Status and distribution of the Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard Uromastyx hardwickii in the Thar Desert, western Rajasthan

GNAPE Technical Report T 02

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIANSPINY- TAILED LIZARD Uromastyx hardwickii INTHE THAR DESERT, WESTERN RAJASTHAN

MADHURI RAMESH & N.M. ISHWAR

t II ( nl'-. F tl nd II '1www.ruffordsrnallgrants.org

IDEARuffon WILD GROUP "FORNATURE PRESERVATIONAND EDUCATION

"Dhoop mein ghoomthe hai sir! theen - sanda, baori aur janglathwala"- a Baori saying

'Only three move around in the heat of the day - the spiny-tailed lizard, the Baori and theForest Guard (each in pursuit ofthe other),.

Acknowledgements~

We are grateful to the following for facilitating M. R's fieldwork in western Rajasthan:

The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden Mr. R.N. Mehrotra, Rajasthan

Forest Department, for permission to work in western Rajasthan, photo-document Uromastyx hardwickii

and for his encouragement;

Conservator of Forests, Jodhpur (Mr. Indraj Singh), DCF Sriganganagar (Mr. Bhoop Singh), DCF

Bikaner (Mr. D.R. Saharan), DCF Barmer (Mr. P.K. Upadhyay) for their cooperation; DFO IGNP

Division I, Bikaner (Mr. A.S. Shekhawat), DCF, Jodhpur (Mr. B.R. Bhadu) and Deputy Director, Desert

National Park, Jaisalrner (Mr. R. Jugtawat) for their support;

Range Officers and field staff for information and hospitality in: Anupgad, Gharsana and Suratgad,

Bikampur, Bikaner (Flying Squad), Diyatra, Gajner, Lunkaransar, Mahajan, Nokha and 682RD (Pugal),

Akal, Bersiala, Khuri, Myajlar, Rasla, Ramdevra, Ramgad, Sam and Sudasri, Phalodi, Pipar, Ratanada, .

Shergad, Bandhra, Barmer and Pipali;

Mr. Bhupinder Singh (ACF IGNP, Bikaner), Mr. Jagdish (RO, Pugal) and Mr. Ramesh Chopda(RO, Sam)

for several useful contacts; District Collector (Jaisalrner), the Deputy Inspector General, Second-in-

Charge Operations of the BSF (Jaisalrner South) for permission to survey some of the border areas of

Jaisalmer and Deputy Commandant, Adm., (Mr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma) for patiently dealing with

quenes;

Dr. Sanjeev Kumar ofZSI (Jodhpur), Drs. M.M. Saxena, Partap Singh of Do ongar College (Bikaner) for

discussions on the desert region; Mr. D.S. Rathore and family for their hospitality at Jodhpur,

'Routemaster' Chain Singh Khichi and family, Shri Hazara Ram, Ishan Agarwal for good company,

assistance and hospitality at Sam;

And the survey team: Muse Khan for working cheerfully through the hottest of days; Kishana Ram,

Shyam Lal and Ratan Lal for driving over roads both pukka and imaginary; Mohan Naik for helping to

locate several colonies in Bikaner.

We are extremely grateful to Dr. Ravi Sankaran (SACON) for his interest, encouragement and

insightful comments. Drs. John Mathew, M.D. Robinson generously sent us several important reprints,

and the Madras Crocodile Bank allowed us access to their extensive collection ofherpetofaunal papers.

At GNAPE, we would like to thank Jayapal, Bindu for valuable feedback and Lakshmi, Sylvia

for their help. This survey was funded by a Rufford Small Grant to M.R. and the equipment used was

donated by Idea Wild. Finally, our apologies if we have inadvertently missed acknowledging anyone's

contribution to this project.

Contents

Acknow ledgements

Executive Summary

l.Introduction

2. Study Area

3. Methods and Data Analysis

4. Results

5. Notes on Natural History

6. Discussion

7. Recommendations for Conservation

8. Literature Cited

9. Appendices

1. List of locations with U hardwickii

II. List of habitat variables measured

III. List of interviews conducted with members of Uromastyx-hunting communities

IV. A Baori folktale

V. Reptiles species encountered

Page

111

1

4

9

15

31

33

38

41

43-48

11

Executive Summary~

1. The Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard Uromastyx hardwickii occurs in the Thar Desert and the surrounding

semi-arid parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Locally known as the 'sanda', it is burrow-dwelling and occurs

in clusters.

2. Traditionally exploited by certain communities for meat and oil obtained from the fat, sanda ka tel, and

threatened by habitat loss, it is considered a 'Vulnerable' species. Ecological information on U hardwickii

is scarce and specific locality records few in number. Therefore a survey to assess the status and

distribution of U hardwickii in the Thar Desert was undertaken from March to September 2007.

3. Using Time Constrained searches, 124 sites having U hardwickii were identified across five districts of

western Rajasthan (Sriganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Barmer; n = 800); sightings of either

individuals or active burrows were used to determine presence. Densities of active U hardwickii burrows

calculated from sub-plots of belt transects (n = 560) were highest in thalar substrate (51.59 burrows per

ha), followed by sandy thalar (15.25 burrows per ha). The density also varied across districts from a high

of25.85 burrows per ha in Jaisalmer to a low of 1 burrow per ha in Barmer. Maps depicting the current

distribution of U hardwickii are presented for each district, along with records of probable local

extirpations in the recent past.

4. Currently, the most serious threat to this species appears to be habitat loss brought about by

developmental activities such as canal irrigation, afforestation and urbanisation since they irreversibly

alter the arid zone and reduce the availability of thalar habitats. From interviews conducted with hunting

communities it appears that the volume of trade and exploitation of U hardwickii has declined and no

longer constitutes a major threat, primarily due to the enforcement of protection laws by the Rajasthan

Forest Department.

5. The continued survival of U hardwickii depends entirely on adequate in situ measures and therefore we

recommend that conservation action for this species focus on protection of existing large clusters and

thalar habitats especially in the following areas:

III

District Type of colony Major threat Conservation priority area

Sriganganagar Few scattered burrows Irrigated agriculture Nil

Bikaner Numerous small,scattered

Poaching, plantation,agriculture

a) Pugal- Tharusar-SattasarBinjharwali- PambanwaliBenaithwala-Surasar-Kamisar -Bamanwali

Jaisalmer Numerous small andlarge

Construction, plantation b) Parivar-Ramgadc) Koria-Changaniyon lei basti-Kesuon lei basti-Khudi (around

northern Desert National Park)d) Ramdevra (DNP exc1osure)-Mava

Jodhpur Some small, few large Urbanisation, agriculture e) Bap-Jamba

Barmer Few small, one large Flooding f) Bandhra-Harsani (southern DNP)g) Goonga-Shiv-Bissu Kalanh) Gangawas

6. Recommended conservation action includes:

• Continuation of regular patrolling by the Rajasthan Forest Department andimposition of heavy fines for poaching of U. hardwickii,

• Formulation of a management plan for thalar habitats particularly those thatsupport large clusters of U. hardwickii,

• Implementation of the recommendations of the XI Planning Commission's TaskForce on grasslands and deserts.

IV

Chapter 1. Introduction --

1.Introduction11

Deserts are unique ecosystems with flora and fauna that are extremely specialised in their ability to

cope with aridity, but they are popularly believed to be desolate, waterless, uninhabited regions. The Thar

Desert, with 100-300 mm of annual precipitation, is less arid than most other deserts in the world,

supports a fair amount of vegetation cover and is part of the most densely-populated arid region in the

world (UNEP, 2006). In the Sindhi dialect, 'thar/thal'means 'area of greenery among sand'. The Thar,

along with the surrounding semi-arid regions of Rajasthan and the arid Kutch region of Gujarat, is also

referred to as the Great Indian Desert. The Thar Desert extends up to the Aravalli Range of Rajasthan in

the east, while in the west and north it is contiguous with the Thal, Cholistan and Thar-Parkar deserts of

Pakistan. These, in turn, are connected to the Sahara of Africa through the Arabian deserts. The southern

boundary is formed by the region of Kutch in Gujarat (Rahmani and Soni, 1997). The Thar Desert forms a

distinct biogeographic zone but less than 2% of the area is protected (Rodgers andPanwar, 1988).

] .1 The Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard Uromastyx hardwickii

Lizards ofthe genus Uromastyx (Merrem, 1820) are restricted to the hot deserts of the Old World

from the Thar in the East, across the Arabian peninsula, to the Sahara in the West (Iverson, 1982; Wilms,

2005). Also known as Spiny-tailed Agamas, these diumallizards are medium-sized with blunt snouts,

dorso-ventrally flattened bodies and thick tails that are covered by whorls of thorny scales (Smith, 1935;

Wilms, 2005). This genus consists of 17 species of which some have been described only recently and due

to marked polymorphism many subspecies are also recognised (Wilms and Schmitz, 2007), but the

taxonomic status of several species and subspecies remains uncertain (Harris et al., 2007).

The oldest species of the genus, Uromastyx hardwickii (Joger, 1991; Amer and Kumazawa, 2005)

or the Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard is endemic to the arid region in the north-western part of the Indian

subcontinent (purves, 1915; Smith, 1935; Khan and Mahmood, 2004). Though first described by Gray

(1827) as Uromastix hardwickii, the current name follows Merrem (1820).

In India, U. hardwickii is found in the Thar Desert and the surrounding semi-arid parts of Rajasthan

and Gujarat (Smith, 1935; Daniel, 2002). Specific locality records are few in number and include Kanauj

(type locality; Gray, 1827), Bhatti, Devli and west ofFatehpur (Bhatnagar et al., 1973 b) in Uttar Pradesh,

Banni and little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat (Abdulali, 1960; Vyas, 1991), Ramgarh, Kanoi, Gadra Road,

Shiv (Bhatnagar et al., 1973 b), Ramdevra (Sankaran and Rahmani, 1998), Barana, Sam, Pithala-Sudasri

(Das and Rathore, 2004) all in Rajasthan. Ecological information on this species is extremely scarce with

Chapter 1. Introduction

11 the most detailed natural history note being nearly a century old

(Purves, 1915).

