Beam System. Two types of precast composite beams are
proposed, which
integrated together the slab system developed from ferrocement
with CFS section. This
study, however, focuses on the behavior and properties of
ferrocement-CFS composite
beam-slab structural system. The performance of the proposed
shear connector system
for the proposed CFS-Ferrocement composite beams is also
studied. The scope of the
study covers two areas of research work on the proposed
CFS–Ferrocement composite
action. The first research area is related to the performance of
shear transfer. The
second research area is related to the performance of the
proposed CFS-Ferrocement
composite beam.
-
7
1.5.1 Push Tests
Ten specimens with different configurations are proposed for the
experimental
work on push out test for the proposed shear connector. Push-out
test method is
adopted to study the mode of failure, shear capacity, and
ductility due to the changes
made to the parameters of the proposed shear connector. Clause
5.4.3 of BS 5950: Part
3 mentioned that since the characteristic resistance value are
not presently given in the
code for all types of shear connectors other than headed studs;
therefore, the
characteristic resistance of other types of shear connectors
should be determined from
push-out test. The strength and ductility of shear connectors
are always determined
experimentally due to the complexity of the dowel interaction
between shear
connectors and the concrete slab. The load from the push test is
used to determine the
shear capacity of each of the proposed shear connector. Details
of the experimental
test and discussion of results are discussed later in this
thesis.
1.5.2 CFS-Ferrocement Composite Beam Tests
The beam section consists of two lipped channels connected
back-to-back by
6.3 mm diameter self-drilling and one lipped channel. The
flanges were connected
with ferrocement panel by three types of shear connectors
(Bolts-self-drilling-bar
angle). The detail of the specimen description and parameters
studied are discussed in
Chapter 3.Data from push-out tests was analysed to determine the
most viable shear
connectors between ferrocement slabs and CFS beams which was
then be used in full-
scale tests.
The proposed CFS-Ferrocement composite beams were tested as full
scale and
their results were used to evaluate the behaviour and
performance CFS of an I-section
was formed by connecting back-to-back of lipped C-channels.
There were eighteen
specimens with different configurations prepared for full-scale
testing. A full-scale of
simply supported beam specimens with 4200mm length between
supports were tested
using four-point load system. The beam was subjected to two
point loads with 1400mm
measured from the supports. This system of loading produces a
constant region of pure
-
8
bending moment between the two applied loads. Hence, the
ultimate flexural capacity
of the proposed composite beams can be established. Details of
specimens’ description
and parameters studied are discussed in Chapter 3. The results
of the experimental tests
were validated by numerical analysis as well as finite element
modelling using ANSYS
(version 11) software.
1.6 Significance of the Research
Composite beams are extensively used in construction industry
due to their
efficiency in strength, stiffness and saving materials (Nie et
al.,2006; Tahi et al., 2009).
To date, headed stud shear connectors are commonly used to
perform the composite
action between steel beam and concrete slab (Lawson et al.,
2001). However, it was
found that headed stud shear connectors create a significant
tripping hazard on working
surfaces at site (US Department of Labor, 2001). Thus,
alternative new shear
connectors need to be developed. Also, in small and medium size
buildings where the
span is short (about 4000mm), the use of composite beam with hot
rolled steel beam
is not effective due to the loss of interaction between steel
beam and concrete slab
(Johnson, 1981). The proposed composite beams in this study
could be an alternative
solution to replace the typical composite beam with hot rolled
steel and traditional
reinforced concrete beams in small and medium size
buildings.
Also, in lightweight residential and commercial buildings, CFS
members are
used as floor beams and joists, and designed as non-composite
beams (Popo-Ola et al.,
2000; Ghersi et al., 2002). Such beams need to be checked for
buckling and most likely
failed due to lateral-torsional buckling prior to the attainment
of their capacities
(Ziemian, 2010). Big steel sections are then used resulting in
space and material
consuming. Thus, the validation of using CFS sections with
ferrocement as a
composite beam could significantly increase then strength and
stiffness capacities. The
ferrocement slab could also provide lateral restrained that
prevents the CFS section to
fail under lateral-torsional buckling. Also, it could improve
the resistance of top flange
and reduce its tendency to buckle under compression.
