Springer Author Academy€¦ · Welcome to the Springer Author Academy, a guide from Springer and Edanz on the basics of writing and publishing a scientific manuscript. You can use

Springer Author Academy

Welcome to the Springer Author Academy, a guide from Springer and Edanz on the basics of writing and

publishing a scientific manuscript. You can use the links to the right or below to find advice on specific

topics.

Before you begin, it may be useful to remind yourself of why publishing your work is important. You

might need to publish in order to graduate, get a job, or advance your career. But first take a moment to

think about two of the most important aims of scientists:

To add to the body of human knowledge To help yourself and others understand the nature of the universe

You can’t accomplish these goals without publishing! After all, the main way that others learn about

your work is through your published articles. If you don’t publish, other researchers can’t build on your

work; it will be as if you never did the research.

In other words: Your research is NOT complete until it has been published

Overview

Why publish in English? Why is good writing important? What do journal editors want? Types of journal manuscripts

Why publish in English?

Because English is the language scientists in different countries use to communicate with each other,

publishing in English allows you to reach the broadest possible audience. This will help you achieve the

goal that led you to publish in the first place: To add to our understanding of the world by informing

other scientists about your research.

Of course, if English is not your first language, having to use it may add to the challenges of writing and

publishing.

Why is good writing important? Concise writing Comparisons Proper nouns Articles

Use of 'respectively' Numerals and units Spelling Punctuation

Why is good writing important?

Good writing is writing that clearly communicates your research. Scientists are busy people, so if your

manuscript is poorly written and difficult to understand, they may not take the time to read it (or cite it

later). Not only does writing well help others understand what you’ve done, it will also help you to

better understand your own work.

Science is complex, but the writing used to describe it need not be. Good writing is simple writing.

High-quality, simple writing:

Increases the chances of acceptance for publication Increases the impact of a manuscript in the research community Accelerates understanding and acceptance of the research Increases the faith of readers in the quality of the research

Poorly written and complicated manuscripts annoy readers, peer reviewers, and journal editors, and

hinder their understanding of complicated scientific concepts.

Concise writing

Concise writing

Clear Concise Accurate

When writing your manuscript, be as brief as possible without omitting essential details.

Keep it simple! Simple language is usually clearer; it is more precise and concise than complex language.

Though you will often be describing something that is sophisticated, using unnecessarily complicated

language will confuse the reader and weaken your message.

Ways to keep your manuscript clear, concise, and precise:

Only one idea per sentence Use the active voice, not the passive voice, when possible

Delete unnecessary or vague words and replace them with more specific words Avoid circular sentences and redundancies

TIP!

The Purdue Online Writing Lab is a fantastic writing resource and has many more examples of how to

make your writing concise.

Comparisons (between, among, like, with, than)

Comparisons are frequently made in the Results sections of papers. When making a comparison,

remember to:

Compare “like” with “like” Avoid being vague – be as specific as possible Words such as “reduced,” “increased,” and “decreased” can only be used to compare something

to the way it was before, not to compare two different things. To compare two different things (e.g., groups of patients), use words such as “higher,” “shorter,” or “more”

Use “between” when comparing two things, but “among” for comparisons of more than two things

Examples:

BAD: The material from the riverbank was compared with the landfill.

GOOD: The material from the riverbank was compared with that from the landfill.

It doesn’t make sense to compare material to a landfill. Instead, we need to compare like with like – that

is, material from the riverbank with material from the landfill.

GOOD: Expression levels of p53 in smokers were compared with p53 levels in non-smokers.

BETTER: Expression levels of p53 in smokers were compared with those in non-smokers.

Here “those” means “expression levels of p53.” It’s best not to repeat the same words in a sentence,

since it can bore readers.

BAD: Reactions with the new machine were faster.

GOOD: Reactions with the new machine were faster than those with the old machine.

The first sentence makes the reader wonder “Faster than what?”

BAD: In our study, time until eating and inpatient time after surgery were reduced in the L Group

compared with the T Group.

GOOD: In our study, time until eating and inpatient time after surgery were shorter in the L Group than

in the T Group.

“Reduced” cannot be used to compare two different things.

Proper nouns

A noun is a word that refers to a person, thing, or idea. A proper noun is the specific name of a person,

organization, or location. Proper nouns always have their first letter capitalized.

Examples:

The first and last names of a person:

Gillian Welch, Steve Jobs, Derk Haank, Hillary Clinton

Names of companies and organizations:

World Wildlife Fund, United Nations, Volkswagen, Springer

Countries and cities:

Australia, India, Germany, New York, London, Beijing

Months of the year, days of the week

January, Monday

Examples of when not to capitalize:

Nouns that refer to more than one thing:

The experiment was performed at two centers

(see tables 3 and 4)

Names of chemicals or generic drugs:

acetaminophen, benzene

Articles

There are three articles in English: a, an, and the. These are classified as indefinite (a and an) or definite

(the).