Locally known as the 'sanda', these lizards live in clusters

(Smith, 1935; Abdulali, 1960; Minton, 1966), and each lizard

excavates a burrow for itself. Each burrow has a single elliptical

opening which is level with the ground and leads into a long

tunnel that may zigzag for a few feet before ending in a small

chamber. One excavated burrow was 9 feet long and 4.5 feet deep

(purves, 1915). The burrows of U. hardwickii have been reported

to be found in rectangular or hexagonal clusters with an inter-

burrow distance of25-80 inches (Bhatnagar et al., 1973 b). Apart

from serving as a refuge from predators, the burrow also provides u. hardwickii emerging from burrow

shelter during nights and the long period of inactivity in winter or 'hibernation'. At these times, the lizard

plugs the mouth of the burrow with soil. Reproduction is believed to occur with the onset of warmer

seasons, soon after their emergence from hibernation (Purves,

1915; Smith, 1935). After mating, the female is believed to lay

eggs in smaller tunnels excavated on either side of the main

tunnel of her burrow (Nicolls pers. comm., in Minton, 1966);

the eggs are thought to be as large as a dove's egg (purves,

1915). The adult lizards are mainly herbivorous, and feed on

grass, flowers and fruits of Capparis decidua (= aphylla),

Prosopis cineraria (= spicigera) and Salvadora persica

(Purves, 1915), but juveniles have been observed to eat

locusts in captivity (Bhatnagar et al., 1973 a).

When cooked, the meat of U. hardwickii is palatable and supposedly tastes like that of chicken,

while the oil, sanda ka tel, is considered medicinal and used as both an aphrodisiac and antidote to joint

pains (Purves, 1915). The lizards are usually captured by smashing or excavating the burrow, then

immobilised by dislocating the spine, and kept aside alive until required (purves, 1915; Abdulali, 1960).

Large numbers are believed to be traded for meat and oil (Molur and Walker, 1998), though only Vyas

(1991) has attempted to quantify volume of trade with an estimated 4,000 to 5,000 animals trapped

annually in Gujarat and most of them sold in the markets of Ahmedabad; trade in Rajasthan has not been

quantified.

U. hardwickii emerging from burrow

2

Chapter 1. Introduction ---

Historically, U hardwickii has been exploited by some sections of society for meat and the oil

or ined from the fat. In the Thar Desert region, four communities i.e. the Bhil, Naik, Jogi and Baori have

traditionally been associated with trade and exploitation of sanda (Sharma, 1992). In the past, they were

quite literally, the 'lizard oil , •

merchants'. But in current

times, it appears that most of

the Bhil, Naik and Baori have

shifted to doing manual labour

or farming for a living. Many

Jogi on the other hand, continue

to lead a nomadic existence,

and occasionally work as

casual labourers particularly in

the harvest season (Forest

Department staff, pers. comm.). Among the four communities, the Bhil are the most numerous in four of

the districts covered by this survey (Barmer, Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur; Census ofIndia, 2001) and

the Baori in the fifth district (Sriganganagar) (Census ofIndia, 2001).

U hardwickii is also threatened by loss of habitat due to developmental activities and hence has

been classified as a 'Vulnerable' species (Molur and Walker, 1998). Therefore there was a pressing need

for baseline data in order to evaluate the extent of decline and formulate conservation action. This study

aimed to address the gap by assessing status and distribution of U hardwickii in the core area of the Thar

Desert. Being the first systematic large-scale survey, it is hoped that this report will form the basis for

further research on life-history strategies of this species as well as contribute to the development of a

long-term conservation programme for U hardwickii.

Jogi musicians

1.2 Objectives of the Survey

In accordance with the overall aim of the survey, which was to assess the current status of U

hardwickii in the Thar Desert of western Rajasthan, and prioritise sites for in situ conservation of the

species, the objectives of this survey were to:

1. Locate colonies and estimate abundance of U hardwickii within them,

2. Determine habitat requirements of the species by measuring variables such as substrate

and vegetation,

3. Identify major threats to the species including the role played by trade and exploitation.

3

Chapter 2. Study Area

2. Study Area

Figure 1. Map of study area showing districts surveyed, western Rajasthan, India.

t

2.1 Thar DesertAs mentioned earlier, U. hardwickii is endemic to the arid region that lies to the north-west of the

Indian subcontinent (Purves, 1915; Smith, 1935). Most of this area, particularly the.'true desert' falls

within the political boundary of the western districts of Rajasthan (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988; Rahmani

and Soni, 1997; Sikka, 1997). This survey covered the western-most districts of Sriganga nagar, Bikaner,

Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Barmer (Fig. 1).

Typical of hot deserts, these districts have characteristically high temperatures and scanty rainfall.

Seasonal variations are pronounced and in summer, the temperature can rise up to 50°C and in winter,

drop to _2°C.Rainfall occurs between July and August, but the quantum of rain and number of rainy days

decrease considerably from east to west across Rajasthan (Sikka, 1997). Five topographical features are

recognised by local people in western Rajasthan: Thalar - gravel plains, Muggra - coarse gravel/rocky

plains, Doongar - rocky hillocks, Reth - sandy areas and Tibba - sand dunes. And a single seasonal river,

the Luni, flows through south-eastern Jodhpur and north-eastern Barmer.

4


Around 680 species of plants are found here including Calligonum polygonoides, Lasiurus

indicus, Capparis decidua, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides, Calotropis gigantea and Tecomella~undulata (Brandis, 1906; Bhandari, 1978). Many species are used in folk medicine (eg: Calotropis

procera, Citrullus colocynthis, Euphorbia caducifolia), as fodder (eg: Aerva tomentosa, Lasiurus

sindicus and Cymopsis tetragonoloba), and food (eg: Prosopis cineraria - pods, Ziziphus nummularia=

berries, Acacia senegal- seeds) (Khan et al., 2003; Islam and Rahmani, 2005). Over the years, however,

the vegetation profile has changed considerably due to anthropogenic activities such as agriculture,

irrigation and afforestation. In addition, the Thar is one of the largest grazing grounds in the country

because it supports a very high density of livestock that also contribute to the change in vegetation

(Shankarnarayan, 1988). Microbial diversity has also been studied and includes lichen, arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungi and cyanobacteria (reviewed by Bhatnagar and Bhatnagar, 2005).

Thor - Euphorbia caducifolia

Of the 300 species of birds that are found in the Thar Desert

several are of conservation significance such as the Great

Indian Bustard (Ardeo tis nigriceps), Houbara Bustard

(Chlamydotis undulata) and Greater Hoopoe Lark (Alaemon alaudipes), Stoliczka's Bushchat (Saxicola

macrorhyncha), (Ali and Ripley, 1983; Rahmani and Soni, 1997; Rahmani and Manakandan, 1990; Kalra

et al., 2006) Sixty eight species of mammals have been reported from this region, ranging from common

species such as Chinkara (Gazella bennettii) and Indian Desert Jird (Meriones hurrianae) to rarer ones

such as the Desert Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris) and Desert Fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) (Prakash,

1997; Menon, 2003). More than 50 species of reptiles are found here (Sharma, 1996) including those

characteristic of the desert such as the Red-spotted Diadem (Spalerosophis atriceps), Laungwala Toad-

headed Lizard (Bufoniceps laungwalaensis) and Indian Sandfish (Ophiomorus raithmai) (Whitaker and

Captain, 2004; Das and Rathore, 2004). On the whole, rodents are the most well-studied group (eg:

Prakash, 1962; Prakash et al., 1971; Prakash, 1981, Wada et al., 1995) and there remains a significant gap

in current knowledge ofthe ecology ofmany other groups of desert fauna (Ghosh et al., 1996).

Khejri - Prosopis cineraria

5

I .


2.2 District Profiles

The five districts covered in this survey form around 38% of the total land area of Rajasthan

(3,42,239 sq.km; http://rajasthan.gov.in). In terms of size, Jaisalmer is the largest and Sriganganagar the

smallest, but the trend is reversed in terms of population density with the latter having 224 persons/kin'

and the former only 13 persons/km'. Four of the districts - Sriganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Barmer

lie along the Indo-Pakistan border.

Sriganganagar is the most intensively cultivated district, while Jaisalmer has the least cultivated

area (Table 1). While traditional rain-fed agriculture is still practised in most parts of Jaisalmer and some

parts of Barmer and Bikaner, it has been almost completely

replaced by irrigated agriculture in Jodhpur and

Sriganganagar. Irrigation of these desert districts is by the

Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP) which brings water from

Harike Barrage in Punjab. About 8000 km of this canal and its

branches run through the districts of Sriganganagar, Bikaner

and Jaisalmer (Rahmani and Soni, 1997) irrigating an area of

6110 sq.km, and upon completion will irrigate another 3530

sq.km of land (Anon, 2006 a). The canal has had adverse

ecological effects since irrigation systems radically alter the

character of the desert area. Species of plants (eg: Rohida

Tecomella undulata), birds (eg: Greater Hoopoe Lark Desert Monitor Varanus griseus

Alaemon alaudipes) and mammals (eg: Hairy-footed gerbil Gerbillus gleadowi) that are specially-

adapted to the desert conditions are increasingly being replaced by generalists (eg: Israeli babul Acacia

tortilis, White-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon smymensis, Bush rat Golunda ellioti) and the habitat

•

Table 1.Profile of districts surveyed for U hardwickii in western Rajasthan.

District Area Population Decadal growth Extent of(km') density (per km')> rate (1991-2001) agriculture'

Sriganganagar 11155 224 27.5 1

Bikaner 30248 55 38.2 3

Jaisalmer 38392 13 47.5 5Jodhpur 22564 126 33.8 2

Banner 28387 69 36.8 4

* Source: http://districts.gov.in!disdetails.asp?sc=raj; # ranks based on pers. obsv.

6


available to the desert species is either reduced or degraded (Singh, 2004; Rahmani and Soni, 1997;

11 Prakash, 1997). In the case of Sriganganagar with the advent of canal water, thriving agriculture has

drastically changed the landscape, and ecologically it can no longer be considered an arid district. Seven

species of collembolans (soil arthropods) have been reported from this region for the first time (Faisal and

Ahmad, 2005), indicative of an altered soil profile since collembolans require high soil humidity to thrive.

2.3 Protected Areas

The vast majority of the desert is rangeland that also acts as a refuge for different species of wildlife

such as Chinkara and Houbara Bustard. Several villages have sacred groves (aan), pastures (gouchar)

and community-owned Protected Areas. Some species like the Blackbuck (Anti/ope cervicapra) receive

specific veneration and protection by communities (eg: in Dhawa-Dholi, Jodhpur). However there are

only two legally Protected Areas in the Thar Desert, the Desert National Park and Tal Chapper Wildlife

Sanctuary (7.9 km'; Kalra et al, 2006), of which the Desert National Park (DNP) was the only Protected

Area located in the region surveyed.