-
9
The finding from this research may eventually lead to the
development or
improvement of the existing system on the welding problem of
shear studs on CFS due
to its thinness. Therefore, this research is to investigate the
possibility of using CFS-
ferrocement composite beams for structures. The outcome of this
research contributes
to promote the proposed composite beam construction method as
possible industry
implementation and also the use of CFS as one of the alternative
materials for small to
medium size building construction. Also this research provides
important technical
knowledge which can be used as a design guideline for the
proposed composite beam
of CFS and ferrocement structures.
1.7 Thesis Layout
Chapter one presents the general introduction, background of the
study,
problem statement, aims and objectives and scope of this
research. Significance of the
study and thesis layout is also described in this chapter.
Chapter two carries a comprehensive literature review on the
area of study
and all published works related to current study.
Chapter three describes the specimen, test setup and
instrumentation used in
the experimental for small-scale, push-out test and full-scale
flexural test of CFS-
ferrocement composite beams.
Chapter four in which three finite element models are used to
verify the
experimental results and expands the study for more specific
points of view.
Chapter five describes the results and analysis of the
experimental works for
push-out tests and evaluates the strength and behaviour of a
shear connector’s
enhancement.
-
10
Chapter six describes the results and analysis of the full-scale
flexural test of
CFS-ferrocement composite beams.
Chapter Seven presents the discussion and comparison of all the
test results,
conclusions and the recommendations.
-
REFERENCES
Abdullah, R., Tahir, M.M. and Osman M.H. (1999). “Performance of
CFS of Box-
Section as Composite Beam," in 6th International Conference on
Steel and
Space Structures. Singapore, pp. 365-370.
Abdullah, and Mansur, M.A. (2001). Effect of Mesh Orientation on
Tensile Response
of Ferrocement. Journal of Ferrocement. 31(4): 289-298.
ACI Committee 549 (1993). "Guide for the Design, Construction,
and Repair of
Ferrocement", ACI 549.1R-93.
ACI Committee 549R (1997). State-of-the-Art Report on
Ferrocement, Manual of
Concrete Practice, ACI, Farmington Hills, Michigan ACI
549R-97.
American Society for Testing and Materials (2005). Standard
Specifications for
Portland Cement, Philadelphia, ASTM C 150-05.
American Society for Testing and Materials (2003). Standard
Specifications for
Concrete Aggregates. Philadelphia, ASTM C33-03.
American Society for Testing and Materials (2002). Standard
Specifications for
Standard Sand. Philadelphia, ASTM C778-02.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (2000). The
Annual Book of
ASTM Standards. vol. 01, Philadelphia, Philadelphia.
Arif, M., Pamkaj, and Kuasik, S.K. (1999). Mechanical Behavior
of Ferrocement
Composites: An Experimental Investigation. Cement and
Concrete
Composites, 21(4): 301-312.
Al-Kubaisy, M.A. and Nedwell, P.J. (1999). Behavior and Strength
of Ferrocement
Rectangular Beams in Shear. Journal of Ferrocement. 29(1):
1-16.
Al-Sulaimani, G.J, and Basunbal, I.A. (1991). Behaviour of
Ferrocement under Direct
Shear. Journal of Ferrocement. 21(2): 109-117.
ASTM A370-03a. (2004). Standard test methods and definitions for
mechanical
testing of steel products. Annual book of ASTM standards, vol.
01.04.
Al-Noury, S.I and Haq S. (1988). Ferrocement in Axial Tension.
Journal of
Ferrocement. 18 (2): 111-137.
-
200
Ahmed, S.F.U., and Nimityogsku,l P. (1998). Improvement of
Punching Shear
Resistance in Ferrocement Slabs. Journal of Ferrocement. 28(4):
325-336.
Al-Shaarbaf, I.A.S. (1990). Three-Dimensional Non-Linear Finite
Element Analysis
of Reinforced Concrete Beams in Torsion. Ph.D. Thesis University
of
Bradford, U.K., 316pp
Al-Rifaie, W.N., and Joma'ah, M.M. (2010). Structural Behaviour
of Ferrocement
System. Diyala Journal of Engineering Sciences, first
Engineering Scientific
Conference, College of Engineering-University of Diyala.
December, 237-
248.
Al-Rifai, W.N., Al-Shukur, A.H.K. (2001). Effects of Wetting and
Drying Cycles in
Fresh Water on the Flexural Strength of Ferrocement. Journal
of
Ferrocement. 31(2): 101-108.