Indefinite articles refer to something not specifically known to the person you are communicating with.

In other words, a and an are used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not

mentioned before.

Examples:

"I witnessed an eclipse this morning."

"I wrote a laboratory report before lunch."

A and an are also used when talking about your profession.

Examples:

"I am an ethicist."

"I am a scientist."

Use a when the noun you are referring to starts with a consonant sound when pronounced. Examples:

“a city”, “a factory”, “a hotel”, “a university”

If the word begins with a vowel sound when pronounced, then use an. Examples:

“an hour”, “an umbrella”, “an owl”, “an igloo”.

Use the when you know that the reader or listener knows or can identify what particular person or thing

you are discussing. Examples:

“The results were confirmed.”

"Did you unlock the door?"

You should also use the when the thing you are discussing has been mentioned previously; e.g.,

“Each vector encoded a protein with a different reporter molecule. The size of the protein was..."

We also use the when talking about geographical features. Examples:

“the Tropic of Capricorn”, “the English channel”, “the Himalayas”.

We also use the preceding certain nouns when it is known that there is only one of something. Examples:

“the sun”, “the world”, “the Imperial Palace”

Use of respectively

‘Respectively’ is an adverb that is often misused by non-native English speakers. Use 'respectively' only if

your sentence would be unclear without it.

For example:

If we wanted to describe this data in the text of a manuscript, it would be written as:

Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen detector flows were set at 85, 7, and 4 mL/min, respectively.

This makes it clear that the first gas mentioned goes with the first number, the second gas goes with the

second number, etc.

More examples:

BAD: The two values were 143.2 and 21.6, respectively.

GOOD: The two values were 143.2 and 21.6.

BAD: The two tubes were labeled B and S, respectively.

GOOD: The tubes containing blood and saline were labeled B and S,

respectively.

Numerals and units

Spell out numbers one through nine, except in the case of units of measure or time. For these, and for

values of 10 and higher, use Arabic numerals. Always spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence if

the sentence cannot be rearranged to avoid starting with a number.

Example:

Fifteen days previously… NOT 15 days previously…

For a mixture of numbers in one sentence, use a consistent number style.

Example:

The sample included 34 men with type A blood, 15 with type B, and 3 with type AB.

Use different number styles when putting two numbers next to each other.

Example:

Five 50-kg women, NOT 5 50-kg women

TIP!

The AMA Manual of Style is a good guide to the use of numerals and units.

Spacing

Generally, in the life sciences there should be no space between a numeral and a percent sign: 48%. In the physical sciences, a space is sometimes included: 48 %. Check the instructions to authors or sample reports in your target journal.

Use a space between a numeral and a unit of measurement: 178 mm.

Decimals

Use a zero before a decimal point, e.g., 0.28 mL, except when reporting P values: P = .04.

Rates, proportions and fractions

Use a virgule (/) for proportions, and a colon (:) for ratios: Spell out fractions that modify nouns: When writing a range or series, give the unit after the final item:

BAD: 25 mg–30 mg

GOOD: 25–30 mg

Do not insert a space on either side of an en-dash (–):

BAD:

GOOD:

Spelling

Should you use UK or US spelling?

American journals usually require US spelling and British journals usually require UK spelling, but many

journals accept either form. If the journal’s Instructions for Authors do not specify which to use, just

remember to be consistent with the spellings throughout your manuscript.

Formatting your manuscript

Examples:

Tip!

Microsoft Word can help you with correct spellings. Simply select all of the text, then go to

Tools>Language and choose the kind of English you want to use. Misspelled words should now be

underlined in red — if not, be sure to turn on “Check spelling as you type” under Preferences > Spelling

and Grammar.

Formatting your manuscript

It is important to format your manuscript according to your target journal’s requirements, which can be

found in the Instructions for Authors. This will speed up the submission process because the journal’s

editorial team will not have to send your manuscript back to you for formatting. It can also increase

your chances of success because you will not omit materials that the journal might require, and editors

will see you as more professional. For Springer journals, simply find the Springer webpage for the journal

and click on the “Instructions for Authors” link in the column on the right side of the screen.

TIP!

Before writing a complete draft of your manuscript, it is a good idea to select an initial target journal.

Read the formatting requirements for the journal on its website, THEN write your draft. This could save

you a lot of time, as you won’t have to reformat an already-written manuscript after selecting the

journal!

Review all guidelines and ensure that your manuscript meets them. Have you:

Obeyed all word and character limits (title, running title, abstract, manuscript text)? Included all required sections? Met language requirements (US or UK English)? Supplied all requested contact information? Inserted figures in the correct location (in text, end of manuscript, separate files)? Correctly formatted references? Used the correct file format for your images (.jpg, .png, .pdf, .ppt)? Stated ANY conflicts of interest? Obtained consent from ALL authors?