The DNP covers 3,162 km2 of the desert. Over 60% of the park lies in Jaisalmer district and the

rest in Barmer. The park consists mainly of sand dunes interspersed with patches of grasslands (Kalra et

al., 2006). Flora of the park comprises of 168 species including typical arid zone plants such as Capparis

decidua, Salvadora oleoides, Prosopis cineraria, Cenchrus biflorus and Lasiurus sindicus. It is also an

important habitat for fauna ranging from spiders like Stegodyphus sarasinorum and Hereropodafabrei

(Sivaperuman and Rathore, 2004) to reptiles such as the Glossy-bellied Racer (Coluber

ventromaculatus), the Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus) and the Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard (Das and

Rathore, 2004). Birds include the endangered Great Indian Bustard, Egyptian Vulture (Neophron

percnopterus) and mammals include the Desert Cat (Felix sylvestris), Desert Fox (Kalra et al., 2006). The

core area of the DNP consists of26 discrete grazing exclosures (total area about 97 km') and the rest forms

a multi-use buffer zone (Kalra et al., 2006).

Though 72 villages and their livestock exist in and

around the park, traditional lifestyles do not constitute

a serious threat and recommendations have been made

to complete the [mal notification and also declare it a

biosphere reserve as it is a very important repository of

desert biodiversity (Anon. 2006 b; Kalra et al., 2006).

Indian Hedgehog Hemiechinus micropus

7


11 2.4 Study Period

The survey was conducted from March to September (2007) as U. hardwickii is active only in the

warmer months (Purves, 1915; Smith, 1935). Fieldwork was not conducted in the month of June. During

the first one month preliminary observations on U. hardwickii, such as time of emergence, identification

of burrows and scat, flight distance were carried out and the sampling protocol for surveying and

estimating densities of burrows was finalised. Five districts of western Rajasthan were surveyed between

April-September 2007 (Appendix I).

The desert is an important grazing ground Camels are an integral part of life in the desert

8

Chapter 3. Methods and Data Analysis

3.Methods and DataAnalysisThe five districts of Sriganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Barmer together cover a

geographical area of about 63,615 km2 (http://rajasthan.gov.in; Fig. 1), and the survey was conducted

along existing road networks (both tar and mud), to cover as large a proportion of the landscape as

possible and meet the objectives within the allotted time. At least 5820 km of roads were traversed during

the survey, of which about 1500 km was traversed while conducting interviews with hunting

communities and field staff of the Forest Department. As these districts border Pakistan, access to the

westernmost areas is restricted. While a few border areas in south-western Jaisalmer were surveyed with

permission from the Border Security Force, most border areas could not be traversed.

3.1 Sighting of U. hardwickiiU. hardwickii are known to excavate their own burrows, and there exists a 1:1 correspondence of

active burrows to individuals (Purves, 1915; Smith, 1935), hence sightings of individuals or active

burrows were considered as evidence of presence in a location and only active burrows used to calculate

density of lizards. 'Active' burrows were defmed as those that were currently in use and could be

recognised by one or more of the following features: soil plug at the mouth of the burrow, fresh tracks of

U. hardwickii near the burrow, a smooth, rounded edge to the mouth of the burrow. Burrows with

vegetation growing out of them, weathered and crumbling mouths or fully excavated tunnels were

considered 'inactive' and if only inactive burrows were found in a site during the search period, U.

hardwickii was presumed to be absent from that location.

Such secondary evidence was preferred to direct sightings as in many areas the lizards were

generally shy and readily retreated into their burrows on approach by humans. Hence, any population

density computed on the basis of direct sightings would be an underestimation. Further, being ectotherms,

the number of lizards encountered changes with diurnal temperature within the same area. Using the

number of active burrows as evidence of species presence permitted field work to be carried out

throughout the day (0630 - 1800 hrs) irrespective oftemperature and yielded a reliable estimate oflizard

density.

3.2 Classification of Substrate and VegetationThe landscape was broadly classified into 12 substrates (of which seven have Marwari names;

Table 2), and six vegetation types (Table 3). In order of commonness, substrates encountered were tibba

(sand dunes), reth (sand plain), thaZar (gravel plain), muggra (rocky plain) and doongar (rocky hillock),

9


Substrate category

ThalarSandy thalarCompact sand thalarSandTibbaMuggraDoongarHabitationMosaicOld fieldTavi field

Kalti field

Table 2. Classification of substrate types.

Description

fine gravel plain (particles <lcm diameter)fine gravel plain with light coating of sandfine gravel plain with a surface layer of sand «5 cm in depth)

sandy soil, upto knee-high sandsand dunes, with hillocks that are more than knee-highcoarse gravel or rocky plainrocky hillockall human shelters and buildingsa mixture of two or more substrate types

fallow landfield with upturned soil

ploughed and (or) sown field

Table 3. Classification of vegetation.

S.No. Vegetation category

I Bare

2 Herbs and short grasses

3 Tall grass

4 Tallshrnb

5 Tree

6 Crop

Description

No vegetation cover

Low vegetation, < 1 ft high

Vegetation 1-3 fthigh

Shrubs, saplings 3-6 fthigh

Woody plants at least 6 ft high

Cultivated plants

1) though the area under each varied significantly from district to district. For instance, most of Barmer is

comprised of tibba or reth while Bikaner has a far greater proportion of muggra and doongar and

Jaisalmer has a large proportion of thaZar. Habitations ranged from small settlements to large cities and

were considered a separate category due to the intensive modification of habitat that surrounds human

dwellings.

S.No. Code

10

1

234

5

67891011

12

THA

STHCSTUSADSAMGR

DGRHAB

MOSOFLTFLKFL

Based on height of vegetation, the site was classified into i) Bare ground, ii) Herbs and short grasses

(eg: Peganum harmaZa, Neurada procumbens) iii) Tall grasses (eg: Aerva pseudotomentosa, Cenchrus

biflorus), iv) Tall shrubs (eg: Capparis decidua, CaZotropis gigantea), v) Trees (eg: Acacia nilotica,

Zizyphus nummularia) and vi) Crops (typically pearl millet).


Thalar covered by herbs and short grasses

Bare doongar

Muggra Sand, tibba in the background

11


3.3 Time Constrained SearchesTime Constrained Searches (TCS; Crump and Scott, 1994) were conducted along roads at every

fifth km point to ascertain the presence of U. hardwickii in each district. Each TCS lasted for 12 man-

minutes i.e. two observers searched for a maximum of six minutes on either side of the road by walking

along a path that resembled a rectangle (with the longer side perpendicular to the road), and looked for

presence of U. hardwickii. The search ended when either an 'active burrow' or a lizard was sighted in the

area of interest, or at the end of 6 minutes. The following parameters were estimated from this data set:

• habitat association i.e. frequency of sightings of U. hardwickii in each substrate and

vegetation category,

• determine and map current distribution of U. hardwickii in the five districts of western

Rajasthan

3.4 Belt Transects

The density of U. hardwickii burrows was estimated using belt transects. The belt transects were

placed 10 km apart (i.e. at every second TCS site), 50 m from the road's edge. Each belt was 100 x 20 m in

area and oriented in the N-S direction. Three observers walked parallel to each other, 10m apart, along the

belt transect and counted the number of U. hardwickii burrows (active and inactive). The average time

taken to traverse the belt was 7 minutes. In case of sand dune habitat, only two observers were required to

traverse the belt (20 m apart from each other) since there was sparse vegetation resulting in greater

visibility. Each belt transect was further subdivided into four sub-plots, which were then categorized

according to the dominant substrate and vegetation type of that sub-plot. The dominant grass and plant

species were identified using the glossary of common names in the Flora of Rajasthan (Bhandari, 1978).

Signs of anthropogenic activity, such as grazing, agriculture and habitations were also recorded.

Active burrow (open) Active burrow (closed) Inactive eroded burrow

12


While every effort was made to sample the districts uniformly, sampling could not be carried out in

nsely populated or cultivated areas, so belt transects in particular could not always be carried out at the

specified intervals in all districts. For example, in Sriganganagar where intensive agriculture is practised,

large tracts are under cultivation throughout the year and therefore, out of bounds. However, the minimum

distance between consecutive sampling locations (5 km for TCS and 10 km for belts) was maintained and

hence, the total number of samples from each district also reflects the amount of 'free area' available. The

following parameters were estimated using this data:

• habitat associations (see section on data analysis)

• ecological density of burrows

• prioritization of U. hardwickii sites for conservation

3.5 Anecdotal Information from Hunting CommunitiesSemi-structured interviews were conducted in villages and market places to gather information on

past and current distribution, levels and means of exploitation, and threats to the species. The interviews

targeted mainly people from the Bhil, aik, Baori and Jogi communities since they have traditionally

been hunters of Uromastyx (Forest Department staff, pers. comm.; Sharma, 1992). In most cases, a

photograph of U. hardwickii was first shown and upon correct identification further information

regarding location of clusters (past and present), local beliefs, hunting techniques and other relevant

information on usage was sought. Staff of the Forest Department were also interviewed.

3.6 MappingDistrict-wise distribution maps of U hardwickii were prepared by pooling the locations of all

clusters (direct and indirect records) ascertained by means ofTCS, belt transects, chance encounters and

locations of existing and past colonies reported by respondents. Since the study region lies along an

international border (Indo-Pakistan), access to detailed topographical maps of this area is restricted.

Therefore the district maps depicted here have been adapted from freely-available road atlases of the

state, and the DNP map has been adapted from one provided by the Rajasthan Forest Department.

3.7 Data AnalysisThe density of U hardwickii clusters across districts and substrates has been calculated using the

number of active burrows found in each sub-plot of the belt transect (n = 560). While ascertaining

presence of the species using TCS, a total of 204 locations could not be searched thoroughly due to the

occurrence of fences and U hardwickii was assumed to be absent in these sites. The magnitude and

direction of association between number of active burrows and different habitat features was examined

13


11 using the Kendall's Tau-b test. This test was opted as it would be the most appropriate to study the

correlation between two independent variables, each measured in an ordinal score (Siegel and Castellan,

1988). Pearson's Chi-square statistic was used to test the hypothesis that the number of burrows is

independent of the grass species composition (as represented by dominant grass species) in the block. A

list of variables, levels of measurement, and their codes are provided (Appendix II).