Arif, M., Akhtar S., Masood, A., Basi, F. and Garg, M. (2001).
Flexural Behaviour of
Fly Ash Mortar Ferrocement Panels for Low Cost Housing. Journal
of
Ferrocement. 31(2) : 125-135.
ANSYS, 2011, "ANSYS Help", Release 11.0.
Barbosa, A.F., and Ribeiro, G.O. (1998). Analysis of reinforced
concrete structures
using ANSYS nonlinear concrete model.
Bhatacharyya, P., Tan, K.H., and Mansur, M.A. (2003). Flexural
Moment Capacity of
Ferrocement Hollow Sandwich Panel System. Journal of
Ferrocement. 33 (3):
183-189.
BS5950, Structural use of steelwork in buildings: Part 5: Code
of practice for the
design of cold-formed sections. British Standards Institution,
London, 1998.
British Standard Institute. BS5400-5 (1979): Steel, concrete and
composite bridges -
Part 5: Code of practice for the design of composite bridges.
London.
BS5950, Structural use of steelwork in building: Part 3: Design
in composite
construction-Section 3.1 Code of practice for design of simple
and continuous
composite beams. British Standards Institution, London,
1990.
Chu, X.T., Ye, Z.M., Kettle, R., and Li, L.Y. (2005). Buckling
behaviour of cold-
formed channel sections under uniformly distributed loads.
Thin-walled
structures, 43(4), 531-542.
Cheng, Y., and Benjamm, W.S.( 2003) “Local buckling test on
cold-formed steel
beam,” Journal of Structural Engineering, vol. 129 (12), pp.
1596–1606.
-
201
Cervera, M. and Hinton, E. (1986). Non-linear analysis of
reinforced plates and shells
using a three dimensional model. Computational modelling of
reinforced
concrete structures.
Chapman, J. C., and Balakrisnan, S. (1964). “Experiments on
composite beams,” The
Structural Engineer, vol. 42(11), pp. 369-383.
Davies, J.M., Leach, P. and Heinz, D. (1994). Second-order
generalised beam theory.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 31(2), 221-241.
Desayi, P. and Krishnan, S. (1964). Equation for the
stress-strain curve of concrete.
In ACI Journal Proceedings (Vol. 61, No. 3). ACI.
Deierlein, G.G. (1988). Design of Moment Connections for
Composite Framed
Structures. Ph.D. Thesis, Phil M. Ferguson Structural
Engineering Laboratory,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas.
Dundu, M. and Kemp, A.R. (2005). Strength requirements of single
cold-formed
channels connected back-to-back. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research,
62(3), 250-261.
European Committee For Standardization. (2004). Eurocode 4 -
Design of composite
steel and concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings.
Brussels.
European Committee for Standardisation (CEB), Eurocode 3,
(1993), Design of steel
structures, Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, DD
ENV, 1993-1-1,
EC3.
Fanning, P. (2001). Nonlinear models of reinforced and
post-tensioned concrete
beams. Electronic Journal of Structural
Engineering,1,111-119.
Feng, Z. and Ben, Y. (2005) “Tests of cold-formed stainless
steel tubular flexural
members,” Journal of Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 43, pp.
1325-1337.
Fox, D. M., R. M. Schuster, and M. Strickland.
(2008)."Innovative Composite Cold
Formed Steel Floor System." Nineteenth International Specialty
Conference on
Cold-Formed Steel Structures, St. Louis, MO.
Ghersi, A., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M. (2002). Design of
Metallic Cold-formed
Thin walled Members London, Spon press.
Hancock, G.J., Murray, T.M. and Ellifritt, D.S. (2001).
Cold-Formed Steel structures
to the AISI specification. USA: Marcel Dekker.
Hancock, G.J. (2003). Cold-formed steel structures. Journal of
Constructional Steel
Research, 59(4), 473-487.
-
202
Hanaor, A. (2000). Tests of composite beams with cold-formed
sections. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 54(2), 245-264.
Hawalder, M.N.A, Mansur, M.A. and Rahman, M. (1990). Thermal
Behaviour of
Ferrocement. Journal of Ferrocement. 20(3): 231-239.
Hossainan, M.Z. and Inoue (2000). A Comparison of the Mechanical
Properties of
Ferrocement Elements under Compression for Square and Chicken
Meshes.
Journal of Ferrocement. 30 (4): 319-343.