TIP!

Some journals provide templates to assist authors. Also look for template style files for use with your

reference manager.

References

References

References serve many purposes in a scientific manuscript. They:

Establish where ideas came from Give evidence for claims Connect readers to other research Provide a context for your work Show that there is interest in this field of research

TIP!

Using a reference manager will help you keep track of publications that you have reviewed. These tools

also make it easy to format, add, and remove references in your manuscript.

Because references have an important role in many parts of a manuscript, failure to sufficiently cite

other work can reduce your chances of being published. Every statement of fact or description of

previous findings requires a supporting reference.

TIP!

Be sure to cite publications whose results disagree with yours. Not citing conflicting work will make

readers wonder whether you are really familiar with the research literature. Citing conflicting work is

also a chance to explain why you think your results are different.

It is also important to be concise. You need to meet all the above needs without overwhelming the

reader with too many references—only the most relevant and recent articles need to be cited. There is

no correct number of references for a manuscript, but be sure to check the journal’s guidelines to see

whether it has limits on numbers of references.

TIP!

Never cite a publication based on what you have read in a different publication (such as a review), or

based only on the publication’s abstract. These may mislead you and, importantly, readers. Read the

publication itself before you cite it, and then check the accuracy of the citation again before submitting

your manuscript.

Establishing the origin of ideas

When you refer to an idea or theory, it is important to let your readers know which researcher(s) came

up with the idea. By citing publications that have influenced your own work, you give credit to the

authors and help others evaluate the importance of a particular publications. Acknowledging others’

contributions is also an important ethical principle.

Justify claims

In a scientific manuscript, all statements must be supported with evidence. This evidence can come from

the results of the current research, common knowledge, or from previous publications. A citation after a

claim makes it clear which previous study supports the claim.

Connect with other research

Researchers use forward and reverse citations to find manuscripts related to those they have already

read. So when you cite others’ manuscripts, you increase the visibility of your own.

Provide a context for your work

By highlighting related works, citations help show how a manuscript fits into the bigger picture of

scientific research. When readers understand what previous studies found and what puzzles or

controversies your study relates to, they will better understand the meaning of your work.

Show there is interest your field of research

Citations show that other researchers are performing work similar to your own. Having current citations

will help journal editors see that there is a potential audience for your manuscript.

Publication ethics

Publication ethics

Ethical standards for publication exist to ensure high-quality scientific publications, public trust in

scientific findings, and that people receive credit for their ideas. It is important to avoid:

Data fabrication and falsification:

Data fabrication means the researcher did not actually do the study, but made up data. Data

falsification means the researcher did the experiment, but then changed some of the data. Both

of these practices make people distrust scientists. If the public is mistrustful of science then it

will be less willing to provide funding support.

Plagiarism:

Taking the ideas and work of others without giving them credit is unfair and dishonest. Copying

even one sentence from someone else’s manuscript, or even one of your own that has

previously been published, without proper citation is considered plagiarism—use your own

words instead.

Multiple submissions:

It is unethical to submit the same manuscript to more than one journal at the same time. Doing

this wastes the time of editors and peer reviewers, and can damage the reputation of journals if

published in more than one.

Redundant publications (or ‘salami’ publications):

This means publishing many very similar manuscripts based on the same experiment. It can

make readers less likely to pay attention to your manuscripts.

Improper author contribution or attribution:

All listed authors must have made a significant scientific contribution to the research in the

manuscript and approved all its claims. Don’t forget to list everyone who made a significant

scientific contribution, including students and laboratory technicians. The International

Committee of Medical Journal Editors has detailed guidelines on authorship that are useful for

scientists in all fields:

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors

TIP!

Tools like CrossCheck make it easy for journals to identify researchers that engage in unethical behavior.

Don’t risk being caught! Remember: If you behave unethically, you will eventually be caught.

CrossCheck

Remember: if you behave unethically, you will eventually be caught.

Punctuation

The colon “:” and semicolon “;” are two punctuation marks that are often misused.

A colon is used to introduce a list or a clause that explains the clause before the colon.

Example:

There are a number of Springer journals that accept manuscripts dealing with organic chemistry:

Organic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters, Chemistry of Natural Compounds, the Journal of Molecular

Modeling, and The Protein Journal.

Semicolons are used in two ways:

To separate two independent clauses (clauses that could be complete sentences by themselves) if you do not use a connecting word like “and” or “while” between them.

To separate items in a list if some items in the list have commas within them. In other words, semicolons are used instead of commas if commas would be confusing.

Examples:

The volcano erupted unexpectedly; magma flowed toward three major cities at an alarming rate.