A typical village near the Desert National Park

14

Chapter 4. Results --

4.1 Substrate and Vegetation Characteristics of U hardwickii Habitats

Frequency occurrence ofburrows in different substrate and vegetation types was determined from

800 Time Constrained Searches. Among different substrate categories, U. hardwickii was found most

frequently on thaZar (33%) and sandy thalar (31%), while it was absent from tibba and doongar; 27% of

mosaic substrates also had U. hardwickii (n = 124, Fig. 2). Of these mosaics, thalarwas present in 74% of

the sites, and sandy thaZarin 12% (n = 34).

U. hardwickii was recorded mainly from sites having herbs and short grass (79%, n = 124), but was

not recorded from areas vegetated by trees and crops (Fig. 2). On the whole, U. hardwickii was found

mainly in habitats having a combination of thalar or sandy thaZar substrates and herbs and short grass

vegetation (55%, n = 124). Mosaics with similar vegetation accounted for 18% of the sightings (n = 124,

Fig. 2). Active burrows of this species were found only once each on the margins of a sandy area, muggra

and habitation. On three different occasions, burrows were found on the thaZar bordering agricultural

fields.

4.-Results

Figure 2. Percentage occurrence of U hardwickii by substrate and vegetation type in western Rajasthan (n = 124).

40~------------------------------.

35

~ 30(l)uc~ 25•.....::::lug 20"-a>-2! 15(l)::::lg 10•.....u,

5

Dree

DaliShrub

_all Grass

_erb & ShortGrass

o .Ili!ipiIc;;:::Ll DareTH ST CT us DS MG DG HA MO OF TF f{F

Substrate

Substrate codes: TH thalar, ST sandy thalar, CT compact sandy thalar, US reth, DS tibba, MG muggra, DG doongar,HA - habitation, MO mosaic, OF old field, TF tavi field, KF kalti field.

15


The density of burrows in different substrate and vegetation types was determined from 560 sub-

plots of the belt transects which covered nine out of the twelve substrate types. Doongar, habitation and

tavi fields were exceptions because doongar was comparatively rare in this landscape and occurred only

once in the sub-plots, while habitations and tavi fields could not be sampled for logistic reasons. U.

hardwickii was recorded in six of the remaining nine substrates, with just two thalar and sandy thalar

substrates accounting for over 97% ofthe burrows observed. Density of burrows ranged from a high of

51.6 burrows per hectare in thalar substrates to 0.5 burrows per hectare in undulating sandy areas. Tibba,

doongar, habitations, old, tavi and kalti fields had no burrows (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Density of U hardwickii burrows across substrates (n = 560). Bars represent 95% CI about mean.

100~----------------------------------------------~

...--.UJ'- 80ro.•..... -~uUJ..c'-UJD.. 60(f)

•50'--'-~ 40.D

'>-0

~ --IT(f)

c 20UJ0

0 -- .-- Ttl- f;:;:; "" f6 f55 5~ ~ -" :J) J8 :9

TH ST CT US DS MG DG MO OF KF

SubstrateSubstrate codes: TH thalar, ST sandy thalar, CT compact sandy thalar, US reth, DS tibba, MG muggra, DG doongar, HA - habitation, MOmosaic,OF oldfield, TF tavifield,KF ka/tifield.

4.2 Habitat Associations ofU. hardwickii in WestemRajasthanThe association of active U. hardwickii burrows with thalar substrate and sites wherein the

vegetation consisted mostly of herbs and short grasses was further validated by the Kendall's Tau-b test of

association. Among substrate types, there was a significantly positive association with thalar, while it

16


showed a significantly negative association with undulating sand, tibba (sand dunes) and cultivated" .

areas. Among the various vegetation types, presence of herbs and short grasses was positively associated

with number of burrows, while sites that had tree cover showed a negative relationship (Table 4).

Although there was a weakly positive relationship with ground cover, there was no significant correlation

between the number of burrows and the dominant grass species (Pearson's Chi Square = 363.256, P =

0.560, df= 368).

Table4.Kendall's Tau-bTestof correlation fornumber ofburrows and habitat variables.

No. of burrows of U. Measures of associationhardwickiiVersus Kendall's Tau-b PValue Nature of association

HABITATThalar 0.435 < 0.0001 PositiveSandy thalar 0.111 0.008 PositiveCompact sand thalar -0.02 0.638 Not significant

Undulating sand -0.232 < 0.0001 Negative

Tibba -0.144 0.0006 Negative

Muggra -0.089 0.035 Negative

Doongar -0.019 0.656 Not significantHabitation N.AMosaic -0.01 0.819 Not significant

Old field -0.119 0.004 Negative

Tavi field N.AKalti field -0.103 0.014 Negative

VEGETATIONHerb and short grass 0.264 <0.0001 PositiveTall grass -0.075 0.062 Not significantShrub -0.053 0.203 Not significant

Tree -0.143 0.0003 Negative

4.3 Present Distribution of U. hardwickii in Western Rajasthan

Time constrained searches (TCS) were done at 800 locations spread over 4310 km of tar and mud

roads. U. hardwickii were sighted or active burrows located in 124 ofthe locations surveyed (15.5%, n =800). U. hardwickii were more likely to be encountered in Jaisalmer district where 33.72% (n = 261) of

the TCS sites had the species, and was very rarely encountered in Sriganganagar (1%, n = 135, Table 5).

17

Chapter 4. ResultsTable 5. Presence of U. hardwickii in five districts of western Rajasthan, determined from Time

11 Constrained Searches at 800 locations.

District No.ofTCS No. oflocations Proportion to the total

locations with U. hardwickii sites with U. hardwickii

Sriganganagar 135 1 (0.74%) 0.81%

Bikaner 169 19 (11.24%) 15.32%

Jaisalmer 261 88 (33.72%) 70.97%

Jodhpur 110 4 (3.64%) 3.23%

Barmer 125 12 (9.6%) 9.68%

Total 800 124 (15.59%) 100%

*NB: In total 204 locations could not be surveyed thoroughly due to presence of fences, andU hardwickii was assumed to be absent in these sites.

4.4 Relative Abundance of U. hardwickii in Western Rajasthan

In total 140 belt transects were laid across the five districts, with presence of U. hardwickii being

recorded in only 29% of these. It was found most frequently in Jaisalmer (38%, n = 71) and least

frequently in Barmer (15%, n = 20) (Table 6). From the sub-plots of the belt transects, the overall density

of burrows was found to be 15.25 burrows per ha (n = 560), with Jaisalmer having the highest average

density (25.85 burrows per ha) followed by Jodhpur (8.06 burrows per ha) and lowest in Barmer

(1 burrowperha)(Fig.4).

District No. of belt No. of belts with Proportion to the total

transects U. hardwickii belts with U. hardwickii

Sriganganagar 4 1 (25%) 2.44%

Bikaner 27 5 (18.52%) 12.19%

Jaisalmer 71 27 (38.03%) 65.85%

Jodhpur 18 5 (27.78%) 12.20%

Barmer 20 3 (15%) 7.32%

Total 140 41 (29.29%) 100%

Table 6. Presence of U. hardwickii in five districts of western Rajasthan, determined from Belt Transects at 140locations.

18


Figure 4. Density of U. hardwickii burrows across five districts of west em Rajasthan (n = 560). Bars represent 95%CI about mean.

r--.OJ

40L.

ro4-'wOJ.£:L.

OJD.. 30---if):s:0L.L.

::J 20£2\I-0.e-If)c 10OJ0

0

50

•

•

I

•

· I.- I •I- t 108 284 "'12 00

Sriganganagar Bikaner BarmerJaisalrner Jodhpur

District

4.5 Locations from which V. hardwickii has Disappeared in Western Rajasthan

Locations from which U. hardwickii has disappeared was compiled from information gathered by

interviewing hunting communities (Appendix III). Respondents believed that there has been an overall

decline in the abundance of the sanda in all five districts surveyed (Table 7). In a majority of the cases, this

decline (and in some cases complete disappearance) of the species as perceived by the respondents, was

related to the practice of irrigated agriculture while in other cases, the decline was attributed to natural

disasters like floods or drought. For example, In Sriganganagar, respondents felt that sanda populations

19

•


haye drastically declined over the last two decades with the advent of irrigated agriculture facilitated by

the dira Gandhi Canal (Table 7). Several Baori also mentioned that in the 1980s they had been hired by

farmers to remove sanda from their newly-tilled lands.

Table 7. Listing of probable local extirpation of U. hardwickii from western Rajasthan, based on interviews withhunting communities, 2007.

District Location Last sighting (years) Possible cause of local extinction

Sriganganagar 1. Manakthedi* >25 Irrigated agriculture

2. Badopal* >25 Irrigated agriculture

3. Jhankarawali* >25 Irrigated agriculture

4. Panthawali* >25 Irrigated agriculture

5. Dulapur kairi* 10 to 15 Irrigated agriculture

6. Rawla 20-25 Irrigated agriculture

7. Gharsana 20-25 Irrigated agriculture

8. Khanuwala 20-25 Irrigated agriculture

9. Ramjiwala 5 to 10 Irrigated agriculture

10. Lunewala* 5 to 10 Irrigated agriculture

II. Khatan 5 to 10 Brick factory

12. Shivni to Kupli 20 Irrigated agriculture

13. 28ASD 2 Drought

14.22 MD 2 Drought, only excavated burrows seen

Bikaner 1. Dabla thai <5 Hunting

2. Moklera <5 Hunting

3. Bopalram ki dani <5 Flood, Hunting

4. Kalu 5 to 10 Hunting

5. Diyatra 5 to 10 Drought

6. Deshnoke 5 to 10 Drought

7. Kolayat 5 to 10 Drought

8. Kanasar-Bikaner 10 to 15 Drought, Hunting

9. Doongar College Campus <10 Construction

Jaisalrner 1. Ramdevra enclosure 10 to 15 Flood

2. Khuiyala-Bandha <5 Unknown

3. Hamira <5 Unknown

Jodhpur 1. Sathin >10 Unknown

Barmer 1. Shiv - Kotada <5 Flood

2. Talaniyon ki dani <5 Flood

* unverified report; these localities were not visited during the survey, while the rest were visited.

20


4.6 Distribution Maps

i) In Sriganganagar, U. hardwickii was found in just two locations, near Gujarana in the south-east

and at Shivni in the south-west (Fig. 5); less than 20 active burrows were found at both sites. Anecdotal

information suggests that disappearance of U. hardwickii from the southern parts of the district (Table 7)

is attributed to expansion of irrigated agriculture. This is also validated by our survey of the district where

fields constituted 62% of the TCS sites whereas thaZarconstituted less than 1% (n = 135).