Hossain, K.M.A. (2003). Experimental & theoretical behavior
of thin walled
composite filled beams. Electronic Journal of Structural
Engineering, 3(3),
117-139.
Hinton, E. and Owen, D. P. (1977). Finite element
programming.
Hsu, H.L. and Chi, P.S. (2003). Flexural performance of
symmetrical cold-formed thin
walled members under monotonic and cyclic loading. Thin-walled
structures,
41(1), 47-67.
Ibrahim, H.M. (2011). Experimental investigation of ultimate
capacity of wired mesh-
reinforced cementitious slabs. Construction and Building
Materials, 25 (1),
251-259.
Irwan, M., Hanizah, A., Azmi, I., Bambang, P., Koh, H. and
Aruan, M. (2008). Shear
Transfer Enhancement In Precast Cold-Formed Steel-Concrete
Composite
Beams: Effect of Bent-Up Tabs Types and Angles. Technology and
Innovation
for Sustainable Development Conference (TISD2008)., Thailand,
January.
Irwan, J.M., Hanizah, A. H. and Azmi, I. (2009). Test of shear
transfer enhancement
in symmetric cold-formed steel–concrete composite beams. Journal
of
Constructional Steel Research, 65(12), 2087-2098.
Irwan, J.M., Hanizah, A.H., Azmi, I. and Koh, H.B. (2011).
Large-scale test of
symmetric cold-formed steel (CFS)–concrete composite beams with
BTTST
enhancement. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 67(4),
720-726.
International Ferrocement Society, (2001). Ferrocement Model
Code. Thailand, IFS-
10.
Jayas, B.S. and Hosain, M.U. (1988). Behaviour of headed studs
in composite beams:
push- out tests. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 15(2),
240-253.
Jayas, B.S. and Hosain, M.U. (1989). Behaviour of headed studs
in composite beams:
full-size tests. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 16(5),
712-724.
-
203
Johnson, R.P. and Anderson, D. (2004). Designers’ Guide To En
1994-1-1, Eurocode
4: Design Of Composite Steel And Concrete Structures, London,
Thomas
Telford Publishing.
Kandaswamy, S. and Ramachandraiah, A. (2002). Sound Transmission
Performance
on Ferrocement Panels. Journal of Ferrocement. 32(1): 59-67.
Kachlakev, D., Miller, T., Yim, S.,Chansawat, K., and Potisuk,
T. (2001). Finite
Element Modeling of Concrete Structural Strengthened with FRS
Laminates.
Final report, SPR, 316.
Kwon, Y.B. and Hancock, G.J. (1992). Strength tests of
cold-formed channel sections
undergoing local and distortional buckling. Journal of
Structural Engineering,
118 (7).
Kumar, A. (2005). Ferrocement box sections-viable option for
floors and roof of multi-
storey buildings. Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (Building
and Housing),
6 (6), 569–582.
Lawson, R.M. and Chung, K. F. (1994).Composite Beam Design to
Eurocode 4: Based
on DD ENV 1994-1-1:1994 Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel
and
Concrete Structures: Part1.1: General Rules and Rules for
Building With
Reference to The UK National Application Document. Berkshire:
Steel
Construction Institute.
Lawson, R.M., Popo-Ola, S.O., and Varley, D.N. (2001).
Innovative development of
light steel composites in buildings. In: Eligehausen, R. (ed.)
International
Symposium on Connections between Steel and Concrete. Stuttgart,
Germany
RILEM Publications SARL.
Lam, D. (2007). Capacities of headed stud shear connectors in
composite steel beams
with precast hollow core slabs. journal of constructional steel
research, 63, 15.
Lam, D., and El-Lobody, E. (2005). Behavior of headed stud shear
connectors in
composite beam. Journal of Structural Engineering, 131(1),
96-107.
Lakkavalli, B.S. and Liu, Y. (2006). Experimental study of
composite cold-formed
steel C-section floor joists. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 62(10),
995-1006.
Lawson R.M., Commentary on BS5950: Part 3: Section 3.1
‘Composite Beams’.
Berkdhire: Steel Construction Institute, 1990.
-
204
Liborio, J.B.L. and Hanai, J.B. (1992). Ferrocement Durability:
Some
Recommendations for Design and Production, Journal of
Ferrocement. 22(3):
265-271.