These two clauses could be separate sentences: “The volcano erupted unexpectedly. Magma was flowing

towards three major cities at an alarming rate.” However, the semicolon suggests that there is a

relationship between these two sentences. You can usually tell from the context what the actual

relationship is.

She works all day as a nurse in a retirement home; in addition, she is studying in the evenings to become

a doctor.

Dr. Benaud is a French researcher; however, he lives in Antarctica.

Thousands of mites crossed the barrier from region A to region B every hour; therefore, it was not

possible to count all of them.

Our main findings were that uninsured patients are most likely to visit the emergency room for their

health care needs; that children, the elderly, and the unemployed are the groups most affected by lack

of insurance; and that the uninsured are a heavy burden on hospitals.

What do journal editors want?

Journal editors evaluate submissions and consider peer reviewers’ advice. It is the journal editors who

make the final decision about what gets published. Therefore, it is important to know how they make

their decisions.

Journal editors want to publish good quality science that is of interest to their readers. They often must

decide between many high-quality manuscripts. Your submission is more likely to be accepted if it:

Describes research that advances the field Is carefully prepared and formatted Uses clear and concise language Follows ethical standards

TIP!

A well-written cover letter is your chance to explain why the manuscript will be of interest to a journal’s

readers.

Cover letters

Identifying hot topics for research

Making smart decisions about what to study is critical to a successful research career, and can be one of

the hardest challenges for a scientist.

A hot topic is any research area that many people will find interesting. It can be:

A puzzling phenomenon An unsolved mystery about the world A new technology A problem needing better solutions

The ability to identify hot topics can help you:

Make decisions about what to study Obtain funding for research Identify top researchers in your field Find important publications Explain to others why your work is important

One good method for finding hot topics is to look for issues that cause problems for other researchers.

Begin by searching for and reading literature in your field. Start with general interest journals, but don’t

limit yourself to journal publications only; you can also look for clues in the news or on research blogs.

Once you have identified a few interesting topics, read journal manuscripts related to that area of work.

Review papers are extremely helpful for this purpose.

If possible, communicate with some of the authors of these manuscripts. Often, talking with the author

of an important work in your research area will give you more ideas than just reading the manuscript

would. Going to conferences is a great way to meet some of these authors.

Once you have set your research goals, use your unique skills and resources to address the challenges in

the field. This will help you produce timely manuscripts of interest to a large audience.

Formatting your manuscript

It is important to format your manuscript according to your target journal’s requirements, which can be

found in the Instructions for Authors. This will speed up the submission process because the journal’s

editorial team will not have to send your manuscript back to you for formatting. It can also increase

your chances of success because you will not omit materials that the journal might require, and editors

will see you as more professional. For Springer journals, simply find the Springer webpage for the journal

and click on the “Instructions for Authors” link in the column on the right side of the screen.

TIP!

Before writing a complete draft of your manuscript, it is a good idea to select an initial target journal.

Read the formatting requirements for the journal on its website, THEN write your draft. This could save

you a lot of time, as you won’t have to reformat an already-written manuscript after selecting the

journal!

Review all guidelines and ensure that your manuscript meets them. Have you:

Obeyed all word and character limits (title, running title, abstract, manuscript text)? Included all required sections? Met language requirements (US or UK English)? Supplied all requested contact information? Inserted figures in the correct location (in text, end of manuscript, separate files)? Correctly formatted references? Used the correct file format for your images (.jpg, .png, .pdf, .ppt)? Stated ANY conflicts of interest? Obtained consent from ALL authors?

Types of journal manuscripts

There are several different types of journal manuscripts, including Rapid Communications, Original

Research, Review Articles, and Case Studies.

Original Research:

This is the most common type of journal manuscript. It may be called an Original Article, Research

Article, or just Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many

different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and

Discussion sections.

Rapid Communications:

These papers communicate findings that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and

that will likely stimulate further research in the field. Rapid Communications are usually published soon

after submission to the journal, so this format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive

(for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict

length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original

Research manuscript.

Many journals also refer to this type of manuscript as a Letter.

Review Articles:

Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on

the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline

after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers

looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100

primary research articles.

TIP!

If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to send a

presubmission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend

time writing it.

Case Studies:

These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make

other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is

often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies.

Before you begin

Identifying hot topics for research Study design Reference managers

Study design

You must have a good study design to get publishable results. When designing an experiment you will

need to decide:

What is your hypothesis or research question? What are the aim(s) of your study? What are the best methods for achieving your aims? Do you have the necessary resources to carry out your methods? Which positive and negative controls will you use? Do you have the required ethics and regulatory permissions? For example, if your experiment

will have human subjects, you will probably need approval from your institution’s review board. Will your experiment have enough statistical power to give useful results? Is your sample size

large enough to draw valid conclusions? Which statistical tests will you use for your analysis? If you are not sure, consult a statistician; they can provide you with expert advice that may save you a lot of time.