Figure 5. Distribution of U. hardwickii in Sriganganagar district.

t SRIGANGANAGAR • SADUlSHAHAR

•o 10 KML-..J

KARAN PUR

• TATARSAR

•RATTEWALA

•PADAMPUR•

JALlUKI

•KHATAN

• • RAI$INGHNAGAR

RAMJlWALA••

SATJANDA

JAITSAR • •SURATGAD

VIJAINAGAR •

• BIRDHWAl•ETA•

ANI:JPGADMOTASAR•

• KIJPll

• GHARSANA

PHULEWALI. KEY

ROJHRI

•

D Presence of U. hardWickii recorded

D Area surveyed

D u. hardwickii present earlier but absent now

RAWlA

•

21


In Bikaner, U. hardwickii were found mainly in the central region (Fig. 6), in small patches of thaZar

K 1ha) surrounded by vegetated tibba. They were not found in the extensive thaZars south ofBikaner city

(eg: Kolayat, Diyatra) though large clusters are believed to have been found in this area less than 10 years

ago (Table 7). Further, overall habitat availability is low with thaZar or sandy thaZar being encountered in

just 11% of the TCS sites against fields which constituted 46% ofthe sites (n = 169).

Figure 6. Distribution of U. hardwickii in Bikaner district.

t RAMBAGH•o 10 KM~ MAHAJAN

•• •SHERPURA SUIN

SATASAR•KANKARWAlA•

GANGAJALI. • PUGAL

DANTOR•

LUNKARANSARKHINYERA •

•BINJHARWALI • •UCHHRANGDESAR

DHIRERAN· • •DULMERA KALU

KHARI •SURASAR•

LAKHUSARKARNISAR •

•JALWALI

•RANDHISAR

• RANISAR•JAIMALSAR SHOBHASAR• ••

DAIYAN.BIKANER

GAJNER•

JHARELI•

DESHNOK•• BIKAMPUR

NOKHRA•HADLA•

NOKHA•PANCHUN•

KEYKOHIRA

•o Presence of U. hardwickii recorded

o Area surveyed

o U. hardwickii present earlier but absent now

22


Jaisalmer had the largest population of U. hardwickii with a majority of clusters occurring to the

w • of Jaisalmer city (Fig. 7). This might be due to the comparatively high availability of thalar / sandy

thalar in this district because these substrates constituted one-thirds of all TCS sites (n = 261). In the west,

three large clusters of U. hardwickii (area> 1 ha) were found within the DNP (Khuri, Barana and Dobha)

while the rest were found outside (eg: Ramgad, Lila Parivar, Lanela) and in the east, large clusters were

found near the DNP's grazing exclosure (Ramdevra) and at Mava.

Figure 7. Distribution of U. hardwickii in Jaisalmer district.

Nro 20 KML-J

TANOT.

• RANAU

.LONGEWALA

NACHNA.• MANDHARAMGAD DIDHU.GHOTARU. MOHANGAD

'"SANU.AJASAR

HABUR.KHUIYALA

• KANOD• KATHORIBHADASAR •• SHAHGAD

JENIYO .LATHI

.BHUVANA • HAMIRA

JAISALMER CHANDAN•DAMODRA

• • -AKALKHABA KULDHERA

KANOISANAWRA..

SAM

BI"HIYON .DHANANA • DESERT NATIONAL PARK

KHURI

.RASLA

BAINSRA. .LAKHMANA

·DANGRI RAJ",ATHAI

• BHIKHORAI

SAHANPU.RA

.DEVIKOT BHINYA~

D~BRI

)of

·BERSIALA

DAW.KARADA.

KEYo Presence of U. hardwickii recorded

o Area surveyed

U. hardwickii present earlier but absent now

23


Half the sites in Jodhpur were under cultivation with fields forming 51% of the TCS sites (n = 110),11and U. hardwickii was found mainly in northern Jodhpur (eg: Bap, Jamba) though a large cluster was also

found at Thadiya (south ofDechchu, Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Distribution of U. hardwickii in Jodhpur district.

o Presence of U. hardwickii recorded

o Area surveyed

U. hardwickii present earlier but absent now

BARU•

KEY

KANASAR.

t•KHIDRAT

o 10 KML-JBAP•

•SHEKHASARJAMBA• •

PHALODI

•AU•

KHICHAN•DENOK•

KHARA•KOLU PABUJI• • LOHAWAT

CHANDSAMA• BHIKAMKOR•DECHCHU•OSIAN•

SHAITRAWA• •CHANMUSURPURA KHURD•

• SOLANKIYATALAMATHANIYA

•

SHERGAD

•

24


In Barmer, U. hardwickii was sparsely-distributed across the northern part of the district and a,.

sin Ie large cluster was found at Gangawas (near Mandli; Fig. 9). More than half of this district too, was

under cultivation (55%) and thaZar/ sandy thaZarwas limited to 8% of the TCS sites (n = 125).

Figure 9. Distribution of U. hardwickii in Barmer district.

to 15 KM~

0t;NGA • BISUKAlAN

• SHN MOKHAB KAlAN

SANDRA-

• GIRAB NIMBLA. THOB• BALESAR

HARSANI. PACHPADRA.SISALA •

KHAUFE KI SAORI. BAYTU

GADRAROAD. BARMER•.GAGARIA SIWANA

CHOHTAN.RATASAR.

ALAMSAR

•DHANAU

• DHORIMANNA.SERWA.

LAKDASAR

BAKHA.KEY

o Presence of U. hardwickii recorded

o Area surveyed

o U. hardwickii present earlier but absent now

25


In the Desert National Park, most large clusters of U. hardwickii occur in the northern half of the

pltk (eg: Lolai, Sudasari, Sip la, Barana, Khuri; Fig. 10). But within the grazing exclosures, only a few

scattered burrows were found (eg: Sam, Sudasari); no large clusters were found inside any exclosure

despite repeated searches.

Figure 10. Distribution of U. hardwickii in the Desert National Park.

KESUON KI axsn.SOBHAKlOANI. .

OHWASAR

NrSAGARON KI BASTI. o 7 KM

L--...J193RDJAKOB KI DANt

BALDAOON KI BASTI oSUDASARt

• KUMHARKOTA.SIPLA.

LOLAIDABR!.

CHANGANIYON KI BASTIBARANA-

• OHOBA

KH~DI

PHULlYA

f-l SUNDRA

~PIPARlI

DKHABDALA

~~DHAGARI

(J SANDRA

KEYD Presence of U. hardwick;; recorded

o Area surveyed

o Grazing exclosure

26

Chapter 4, Results --

4.7 Anecdotal Information on Trade and Exploitation of U. hardwickii in Western RajasthanIb

Over 100 individuals belonging to five different hunting communities were opportunistically

interviewed (Appendix III). Most respondents were male, the only exception to this was in the Baori

community, where women also participated in the general discussion or volunteered information. A Baori

folktale about U hardwickii is also provided (Appendix IV).

Excavation: First a flexible twig is inserted into the burrow

to check if the burrow is occupied and to gauge the depth at

which the lizard is resting. Then the lizard is simply dug out of its burrow using a crowbar, a sharp

wooden stake or a spade. This appears to be the most common, and also the fastest technique,

particularly after the rains when the ground is soft and easy to dig. A modification of this technique

was reported by the Baori people - late in the evening, the anterior end of the burrow is filled with

sand. Then the next morning, as the sanda emerges, the sand gets pushed behind thereby reducing the

effective length of the tunnel. Hence, the lizard cannot retreat far underground when disturbed and

can be dug out easily by the hunter.

4.7.1 HuntingTechniques

Respondents described four main techniques that are

used to hunt sanda in western Rajasthan; these rely on the fact

that all burrows have only one opening and consist of a single

long tunnel. The post-monsoon season (around September) is

considered the best time to capture these lizards because forage

is abundant and they start building up body fat in preparation for

hibernation in the following winter months. Both men and

women hunt this lizard; sometimes children may do so all by

themselves because it is a harmless species which at most will

thrash its spiny tail when handled. Except one, all hunting

techniques involved destruction of the burrow.

1.A Jogi with his hunting dogs

Smashing: Using a flexible twig, the position ofthe sanda in the burrow is determined. Then a large

rock is thrown with great force on the ground at a point just behind the position of the lizard. This

results in the burrow collapsing behind the lizard and thereby preventing it from retreating further

into the tunnel, hence it can be dug out easily.

2.

27


3.~

Noosing: One end of a short length of rope (less than 0.5 m) is made into a noose and set at the mouth

of the burrow, while the other end is weighed down by a heavy rock. The noose is usually set early in

the morning and as the lizard emerges to bask or forage, it gets caught in the noose. Since the rope is

short, and weighed down, the lizard can retreat only a few inches into the burrow. According to the

hunters, the noosed lizard cannot simply be pulled out because it will inflate its body and wedge

itselftightly into the burrow. Instead, it has to be dug out carefully.

Flooding: The lizard is flushed out by pouring water into the burrow and then captured by hand.

Since the burrows are fairly long and the substrate dry, large volumes of water are required to flood

each burrow (up to 5litres) hence this method is often impractical or at best tedious. Several hunters

opined that wetting the substrate actually helps the lizard to dig further and extend the burrow,

thereby evading capture.

Apart from these, the following rarer techniques were also documented:

Snake Mimicry: This unusual method is now used only by some ofthe Naiks. Here, the hunter

approaches the burrow in the evening as soon as the lizard has retired for the day, and brushes the ground

in front of the mouth of the burrow with a bundle of dry grass or peacock feathers. This makes a rustling

sound, similar to that of a snake. In order to defend itself, the lizard supposedly thrashes its spiny tail close

to the mouth ofthe burrow and can be grabbed by the hunter while doing so.

4.

Chasing: At least two people are required to implement this technique. When a sanda is foraging

some distance away from its burrow, one person stealthily approaches the burrow and blocks the opening

with his foot while the other person attempts to catch the lizard by hand. In most cases, the lizard will run

straight back to its own burrow and hence gets caught by the person waiting there. This method is quite

strenuous since U hardwickii can run very fast and in most cases will dive into their burrows well before

the hunter can block off the entrance. It is usually used only by children, more as a game than as a serious

attempt to hunt.

All hunters emphasised that the target burrows need to be approached as noiselessly as possible

to improve capture success. They believe that if the lizard senses the vibration caused by footsteps, or

even hears the sound of breathing it will retreat far into the burrow and hence become more difficult to

capture. Interestingly, though the Jogis often use dogs to hunt fox and monitor lizards, they too prefer to

use the extraction technique while hunting sanda.