Mansur, M.A. and Abdullah (1998). Constitutive Laws of
Ferrocement under Biaxial
Tension-Compression. Journal of Ferrocement. 28(1): 1-25.
Mansur, M.A. and Paramasivam, P. (1986). Cracking Behaviour and
Ultimate
Strength of Ferrocement in Flexure. Journal of Ferrocement. 16
(4): 405-415.
Mansur, M.A. (1988). Ultimate Strength Design of Ferrocement in
Flexure. Journal of
Ferrocement 17(4): 385-395.
Mansur, M.A. and Ong, K.G.C. (1987). Shear Strength of
Ferrocement Beams. ACI
Structural Journal. 84(1):10-17.
Mansur, M.A. and Ong, K.G.C. (1991). Shear Strength of
Ferrocement I-Beams. ACI
Structural Journal. 88(3): 458-464.
Mansur, M.A., Ahmed, I. and Paramasivam, P. (2001). Punching
Shear Strength of
Simply Supported Ferrocement Slabs. ASCE Journal of Materials in
Civil
Engineering. 13(6): 418-426.
Mansur, M.A., and. Kiritharan, T. (2001). Shear Strength of
Ferrocement Structural
Sections, Journal of Ferrocement. 31(3): 195-211.
Mansur, M.A., Paramasivam, P., Wee, T.H., and Lim, H.B. (1996).
Durability of
Ferrocement-a Case Study. Journal of Ferrocement. 26(1):
11-19.
Masood, A., Arif, M., Akhtar, S. and Haque, M. (2003).
Performance of Ferrocement
Panels in Different Environments. Cement and Concrete Research.
33(4): 555
562.
Mackay H.M., Gillespie P. and Leluau, C. (1923). Report on the
Strength of Steel -I
Beams Haunched with Concrete. Engineering Journal, Engineering
Institute of
Canada, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 365-369.
Methews, M.S., Sudhakumar, J. and Thomas, A.V. (1992). Behaviour
of Ferrocement
Roofing Panels under Periodic Heat Flow Conditions. Journal of
Ferrocement.
22(2): 125-133.
Montesinos, G.P. and Naaman, A.E. (2004). Parametric Evaluation
of the Bending
Response of Ferrocement and Hybrid Composites with FRP
Reinforcements.
Journal of Ferrocement. 34(2): 341-352.
Narayanan, R. (1987). Composite Steel Structures--Advances,
Design and
Construction. Cardiff, UK.
-
205
Naaman, A.E. (2000). Ferrocement and Laminated Cementitious
Composites. Ann
Arbor, Michigan, USA: Techno Press.
Nakamura, S. I. (2002). Bending behavior of composite girders
with CFS steel U
section. Journal of Structural Engineering, 128(9),
1169-1176.
Nedwell, P.J. (2000). Ferrocement Research at UMIST. Journal of
Ferrocement. 30(4):
379-388.
Nethercot, D.A. (2004). Composite Construction, London and New
York, Taylor &
Francise Library.
Nie, J.G., Cai, C.S., Wu, H., and Fana, J.S. (2006).
Experimental and theoretical study
of steel–concrete composite beams with openings in concrete
flange.
Engineering Structures, 28, 992-1000.
Oehlers, D.J. (1990). Behavior of headed studs in composite
beams: Push-out tests:
Discussion. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 17(3),
341-362.
Owen, D.R.J. and Hinton, E. (1979). An introduction to finite
element computations.
Pineridge. Swansea, UK.
Oguejiofor, E. C., and Hosain, M. U. (1994). “A parametric study
of perfobond rib
shear connectors,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol.
21, pp. 614-
625.
Oguejiofor, E. C. and Hosain, M. U. (1992). “Behavior of
perfobond rib shear
connectors in composite beam: Full-size tests,” Canadian Journal
of Civil
Engineering, vol. 19, pp. 224 – 235.
Oehlers, D.J. and Johnson, R.P. (1987). The strength of stud
shear connections in
composite beams. The Structural Engineer, 65(2), 44-48.
Oehlers, D. J. (1995). Design and assessment of shear connectors
in composite bridge
beams. Journal of Structural Engineering, 121(2), 214-224.
Ollgaard, J.G., Slutter, R.G. and Fisher, J.W. (1971). Shear
strength of stud connectors
in lightweight and normal-weight concrete. AISC Engineering
Journal, 8 (2),
55-64.