Reference managers

Reference managers (or reference formatting software such as BibTeX for LaTeX documents) make it

easy to organize and format citations. They can also assist with managing libraries containing citations,

PDFs, and image files. This allows you to organize important manuscripts by subject and to search your

library using keywords. This will help you remember to appropriately cite manuscripts that you have

read.

Some widely used reference management and formatting software applications are:

BibTeX EndNote Mendeley Papers RefWorks Zotero

Choosing a journal

How to choose a target journal

TIP!

When using a reference manager, make sure you have the correct style file for your target journal.

Formatting references using a reference manager with a style file is very simple.

How to choose a target journal

Submitting a manuscript to an unsuitable journal is a common mistake, and can cause journal editors to

reject the manuscript without even sending it for peer review. Choosing a journal that matches your

study is thus very important because it makes it more likely that your manuscript will be accepted. Some

factors to consider are:

The topics the journal publishes. If your research is applied, you should target a journal that publishes applied science; if it is clinical, you should target a clinical journal; if it is basic research, you should target a journal that publishes basic research.

The journal’s target audience. If you think researchers in other fields will be interested in your study, a journal that covers a broad range of topics may be best. On the other hand, if only researchers in your field are likely to want to read your study, then a field-specific journal would be best.

The types of articles the journal publishes. For example, if you want to publish a Review Article, find out whether the journal publishes these. If you wish to present a case study or a theorem, ensure that the journal you are targeting actually publishes the type of manuscript you wish to write.

Length restrictions. Does the journal limit the number of words in the articles it publishes? Can your manuscript meet its requirements?

The reputation of the journal. A journal’s impact factor is only one measure of its reputation, but not always the most important. You need to consider the prestige of the authors that publish in the journal, and the size of the journal’s readership. Objectively consider how important your research is and what level of journal it is best suited for; otherwise, you may find yourself wasting your valuable time submitting to one journal after another.

Other factors to consider: Does the journal usually publish articles quickly; is the “time to publication” important for you? Would you prefer an open access journal that might give much greater exposure to a wider audience?

Types of journal manuscripts

You should put some thought into choosing your target journal before you start writing your manuscript.

When looking for suitable journals in which to publish your own results, start with what you have read.

You should already be familiar with published studies that are similar to yours. Which journal were

those studies published in? The same journals may be appropriate for your manuscript, so make a list of

them. If you need more journals to consider, you can do literature searches for other published articles

in your field that are similar in scope and impact on the field, and see where they were published.

When you have a list of potential target journals, visit and read the websites for these journals. Every

journal should have a page that provides instructions or guidelines for authors, including information on

many of the factors listed above.

More on instructions for authors

Journals on your list that are not a match for your manuscript based on the factors listed above should

be eliminated from consideration. Among the remaining journals, it is likely that one or more will stand

out as a very good candidate. Consider if any additional experiments will give you a better chance of

achieving publication in your top choice. If you are in a hurry to publish, consider which of the remaining

journals offers rapid publication; if none do, consider which has the highest publication frequency. If

your main goal is to reach as many readers as possible, strongly consider candidate journals that provide

an open access option. Open access allows anyone to read your article, free of charge, online, which

can make your article more likely to be read and cited.

When you have chosen the journal you think is the best fit for your study and your goals, it is usually a

good idea to also identify your second- and third-choice journals. That way, if your paper is rejected

from your first-choice journal, you can quickly submit to your second-choice journal.

More on revising your paper after peer review

Revising your paper and responding to reviewer comments

When revising your manuscript and responding to peer review comments:

Address all points raised by the editor and reviewers Describe the revisions to your manuscript in your response letter Perform any additional experiments or analyses the reviewers recommend (unless you feel that

they would not make your paper better; if this is the case, explain why in your response letter) Provide a polite and scientific rebuttal to any points or comments you disagree with Differentiate between reviewer comments and your responses in your letter Clearly show the major revisions in the text, either with a different color text, by highlighting the

changes, or with Microsoft Word’s Track Changes feature Return the revised manuscript and response letter within the time period the editor tells you

Examples:

Reviewer comment: “In your analysis of the data you have chosen to use a somewhat obscure fitting

function (regression). In my opinion, a simple Gaussian function would have sufficed. Moreover, the

results would be more instructive and easier to compare to previous results.”

Response in agreement with the reviewer: “We agree with the reviewer’s assessment of the analysis.

Our tailored function does make it impossible to fully interpret the data in terms of the prevailing

theories. In addition, in its current form, we agree it would be difficult to tell that this measurement

constitutes a significant improvement over previously reported values. We have therefore re-analyzed

the data using a Gaussian fitting function.”