28


4.7.2 Trade

At present, there is no open, large-scale trade of this species in western Rajasthan. However,

sanda continue to be caught occasionally for household consumption, more for their allegedly medicinal

properties than as a source of protein, when normally two or three lizards are caught by a family.

Sriganganagar is the only exception to this trend - several Baoris said that 5-6 years ago they had

occasionally bought the meat from Jogis coming from Bikaner since they were unable to find any lizards

in this district. Oflate, even this practice has decreased; one Baori admitted that despite being willing to

pay Rs.l 00 for a kilo of meat (approximately 2 large lizards) last year, he was unable to get any. Most of

them said that about four years ago, two Jogis from Bikaner district had been caught by the Rajasthan

Forest Department in Sriganganagar for trying to smuggle two sackfuls of Uromastyx into the district, and

since then its availability in the black market had declined drastically.

The oil sanda ka tel obtained from the fat, is used as a remedy for joint pains and as an

aphrodisiac; it is claimed that a lizard weighing 100 g can yield about 109 of fat. This is considered a

'lowly' animal so while only members ofthe hunting communities will capture and eat the meat of this

species, many others including educated city-dwellers purchase the oil for its 'medicinal' property.

Therefore, unlike the meat, the oil is sold surreptitiously in many places and may be available hundreds of

kilometres away. In the smaller villages, it is usually obtained by word of mouth. Sanda ka tel fetches

upwards ofRs 100 per tola (1 tola = 11.6 g) but the price varies greatly depending upon the effort that went

into extraction and smuggling of the oil- the latter being proportional to distance from the nearest colony

of Uromastyx. The pure oil is supposedly yellowish in colour, odourless and causes a warm sensation

when rubbed into the skin. It does not congeal even in the desert winter. Because of its similarity, mustard

oil is the preferred adulterant in sanda ka tel. In fact, most hunters opined that traded oil usually had

negligible amounts of the original ingredient. Some respondents mentioned that the oil is also bought by

middle men who later sell it in states as far away as Maharashtra, Bihar (where it is reddish in colour),

Punjab and Uttar Pradesh (especially in New Delhi in the market in front of the Jama Masjid). In Bikaner

and Sriganganagar, the middle men are often truck drivers. One person mentioned that the oil is now

supplied to Bangalore in the southern state of Kama taka as well.

4.7.3 Some Methods of Consumption

In winter, the Bhils make a sabzi ofthe meat and eat it with bajra roti because they believe that it

helps to ward off the cold. The fat bodies (one on either side of the pelvis) melt into oil when heated and are

used as seasoning, or kept aside to be used as medicine.

29


30

A group ofBaoris

The Baoris on the other hand, prefer to eat the meat after roasting it over the fire. Sometimes, this

can make the skull explode so it needs to be done carefully. After roasting, the belly skin is completely

charred and can be scraped off easily. The entrails, fat bodies and nails are removed and the animal roasted

again till it is fully cooked. Finally the tail spines are removed and it is eaten with the thin dorsal skin. The

fat bodies are dissolved into oil to be eaten with the meat, or used later as medicine. Sometimes, the oil is

used to make collyrium (kaja!): the oil is poured into a small lamp which is lit and then covered with a

vessel (usually aparanth). The soot deposited on the vessel is scraped off and brought to the consistency

of an ointment by the addition of more oiL This is later used as collyrium and is believed to improve vision

and make the eyes lustrous.

Chapter 5. Notes on Natural History --

5. Notes on Natural History

5. Colouration

Opportunistic observations were carried out on U. hardwickii colonies in order to gather

information on the natural history of this species. When individuals first emerge from the burrow, they are

dark gray to olive in colour. After basking, they become lighter and are brown-beige in colour, and

the dark vermiculations on the back become clearly visible. In many individuals the body also has minute

flecks of orange colouration and/or the lateral spines of the tail are sky-blue. The patch in front of the thigh

also varies in colour from blackish to sky blue.

U.hardwickii from Kutch, Gujarat

5.2 Behaviour

U. hardwickii appears to possess a strong homing instinct because if disturbed, lizards would run as

far as 50 m back to their own burrow, even if there

were other burrows nearby. From March to May,

several instances of social interaction were

observed and each lasted less than 5 minutes.

These involved two lizards approaching each

other with tails arched upwards and wrestling

until one was flipped onto its back by the other.

The session ended when one or both lizards

moved away from each other.Close-up of U. hardwickii body color, western Rajasthan

31

Chapter 5. Notes on Natural History --

In July, the young were observed to use the elliptical adult burrows (av width 4.2 em, av height 3.7 em, n =

11 9) for shelter; on one occasion upto seven young were seen emerging from a single burrow. The first

juvenile burrows were circular (av width 2.2 em, av height 2.2 em, n =9) and seen almost a month later.

Close-up of U. Irardwickii scat Eagles prey on U. hardwickii but do not consume the tail

5.3 Diet

U. hardwickii were found to feed on herbs such as ghantiya (Dactyloctenium spp, Peganum

harmala), lump (Aristida spp), chapri (Neurada procumbens, Barleria acanthoides), sinoudi (Boerhavia

diffusa), andkanti (Tribulus spp). When feeding, lizards were observed to bite off the entire leaf and then

swallow it, they did not chew foliage. They also consumed flowers of kair (Capparis decidua) by

swallowing them whole. The scat of this species is spindle-shaped and in the case of adult animals, about

2 em in length. Fresh scat is moist, dark green and when dried scat is paler and eventually gets bleached to

a whitish colour by the sun.

5.4 Predators

Predators of U. hardwickii as observed during the survey include the Steppe Eagle (Aquila

nipalensis], Tawny Eagle (Aquila rapa:x), Desert Fox, Earth Boa (Eryxjohnii) and Desert Monitor. As

noted by Abdulali (1960) earlier, the eagles always devoured the entire body, except the tail. In one

instance an unidentified shrike (Lanius spp.) flew across with a Uromastyx tail in its beak but it is

uncertain if the shrike had caught the lizard or was simply carrying away the remains of an eagle kill. In

addition to this, a list of reptiles species recorded from the area have also been listed (Appendix V).

32

Chapter 6. Discussion

6. Discussion~6.1 Abundance and HabitatAssociations of U hardwickii

This species is very patchily distributed in an altitudinal range of70 - 290 msl and overall density

was only 15.25 burrows per ha. Burrow densities were extremely low in the district ofBarmer (1 per ha)

and highest in Jaisalmer (25.85 per ha). Though six large clusters (av density 402.67 burrows per ha) and

numerous smaller ones were examined during the course of the survey, none had any definite shape

contrary to the rectangular or hexagonal arrangement reported by Bhatnagar et al. (1973 b).

With reference to habitat variables, the results of the Kendall's Tau b test of association reaffirm the

pattern of occurrence obtained from the TCS method even though only a low coefficient of correlation

was obtained for individual variables - this could be due to factors such as a non-linear relationship

between the habitat variables and the number of burrows, or the use of sub optimally low number of

categories in measurement of each of the habitat features. But apparently thalar and sandy thalar

substrates best support the presence of this species probably because these are firm (unlike sand) yet not

too hard (unlike muggra) and hence suitable for a burrowing lizard. But there is considerable difference in

the density of burrows even across thalar habitats. For example, Khudi had more than 1000 burrows per

ha while Bap (Jodhpur) had 118 burrows per ha and Gajner (Bikaner) had only 14 burrows per ha. This

may be due to differences in microhabitat such as availability of forage and susceptibility of the burrows

to flooding during the monsoons. Since U. hardwickii was observed to feed on small, herbaceous leaves,

areas with herbs and short grasses (low vegetation cover) probably provide suitable forage and are

therefore positively associated with this species. Its negative association with sandy areas is probably due

to the fact that burrows constructed in sand need to be cleared or re-constructed often and involve a greater

expenditure of energy. Sand is also believed to act as a dispersal barrier to all species of Uromastyx

including those found in Africa and the Middle East (Wilms, 2005). Well-vegetated areas on the other

hand, may be negatively associated with occurrence of this species due to reduced availability of sites for

burrow construction and basking. Agricultural areas too may provide neither a stable substrate for

burrowing (especially during ploughing), nor sufficient food due to the absence of native vegetation

cover whereas irrigation may inundate burrows and render them uninhabitable by U. hardwickii.

It is also important to note that the some of the above-mentioned substrate types are

interchangeable and the classification may change depending upon the season in which sampling is done.

For example, three of the substrate types described here are simply fields at different stages of agricultural

operations (old, tavi and kalti fields) and therefore, depending upon the season, one may get converted

33


into another. For instance just before the monsoons, a tavi field may get ploughed and hence, become a

~kalti field. Further, in summer the strong winds shift a huge amount of sand over fairly long distances

resulting in varying amounts of sand being added to or removed from certain areas. Therefore what

seemed like thaZar earlier could later be described as sandy thalar or vice versa. This marked seasonality

and dynamism of the desert ecosystem needs to be factored in any future attempts to study and model

habitat selection in U hardwickii.

6.2 Past and Current Distribution of U hardwickii

Though earlier considered to be widespread and common in the arid tracts of what is currently

south-eastern Baluchistan in Pakistan to Uttar Pradesh in India (Murray, 1884; Purves, 1915; Smith,

1935; Minton, 1966), U hardwickii is now

considered 'Endangered' in Pakistan (Khan and

Mahmood, 2004), 'Vulnerable' in India (Molur and

Walker, 1998). Since the distribution range appears to

have contracted drastically in both countries, the

north-western districts of Rajasthan and possibly the

Kutch district of Gujarat are the only regions with

substantial populations of this uniquely herbivorous

desert-dwelling lizard (Daniel, 2002; Karthikeya

:ailwM!!;] Chauhan pers. comm.).