Onet, T., Magureanu, C. and Vescan, V. (1992). Aspects
Concerning the Behavior of
Ferrocement in Flexure, Journal of Ferrocement. 22 (1): 1-9.
Oehlers D.J. and Bradford M.A. (1995). Composite Steel and
Concrete Structural
Members. Kidlington, Oxford, U.K.
Parmasivam, P. and Tan, K.H. (1993). Punching Shear Strength of
Ferrocement Slabs.
ACI Structural Journal. 90(3): 294-301.
-
206
Paramasivam, P. and Ravindrarajah, S.R. (1988). Effect of
Arrangements of
Reinforcements on Mechanical Properties of Ferrocement. ACI
Structural
Journal. 85(5): 3-11.
Popo-Ola, S.O., Biddle, A. R. and Lawson, R.M. (2000). Building
Design Using Cold
Formed Steel Sections: Durability of Light Steel Framing in
Residential
Building, Berkshire, UK, The Steel Construction Institute.
Put, B.M., Pi, Y-L. and Trahair, N.S. (1999). “Lateral buckling
tests on cold-formed
channel beams,” Journal of Structural Engineering, vol. 125(5),
pp. 532-539.
Pi, Y.L., Put, B.M. and Trahair, N.S. (1998). “Lateral buckling
strengths of cold-
formed channel section beams,” Journal of Structural
Engineering, vol.
124(10), pp. 1182 – 1191.
Ramli, M. and Tabassi, A.A. (2012). Mechanical behaviour of
polymer-modified
ferrocement under different exposure conditions: An experimental
study.
Composites Part B: Engineering, 43(2), 447-456.
Rao, P.K. (1992). Stress-Strain Behavior of Ferrocement Elements
under
Compression. Journal of Ferrocement. 22 (4), 343-352.
Rao, K.C.B. and Rao, K.A. (1986). Stress-Strain Curve in Axial
Compression and
Poisson’s Ratio of Ferrocement. Journal of Ferrocement. 16 (2):
117-128.
Richard, J.Y. Yen, Yiching L. and Lai, M. T. (1997) “Composite
beams subjected to
static and fatigue loads,” Journal of Structural Engineering,
vol. 123(6), pp.
765-771.
Rhodes, J. (1991). Design of CFS members. Elsevier Applied
Science Publisher.
Robinson, H. (1988). Multiple stud shear connections in deep
ribbed metal deck.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 15(4), 553-569.
Sabnis, G.M. (1979). Handbook of Composite Construction
Engineering. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
Shaari, S.N. and Ismail E. (2003). Promoting the use of
industrialised building systems
and modular coordination in the Malaysia construction industry.
Board of
Engineer Malaysia. Bulletin ingénieur.
Specification for the design of cold-formed steel structural
members (2004). “
Appendix 1: design of cold-formed steel structural members using
the direct
strength method”, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington
(DC).
Schafer, B.W. and Pekoz, T. (1999). Laterally braced CFS
flexural members with edge
stiffened flanges. Journal of Structural Engineering, 125(2),
118-127.
-
207
Sakthivel, P.B. and Jagannathan, A. (2012). Fiber Reinforced
Ferrocement–A Review
Study. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Advances in
Mechanical, Manufacturing and Building Sciences (ICAMB-2012)
(pp. 09-
11).
Salmon, C.G. and Johnson, J.E. (1996). Steel Structures: Design
and Behaviour (4th
Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey.
Salimullah, M. (1994). Ferrocement Roofing Elements: The
Solution of the Middle
and Low Income Housing-The Bangladesh Experience. Journal of
Ferrocement. 24(1): 51-56.
Samad, A. (2004). "Structural Behavior of Reinforced Flanged
Continous Deep Beams
Failing in Shear", Ph.D. Thesis, University of Basrah.
Smith, A. L. and Couchman, G. H. (2010). Strength and ductility
of headed stud shear
connectors in profiled steel sheeting. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research,
66, 748-754.
Shim, C-S., Lee, P-G. and Chang, S-P. (2001). “Design of shear
connection in
composite steel and concrete bridges with precast decks,”
Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, vol. 57, pp. 203-219,
Shri, S.D., Thenmozhi, R. and Anitha, M. (2012). Experimental
Validation of a
Theoretical Model for Flexural Capacity of Hybrid Ferrocement
Slab.