Response disagreeing with the reviewer: “We agree with the reviewer that a simple Gaussian fit would

facilitate comparison with the results of other studies. However, our tailored function allows for the

analysis of the data in terms of the Smith model [Smith et al, 1998]. We have added two sentences to

the paper (page 3, paragraph 2) to explain the use of this function and Smith’s model.”

Note that in both comments (agreeing and disagreeing) the author is polite and shows respect for the

reviewer’s opinion. Also, in both circumstances the author makes a change to the manuscript that

addresses the reviewer’s question.

Remember, the reviewer is probably a highly knowledgeable person. If their suggestion is incorrect, it is

likely because they misunderstood your manuscript, indicating that you should make your text clearer.

TIP!

Use our Response letter template to make writing your reply easier.

Response letter template

Structuring your manuscript

Overview of IMRaD Structure The importance of titles Abstract and keywords Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion and Conclusions Acknowledgments References

Overview of IMRaD structure

IMRaD refers to the standard structure of the body of scientific manuscripts (after the Title and

Abstract):

Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion and Conclusions

Not all journals use these section titles in this order, but most published articles have a structure similar

to IMRaD. This standard structure:

Gives a logical flow to the content Makes journal manuscripts predictable and easy to read Provides a “map” so that readers can quickly find content of interest in any manuscript Reminds authors what content should be included

BUT… although the sections of the journal manuscript are published in the order: Title, Abstract,

Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion, this is NOT the best order for

writing the sections of a manuscript. One strategy is to write your manuscript in the following order:

1. Materials and Methods 2. Results

These can be written first, as you are doing your experiments and collecting the results.

3. Introduction 4. Discussion 5. Conclusion

Write these sections next, once you have decided on your target journal.

6. Title 7. Abstract

Write your Title and Abstract based on all the other sections

Following this order will help you write a logical and consistent manuscript.

Use the different sections of a manuscript to ‘tell a story’ about your research and its implications.

The importance of titles

The title of your manuscript is usually the first introduction readers have to your published work.

Therefore, you must select a title that grabs attention, accurately describes the contents of your

manuscript, and makes people want to read further.

An effective title should:

Convey the main topics of the study Highlight the importance of the research Be concise Attract readers

Writing a good title for your manuscript can be challenging. First, list the topics covered by the

manuscript. Try to put all of the topics together in the title using as few words as possible. A title that is

too long will seem clumsy, annoy readers, and probably not meet journal requirements.

Example:

Does Vaccinating Children and Adolescents with Inactivated Influenza Virus Inhibit the Spread of

Influenza in Unimmunized Residents of Rural Communities?

This title has too many unnecessary words.

Influenza Vaccination of Children: A Randomized Trial

This title doesn’t give enough information about what makes the manuscript interesting.

Effect of Child Influenza Vaccination on Infection Rates in Rural Communities: A Randomized Trial

This is an effective title. It is short, easy to understand, and conveys the important aspects of the

research.

Think about why your research will be of interest to other scientists. This should be related to the reason

you decided to study the topic. If your title makes this clear, it will likely attract more readers to your

manuscript.

TIP!

Write down a few possible titles, and then select the best to refine further. Ask your colleagues their

opinion. Spending the time needed to do this will result in a better title.

Abstract and keywords

The Abstract is:

A summary of the content of the journal manuscript A time-saving shortcut for busy researchers A guide to the most important parts of your manuscript’s written content

Many readers will only read the Abstract of your manuscript. Therefore, it has to be able to stand alone.

Your Abstract should answer these questions about your manuscript:

What was done? Why did you do it? What did you find? Why are these findings useful and important?

Answering these questions lets readers know the most important points about your study, and helps

them decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Make sure you follow the proper journal

manuscript formatting guidelines when preparing your abstract.

TIP!

Journals often set a maximum word count for Abstracts, often 250 words. This is to ensure that the full

Abstract and Keywords list appear in indexing services.

Keywords are a tool to help indexers and search engines find relevant papers. If database search

engines can find your journal manuscript, readers will be able to find it too. This will increase the

number of people reading your manuscript, and likely lead to more citations.

However, to be effective, Keywords must be chosen carefully. They should:

Represent the content of your manuscript Be specific to your field or sub-field

Examples:

Manuscript title: Direct observation of nonlinear optics in an isolated carbon nanotube

Poor keywords: molecule, optics, lasers, energy lifetime

Better keywords: single-molecule interaction, Kerr effect, carbon nanotubes, energy level structure

Manuscript title: Region-specific neuronal degeneration after okadaic acid administration

Poor keywords: neuron, brain, OA (an abbreviation), regional-specific neuronal degeneration, signaling

Better keywords: neurodegenerative diseases; CA1 region, hippocampal; okadaic acid; neurotoxins;

MAP kinase signaling system; cell death

Manuscript title: Increases in levels of sediment transport at former glacial-interglacial transitions

Poor keywords: climate change, erosion, plant effects

Better keywords: quaternary climate change, soil erosion, bioturbation

Introduction

The Introduction should provide readers with the background information needed to understand your

study, and the reasons why you conducted your experiments.