In western Rajasthan, this species is uncommon

on the whole because four of the five districts put•.•••... ...,,;,;:=::..•• 1iiJ together (Sriganganagar, Bikaner, Barrner and

Prosopis juliflora-an invasive speciesJodhpur) contributed to only 29% of all sightings

versus the remainder (71%) which was from Jaisalmer district alone (n = 124, see Table 5). Further, U

hardwickii occurs in just two localities in Sriganganagar, both having less than 20 burrows each, and is

largely restricted to the western parts ofBikaner and Jaisalmer. Jodhpur may historically have had fewer

numbers of this species due to lack of suitable habitat (interviews; B. R Bhadu, pers. comm.), and large

clusters were found only in the northern part. In Barrner, the species was recorded from the north-eastern

and north-western parts of the district and the disjunct distribution is probably a result of the catastrophic

floods that were caused by unusually high rainfall (the highest in 200 years) in August 2006 (National

Institute of Disaster Management, 2006). This severe inundation, the signs of which are still evident in

34


IP-anyparts of the district, followed by the recession ofthe flood waters has caused erosion of the top soil

and deposition of large volumes of sand, in what was previously thalar habitat (eg: Shiv, Kanod; pers.

obsv.). Hence it seems likely that even if clusters of U. hardwickii had been found in these areas earlier,

they must have almost completely perished in the floods or shortly thereafter. Since people ar~ only now

beginning to return to these areas, past distribution of U. hardwickii in this district was difficult to

ascertain from interviews and the extent of decline has probably been underestimated.

6.3 Distribution in Protected Areas

The Desert National Park is the only Protected Area in the five districts surveyed in western

Rajasthan, and U. hardwickii is inadequately represented in the existing PA network since most large

clusters lie outside the DNP (see Fig. 10).

Within the DNP, clusters are found mainly in the northern section of the park perhaps because the

terrain becomes progressively more sandy southwards. Further, the abundance of this species seems

particularly low in the fenced grazing exclosures of the DNP as compared to similar unfenced sites within

or near DNP. For example in Rasla, four active burrows were recorded in a belt transect placed inside the

exclosure whereas 33 were found in a belt transect placed less than 50 m from the perimeter of the

exclosure. Further, all large clusters of U hardwickii found within the DNP were located outside the

grazing exclosures.

Several factors may have contributed to this: inadequate sampling of grazing exclosures, the

tendency of U hardwickii to occur in patches, or the difference in habitat structure because grazing is

banned inside the exclosures and hence the height and complexity of vegetation cover is greater. While

this might be a suitable habitat for species like the Great Indian Bustard (for which the exclosures were

primarily constructed and managed), others such as U. hardwickii, which prefer habitats with shorter

vegetation cover, may be more abundant outside the exclosures since these areas are grazed constantly

and hence more open; but further work is required to conclusively prove that grazing per se is not

detrimental to the existence of U hardwicldi. On the other hand, the spread of the exotic Prosopis

juliflora is of definite concern because U hardwicldi is absent in thaZar with dense stands of P.juliflora

(eg: near Kbudi village). This exotic plant not only rapidly reduces openness of the habitat, but also

prevents the growth of native plant species which may in turn reduce food plant availability of herbivores

such as U hardwickii and Chinkara.

35


6.4 Effect of Trade and Exploitation~

Four communities hunt and trade in sanda: Bhils, Naiks and Baoris mainly hunt sanda for their

own consumption, whereas the nomadic Jogis hunt it principally to trade in oil. Trade in the meat of U.

hardwickii seems to be low in volume and based on local demand, and usually restricted to few (2-3)

animals being caught at a time for household consumption. Unlike earlier, when thousands oflizards were

traded in markets (Vyas, 1991), we found no evidence of lizards being sold openly. There have been

seizures of Uromastyx by the Forest Department in the recent past, and there was a high awareness

amongst hunting communities of the protected status of this species. However, trade in the oil needs to be

monitored carefully, since the high commercial value of oil can result in rapid depletion of populations.

On the whole, trade in sanda ka teZseems to be on the decline because it is labour-intensive (about 100

lizards are required to obtain a kilogram of oil) and the risks are high (the Forest Department periodically

monitors the trade and imposes a minimum fine ofRs 250 a lizard).

It appears that across these five communities, a majority of the people are aware that the sanda is a

protected species and hunting is illegal; awareness was highest in Jaisalmer, and much lower in other

areas such as Bikaner where it is mostly large animals such as Chinkara and Blackbuck that are known to

be protected species. In Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, frequent patrolling and the large fines imposed by the

Rajasthan Forest Department seem to be a good deterrent to poaching of sanda.

6.5 Threats to the Species

Habitat loss is the single biggest threat to this species and some of the factors contributing to

reduction or degradation of Uromastyx habitat (i.e. thaZar) are discussed here:

a) Many of the activities associated with the

drive against desertification have on the whole,

an adverse impact on desert fauna, including

lizards (eg: Hawlena and Bouskila, 2006). With

increasing availability of water from the Indira

Gandhi Canal and the intensification of

afforestation and irrigated agriculture in the

canal-fed areas, some regions have lost their

xeric character (eg: Sriganganagar) and

typically desert-dwelling species have been The Indira Gandhi Canal has had an adverse effect

36


replaced by ones that are either generalists or characteristic of more mesic environments (eg: Rahmani

a~ Soni, 1997; Prakash, 1997; Singh, 2004; Faisal and Ahmad, 2005). Specifically, thalar habitats along

the canal have been lost to fields or plantations, the latter sometimes consisting solely of exotic trees such

as Eucalyptus (pers. obsv.) and U. hardwickii seems to have suffered local extirpation in such areas (Table

7; Figs. 5 to 9); as far back as 1915, irrigation of arid regions was believed to be detrimental to U.

hardwickii (purves, 1915).

b) Since thalar offers a stable, level substrate it is often the first area to be used for developmental

activities such as construction of houses, resorts and road-laying (eg: Jaisalmer, Jodhpur) as well as in

camps and off-road exercises conducted by the armed forces (eg: Bikaner). Finally, natural disasters such

as floods also contribute to habitat loss and degradation (eg: Barmer).

These factors cause extensive damage to Uromastyx habitats and local populations as well as

preclude re-colonisation of these areas, they are a greater cause for concern than hunting which is mostly

restricted to a few localities and may cause only a marginal reduction in local population. Moreover it is

poaching for trade in sanda ka teZ,rather than household consumption of meat, that significantly affects

the lizard populations. Unfortunately, the extent of decline in U. hardwickii in these five districts could

not be quantified in the absence of any population estimates in the past.

6.6 Scope for Further Investigation,

Though this survey has significantly contributed to our current understanding of the distribution

and status of U. hardwickii in the Thar Desert information on its diet, behaviour and population dynamics

remains inadequate. Since colonial, burrow-dwelling animals such as rodents have been known to act as

keystone species in arid regions elsewhere (eg: Brown and Reske, 1990; Andersen and Kay, 1999;

Whitford and Kay, 1999), the role of U. hardwickii clusters in shaping the physical characteristics of the

surrounding thaZar habitat, their influence on floristic composition and structure, and effect on

distribution of predators such as the Desert Fox and Tawny Eagle needs to be examined.

The taxonomic status of the populations of western Rajasthan also needs to be reviewed thoroughly

since lizards in this region significantly differ in colouration from those described earlier from India and

Pakistan (Murray, 1884; Smith, 1935; Minton, 1966). Given that polytypy is common in this genus, and

sub-species often vary in colour (eg: Wilms and Bohme, 2000; Wilms and Schmitz, 2007), the

populations of U. hardwickii briefly described here from western Rajasthan may well represent a distinct

sub-species.

37

Chapter 7. Recommendations for Conservation -

7. Recommendations for Conservation1l

Overall, the current status of U. hardwickii is 'Vulnerable' (Molur and Walker, 1998) and its

distribution in western Rajasthan is largely outside the PAnetwork; the same is also true for some of the

most significant populations as identified by the current survey (see Table 8, Fig. 11).As captive breeding

of this species is known to be difficult (Molur and Walker, 1998; Wilms, 2005), the continued survival of

U. hardwickii in this region depends entirely on adequate in situ measures, mainly protection of existing

large colonies and developing an appropriate management plan for thalar habitat. However, we realize

that the demands of increasing urbanisation and development also need to be met, and therefore suggest

that conservation measures focus mainly on the priority areas (Table 8; Fig. 11) identified for each district

so as to prevent further decline of the species.

Table 8. Priority areas for conservation of U hardwickii in western Rajasthan (refer to Figure 11).

District Type of colony Conservation Priority AreaMajor threat

Sriganganagar

Bikaner

Few scattered burrows

Numerous small,

scattered

Nil

a) Pugal- Tharusar-Sattasar-

Binjharwali- Pambanwali

Benaithwala-Surasar-Kamisar

Bamanwali

b) Parivar-Rarngad

c) northern half of Desert

National Park)

d) Ramdevra (DNP exclosure)-Mava

e) Bap-Jamba

f) Bandhra-Harsani (southern DNP)

g) Goonga-Shiv-Bissu Kalan

h) Gangawas

Irrigated agriculture

Poaching, plantation,

agriculture

Jaisalmer Numerous small and

large

Construction, plantation

Jodhpur

Barmer

Some smail, few large

Few smail, one large

Urbanisation, agriculture

Flooding

In addition to the above, we recommend the following conservation action on the ground:

1. Regular patrolling of U. hardwickii areas is required particularly in Bikaner and Barmer. In these

districts, it is difficult to monitor populations at present because they are found in small, dispersed

pockets located between large sand dunes and the Wildlife wing of the Forest Department is

small. Therefore poachers are able to operate undetected even in daylight hours.

Community involvement in protection can make this task easier - for instance in Gangawas

(Barmer), the vigilance oftbe Bishnoi villagers not only prevents poaching ofChinkara but also

of smaller fauna such as sandgrouse and U. hardwickii.

38

Chapter 7. Recommendations for Conservation

Figure 11. Priority areas for conservation of U. hardwickii in western Rajasthan (refer to Table 8);,

Nra

KEYo Conservation Priority Area

o District surveyed

2. The role of inter-state truck movement in trade of U. hardwickii oil also needs to be checked,

particularly in Bikaner and Sriganganagar.

3. The system of imposing heavy fines for poaching of U. hardwickii seems to serve as an effective

deterrent to extensive exploitation, and this procedure needs to be continued in order to make the

trade in Uromastyx increasingly economicallyunviable.

4. Awareness programs need to be conducted to emphasise the uniqueness of desert biodiversity. The

Desert National Park's potential for outreach programs for both visitors and locals, needs to be

tapped.

Periodic surveys are required to monitor the distributional range and abundance of this unique

species. Long-term ecological studies also need to be conducted to understand population dynamics,

behaviour and dispersal, as well as the role of U. hardwickii as prey base for desert-dwelling predators

ranging from Tawny Eagles to Desert Faxes.