European Journal of Scientific Research, 73 (4), 512-526.
Swamy, R.N. and Shaheen, Y.B.I. (1990). Tensile Behaviour of
Thin Ferrocement
Plates. Proceedings of Thin-Section Fiber Reinforced Concrete
and
Ferrocement, USA. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
Somayaji, S., and Naaman, A.E. (1981). Stress-Strain Response
and Cracking of
Ferrocement in Tension, Journal of Ferrocement. 11(2):
127-142.
Stone, T.A. and LaBoube, R.A. (2005) “Behavior of CFS built-up
I-sections,” Thin-
Walled Structures, vol. 43, pp. 1805 – 1817.
Suksawang, N., Nassif, H.H. and Sanders, M. (2006). Analysis of
Ferrocement-
Laminated Concrete Beams. Proceedings of Eight International
Symposium
and Workshop on Ferrocement and Thin Reinforced cement
Composites. 06
08 February, Bangkok Thailand, IFS, 141-150.
Tawab, A.A., Fahmy, E. H. and Shaheen, Y.B. (2012). Use of
permanent ferrocement
forms for concrete beam construction. Materials and structures,
45(9),1319-
1329.
-
208
Tahir, M.M., Shek, P.N. and Tan, C.S. (2009). Push-off tests on
pin-connected shear
studs with composite steel–concrete beams. Construction and
Building
Materials, 23(9), 3024-3033.
Viest, I.M., Colaco, J.P., Furlong, R.W., Griffis, L.G., Leon,
R.T. and Wyllie, L.A. Jr.
(1997). Composite Construction: Design for Buildings.
McGraw-Hill,
NewYork.
Vianna, J. C., Costa-Neves, L. F., Vellasco, P. S. and Andrade,
S. A. L. (2009).
Experimental Assessment of Perfobond And T-Perfobond Shear
Connectors:
Structural Response. Journal Of Constructional Steel Research,
65, 408-421.
Veldanda, M. R. and Hosain, M. U. (1992). “Behaviour of
perfobond rib shear
connectors: Push-out test,” Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, vol. 19, pp.
1-10.
Wang, S., Naaman, A.E. and Li, V.C. (2004). Bending response of
hybrid ferrocement
plates with meshes and fibers. Journal of Ferrocement: Vol, 34
(1).
Wafa, M.A. and Fukuzawa, K. (2010). Characteristics of
ferrocement thin composite
elements using various reinforcement meshes in flexure. Journal
of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites.
Wong, Y.C. (1998). “Deflection of steel-concrete composite beams
with partial shear
interaction,” Journal of Constructional Steel Research, vol.
124(10), pp. 1159-
1165.
Willam, K.J. and Warnke, E. P. (1975). Constitutive model for
the triaxial behavior of
concrete. In Proceedings, International Association for Bridge
and Structural
Engineering (Vol. 19, p. 174). ISMES, Bergamo, Italy.
Xiong, J.G. and Singh, G. (1997). Review of the fatigue
Behaviour of Ferrocement in
a Corrosive Environment, Journal of Ferrocement. 27(1):
7-18.
Yu, C. and Schafer, B.W. (2003). Local buckling tests on
cold-formed steel beams.
Journal of structural engineering, 129 (12), 1596-1606.
Yu, W.K., Chung, K.F. and Wong, M.F. (2005). Analysis of bolted
moment
connections in cold-formed steel beam–column sub-frames. Journal
of
Constructional Steel Research, 61(9), 1332-1352.
US Department of Labor. (2001). “Safety Standards for Steel
Erection-66:5317-5325”.
Washington D.C.
Ziemian, R.D. (2010). “Guide to stability design criteria for
metal structures”, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
-
209
Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1977). The finite element method. Rayleigh
Damping, Field And
Dynamic Problems.
Zhong, S.T. (2000). Steel Structures. China Construction
Industry Publishing House,
Beijing, China.
W.W. Yu, CFS Design. 3rd Edition. USA: John Wiley & Sons,
2001
Uy, B. and Bradford, M.A. (1995). Ductility Of Profiled
Composite Beam. Part I:
Experimental Study. Journal of Structural Engineering, 121,
7.
Queiroz, F.D., Vellasco, P.C.G. and Nethercot, D.A. (2007).
Finite element modelling
of composite beams with full and partial shear connection.
Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 63(4), 505-521.