The Introduction should answer the question:

What question/problem was studied?

While writing the background, make sure your citations are:

Well balanced: If experiments have found conflicting results on a question, have you cited studies with both kinds of results?

Current: Every field is different, but you should aim to cite references that are not more than 10 years old if possible.

Relevant: This is the most important requirement. The studies you cite should be strongly related to your research question.

Tip!

DO NOT write a literature review in your Introduction, but DO cite reviews where readers can find more

information if they want it.

Once you have provided background material and stated the problem or question for your study, tell the

reader the purpose of your study. Usually the reason is to fill a gap in the knowledge or to answer a

previously unanswered question. For example, if a drug is known to work well in one population, but has

never been tested in a different population, the purpose of a study could be to test the efficacy and

safety of the drug in the second population.

The final thing to include at the end of your Introduction is a clear and exact statement of your study

aims. You might also explain (very briefly!) how you conducted the study.

Materials and Methods

This section provides the reader with all the details of how you conducted your study. You

should:

Use subheadings to separate different methodologies Describe what you did in the past tense Describe new methods in enough detail that another researcher can reproduce your experiment Describe established methods briefly, and simply cite a reference where readers can find more

detail State all statistical tests and parameters

TIP!

Check the ‘Instructions for Authors’ for your target journal to see how manuscripts should present the

Materials and Methods. Also, as another guide, look at sample reports published online by the journal.

Results

In the Results section, state what you found, but do not interpret the results or discuss their implications.

Just state the results.

As in the Materials and Methods section, use subheadings to separate the results of different experiments.

Results should be presented in a logical order. In general this will be in order of importance, NOT necessarily the order in which the experiments were performed. Use the past tense to describe your results; however, refer to figures and tables in the present tense.

Do not duplicate data among figures, tables, and text. A common mistake is to re-state much of the data from a table in the text of the manuscript. Instead, use the text to summarize what the reader will find in the table, or mention one or two of the most important data points. It is usually much easier to read data in a table than in the text.

Include the results of statistical analyses in the text, usually by providing p values wherever statistically significant differences are described.

TIP!

There is a famous saying in English: “A picture is worth a thousand words.” This means that, sometimes,

an image can explain your findings far better than text could. So make good use of figures and tables in

your manuscript! However, avoid including redundant figures and tables (e.g., two showing the same

thing in a different format), or using figures and tables where it would be better to just include the

information in the text (e.g., where there is not enough data for a table or figure).

Figures and tables

The importance of figures and tables

Figures and tables (display items) are often the quickest way to communicate large amounts of complex

information.

Many readers will only look at your display items without reading the main text of your manuscript.

Therefore, choose and design your figures and tables very carefully so your manuscript communicates

well with readers.

Display items are also important for attracting readers to your work. Attractive display items will hold

the interest of readers, and compel them to take time to understand a figure.

Finally, high-quality display items give your work a professional appearance. Readers will assume that a

professional-looking manuscript contains professionally done science. Thus readers will be more likely to

believe your results and your interpretation of those results.

Discussion and Conclusions

Your Discussion and Conclusions sections should answer the question:

What do your results mean?

In other words, the majority of the Discussion and Conclusions sections should be an interpretation of

your results. You should:

Discuss your conclusions in order of most to least important. Compare your results with those from other studies: Are they consistent? If not, discuss possible

reasons for the difference. Mention any inconclusive results and explain them as best you can. You may suggest additional

experiments needed to clarify your results. Briefly describe the limitations of your study to show reviewers and readers that you have

considered your experiment’s weaknesses. Discuss what your results may mean for researchers in the same field as you, researchers in

other fields, and the general public. How could your findings be applied? State how your results extend the findings of previous studies. If your findings are preliminary, suggest future studies that need to be carried out. At the end of your Discussion and Conclusions sections, state your main conclusions once again.

Acknowledgments

This usually follows the Discussion and Conclusions sections. Its purpose is to thank all of the people

who helped with the research but did not qualify for authorship (check the target journal’s Instructions

for Authors for guidelines). Acknowledge anyone who provided intellectual assistance, technical help

(including with writing and data analyses), or special equipment or materials.

This section should also be used to provide information about funding by providing specific grant

numbers and titles. List the name(s) of the funding organization(s) in full, and identify which authors

received funding for what.

TIP!

The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors has detailed guidelines on who to list in the

Acknowledgments that are useful for scientists in all fields.

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors

Display items

The importance of figures and tables Tables Figures

Tables

Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data. You should design them

carefully so that you clearly communicate your results to busy researchers.