39

Chapter 7. Recommendations for Conservation -

Finally, at the policy level we believe that implementation of the recommendations made earlier by1l

the XI Planning Commission's Task Force on grasslands and deserts (Anon., 2006) are critical to conserve

not only U hardwickii but also the entire spectrum of flora and fauna that inhabit the Thar Desert. The

Task Force has identified some of the key actions required including: declaration of grasslands as 'deemed

forest' and therefore making them legally protected under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;

demarcation of critical areas of grasslands and desert as ecologically fragile zones; finalisation of the

Greater Thar Desert Biosphere Reserve and formation of a National Grazing Policy by which certain

. grasslands can be managed as community protected areas using traditional knowledge, and used in a

sustainable manner.

40

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Shankarnarayan, K.A. 1988. Ecological Degradation of the Thar Desert and Eco-regeneration.In: Desert Ecology (ed: Prakash, L) 1-13pp, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Smith, M.A. 1935. The Fauna of British India. VoLIT: Sauria. Francis & Taylor, London. 440 pp,UNEP, 2006. Global Deserts Outlook (Ed: Ezcurra, E.). Division of early warning and assessment. Kenya: Nairobi. 164 pp.Vyas, R. 1991. Notes on capture of the Spiny-tailed Lizard (Uromastyx hardwickii) in Gujarat. Hamadryad 15:28.Wada, N., Narita, K., Kumar, S. and Furukawa, A. 1995. Impact of overgrazing on seed predation by rodents in the Thar Desert,

northwestern India. Ecological Research 10:217-221.Whitaker, R. and Captain.A. 2004. Snakes of India. The Field Guide. Draco Books, Chennai. 500 pp.Whitford, W.G. and Kay, F.R1999. Biopedturbation by mammals in deserts: a review. Journal ofArid Environments 41: 205-232.Wilms, T. and Bohrne, W. 2000. A new Uromastyx species from south-eastern Arabia, with comments on the taxonomy of Uromastyxaegyptia(Forskal, 1775). Herpetozoa 13: 133-148.Wilms, T. 2005. Uromastyx. Natural History, Captive Care, Breeding. Germany: Herpeton. 143pp.Wilms, T. and Schmitz, A. 2007. A new polytypic species of the genus Uromastyx Merrem 820 (Reptilia: Squamata: Agamidae:Leiolepidinae) from southwestern Arabia .Zootaxa 2007: 1-23.

* Not seen in the original

Appendices

Appendix ILt oflocations with U hardwickii.

District Locations with U. hardwickii identified byI. TCS I belt transect II. Chance encounters

Sriganganagar 1. near Gujarana2. Shivni3. Bajju-Bhadiya4. BamanwaIi5. Bandrawala-Merasar6. Benaithwala-Surasar7. Binjharwali-Pambanwali8. Dantor-Gangajali9. Devasar-Mirvana10. GajnerII. Jalwali12. Karnana13. Kamisar-Bajju14. Mehrana-Jaitsar15. Merasar-682 RD16. Salundia17. Surasar-Bandrawala18. Surasar-Karnisar19. Uchchrangdesar20.140 RD-Sarn21. 193 RD-Dhanana22. Asutar-140 RD23. Badoda-Baghu ka ganv24. Baghu ka ganv-Bhairva25. Bago ki dani26. Baldadon ki basti27. Barana28. Bersiala29. Bhadasar30. Bida-Faledi31. Chandu32. Changaniyon ki basti33. Chatrail-Badhasar34. Chatrail-Khuchdi35. Chauhano ki dani-Dhaneli36. Dabri fata37. Damodra-Mool Sagar38. Devikot-Rasla39. Dhujasar-Darnodra40. Dobha41. Ghotaru-Longewala42. Gunjangad43. Habur44. Haranau-Navthala45. Jalandhari46. Jogidas ka ganv

5. Bainsra-Luna Khund6. Bake ka keth7. Bhilon ki basti8. Bhu ka par9. Chandan-Basanappi10. Devada11. Dhursar12. Hamiron ki basti13. Jakob ki dani14. Jhamare ka parIS. Kala Doongar16. Kesuon ki basti17. Khaba-Guria18. Kumharkota-Sipla19. Nakrava20. Nathji ka tanka21. Rabon ka par22. Ramdevra23. Sagaron ki basti24. Sattar ki dani25. Sobha ki dani26. Sudasari27. Ujalan

Bikaner 1. Baslai Jodi2. Kankaralia3. Khiyeran4. Lakhusar

Jaisalmer

43

Jodhpur

47. Kabir basti-Naga48. Khair Singh ki dani49. Khuchdi50. Khudi51. Koria52. Lakhmanon ki basti53. Lanela-Katodi54. Lila Parivar55. Loharki-Ajasar56. Lolai57. Lunar58. Malanbai ka mandir59. Mannada-Kamal ki dani60. Mava61. Mir ka dani62. Mokla-Sultana63. Moti Kila-Selath64. Mulana-Badoda65. Murar66. Mussooria67. Nimbla68. Raghva-Seuva69. Ramgad70. Rasla-Sakhda71. Rawla72. Salehi ka tubewell73. Salkha-Dhujasar74. Sam75. Sam enclosure A76.Sanu77.Satto78. Selath79. Serava80. Siyambar81. Sultana-Parivar82. Thura school83. Turkai ki basti84. Bap-Jamba85. Khidva-Bap86. Shekhasar-Raneri87. Bandhda-Pipali88. Bariyada89. Bhu ka par90. Bisukalan-Shiv91. Chapri-Bisala92. Gadra Road93. Goonga-Devka94. HadiyaJa ki dani95. line ki basti96. Khabdala97. Manihari enclosure B98. Talaniyon ki dani99. Thudbi-Harsani

28. Dedasari29. Ratnada-Selanada30. Thadiya31. Bada Singh ki dani32. Dharvi33. Gangawas

Appendices

District Locations with U. hardwickii identified byI. TCS I belt transect II. Chance encounters

Barmer

44

"""1-'

I

Appendices

Appendixll~

List of habitat variables measured.

Variable Level of measurement Categories

0 o burrows

I 1-9 burrows

2 10-19 burrows

3 > 19 burrows

0 absent

1 present

0 bare

1 upto 25%

2 26-50%

3 51-75%

4 75-100%

actual counts upto 5 shrubs

6 >5

actual counts upto 5 trees

6 >5

Grazing

Agriculture

Plantation

Habitation

*used in Kendall's Tau b test of association.

Location

Altitude

Time taken

No. of active burrows*

GPS coordinates

Interval

Interval

Ordinal

All substrate types* Ordinal

45

Herbs and short grasses* Ordinal

Tall shrubs* Interval

Trees* Interval

Human activity

(within 100 m of belt

location)

Interval

Appendices

Appendix III11

List of interviews conducted with members of Uromastyx - hunting communities.

District Place CommunitylProfession Number of respondents

Sriganganagar Near Sriganganagar Bavari

Anupgad Bavari

Ramjiwala Bavari 30 to 40

Ganganagar Bihari cobbler

43 STG Bavari 10 to 20

Bikaner Rang Mahal Jogi 3

Lunkaransar Jogi 3

682RD Nayak

Bhil 4to 10

Mithriya Nayak 5

Kolayat Satiya

Jaisalmer Ramdevra Jogi

Lanela Bhil 5

Sam Bhil 2

Jaisalmer market Bhil 2

Jaisalmer market Beldhar

Jodhpur Jodhpur market Cobbler

Shopkeepers 4

Barmer Chohtan market Jogi 2

Shiv Jogi 2

Harsani Jogi 3

46

Appendices ---

Appendix IV~ A Baori Folktale

Among all the animals that live in the desert, the camel despite his large size, has a reputation for

being simple-minded. One winter, as the animals sat around the fire chatting, the camel got into an

argument with the sanda as to which of them had the greater stamina - "I'm the ship of the desert, and I can

go for days without food and water" said the camel. The sanda instead of being impressed, simply

laughed at him and said "Such a large animal and you talk in terms of days! Why, I can go for months

without food and water!"

They kept arguing back and forth, each boasting about his strengths until finally, in order to resolve

the dispute they agreed to have a test of endurance - the two animals agreed that from the next day

onwards, they would neither eat nor drink until the end of winter and whoever fasted till spring would be

the winner. The next morning, the sanda prepared for the contest by digging a comfortable new burrow

for himself, while the camel padded his hump by eating and drinking as much as he could. Then, just as the

contest was about to begin, the sanda said "0 camel, I'm going to spend the next few months inside this

burrow and if you sit near its mouth, you can keep an eye on me and see that I don't cheat by nibbling a

little grass now and then. Similarly, I will tie a rope to your neck and take the other end with me into the

burrow so that you can't go off to graze in the night. Is that alright?" The unsuspecting camel thought it

was a fair deal and agreed.

What the camel didn't know was that the sanda retires into its burrow to sleep every single winter.

During that time, it never emerges and survives by licking the mud off the walls of the burrow. So that

winter too, the sanda shut himself into the burrow and whenever he got hungry he took a lick or two of the

mud walls whereas the poor camel sitting outside got hungrier and hungrier, weaker and weaker.

Finally by the time winter ended and the wily sanda emerged from his burrow, the camel had died

of hunger. And that's why the desert people believe that though the sanda is much smaller than the camel,

he's definitely cleverer!

47

Appendices

~ AppendixVReptile species encountered.

Common name Scientific name Sriganganagar Bikaner JaisaLmer Jodhpur Barmer

Brilliant Agama Trape/us agilis + + +

Bengal Monitor* Varanus bengalensis + ? ? +

Indian Desert Monitor* Varanus griseus + + +

Earth BoalRed Sand Boa* Eryxjohnii + +

Indian Fringe-toed Lizard* Acanthodactylus cantoris + + +

Indian Sandfish* Ophiomorus raithmai + +

Glossy-bellied Racer* Coluber ventromaculatus +

Laungwala Toad-headed Lizard* Bufoniceps laungwalaensis +

Northern House Gecko Hemidactylus flaviviridis + + +

Red-Spotted Royal Snake* Spalerosophis arenarius + +

Saw-scaled Viper* Echis carinatus + +

Sindh Sand Gecko* Crossobamon orienta lis +

Snake-eyed Lacerta Ophisops jerdoni +

+ indicates presence, * indicates presence in DNP, indicates absence and? indicates probable occurrence.

(Identification and nomenclature from Minton, 1966; Das, 2002; Das, 2003; Whitaker and Captain, 2004).

48

Status and distribution of the Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard Uromastyx hardwickii in the Thar Desert, western Rajasthan

Documents

dcf bikaner

thar desert

dcf barmer

active burrows

indraj singh

bhoop singh

partap singh

dcf sriganganagar