The following is an example of a well-designed table:

Clear and concise heading Data divided into categories for clarity Sufficient spacing between columns and rows Units are provided Font type and size are legible

Source: Environmental Earth Sciences (2009) 59:529–536

Figures

Figures are ideal for presenting:

Images Data plots Maps Schematics

Images

Images help readers visualize the information you are trying to convey. Often, it is difficult to be

sufficiently descriptive using words. Images can aid in achieving the accuracy needed for a scientific

manuscript. For example, it may not be enough to say, “The surface had nanometer scale features.” In

this case, it would be ideal to provide a microscope image.

For images, be sure to:

Include scale bars Consider labeling important items

Data plots

Data plots convey large quantities of data quickly. The goal is often to show a functional or statistical

relationship between two or more items. However, details about the individual data points are often

omitted to place emphasis on the relationship that is shown by the collection of points. Here, we have

an example of a figure combining images and a plot in multiple panels.

For data plots, be sure to:

Label all axes Specify units for quantities Label all curves and data sets Use a legible font size

Source: Nano Research (2010) 3:843–851

Maps

Maps are important for putting field work in the context of the location where it was performed. A good

map will help your reader understand how the site affects your study. Moreover, it will help other

researchers reproduce your work or find other locations with similar properties. Here, we have a map

used in a study about salmon.

For maps, be sure to:

Include latitude and longitude Include scale bars Label important items Consider adding a legend

Source: Environmental Biology of Fishes (2011) DOI: 10.1007/s10641-011-9783-5

Schematics

Schematics help identify the key parts to a system or process. They should highlight only the key

elements because adding unimportant items may clutter the image. A schematic only includes the

drawings the author chooses, offering a degree of flexibility not offered by images. They can also be

used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to capture an image. Below is a schematic explaining

how nanotubes could be used to harvest energy from a fluid.

For schematics, be sure to:

Label key items Provide complementary explanations in the caption and main text

Source: Nano Research (2011) 4:284–289

Overcoming language barriers

Concise writing Comparisons (between, among, like, with, than) Proper nouns Articles Use of respectively Numerals and units Spelling Punctuation Large/small/high/low

Large/small/high/low

“Large” and “small” are generally used to express variations or changes in size, dimensions, or mass.

“High” and “low” are usually used to express levels or numerical values. “Large” and “small” are often

mistakenly used where “high” and “low” would be better.

Examples:

BAD: Large particulate and ozone emissions were measured in Beijing’s air on 278 days in 2009.

GOOD: High particulate and ozone emissions were measured in Beijing’s air on 278 days in 2009.

BAD: A low amount of the processor’s memory is taken by the browser application and graphics

rendering.

GOOD: A small amount of the processor’s memory is taken by the browser application and graphics

rendering.

BAD: A high fluctuation in average storm drain outflow was detected between June 4 and 18.

GOOD: A large fluctuation in average storm drain outflow was detected between June 4 and 18.

Cover letters

Competition for publication space and for editors’ attention is very high. A good cover letter will help

“sell” your manuscript to the journal editor.

It is not enough to send a manuscript to a journal editor like this:

Instead, check to see whether the journal’s Instructions for Authors have any cover letter requirements

(e.g., disclosures, statements, potential reviewers). Then, write a letter that explains why the editor

would want to publish your manuscript:

Common phrases:

Please find enclosed our manuscript, “*manuscript title+” by *first author's name+ et al., which we would like to submit for publication as a [publication type] in [name of the journal].

To our knowledge, this is the first report showing… We believe our findings would appeal to the readership of [journal name]. Please address all correspondence to: We look forward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience.

All cover letters should contain these sentences:

We confirm that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal.

All authors have approved the manuscript and agree with its submission to [insert the name of the target journal].

Submission checklist

Before submitting your manuscript, thoroughly check its quality one more time. Evaluate it critically—

could anything be done better?

Be sure that:

The manuscript follows the Instructions for Authors All files are in the correct file format and of the appropriate resolution or size The spelling and grammar are correct You have contact information for all authors You have completed online registration for the submission process for your target journal You have written a persuasive cover letter

Publication ethics

Publication ethics

Submitting

Formatting your manuscript Cover letters

Peer review

Introduction to peer review Commons reasons for rejection Revising your paper and responding to reviewer comments When to submit to a different journal

Introduction to peer review

Peer review exists to ensure that journals publish good science. This benefits the entire scientific

community.

Sometimes scientists find the peer review process intimidating because it can lead to the rejection of

their manuscript. Keep in mind that revisions and improvement are part of the publication process and

actually help raise the quality of your manuscript.

Peer review is a positive process

Peer review is an integral part of scientific publishing that confirms the validity of the science reported.

Peer reviewers are experts who volunteer their time to help improve the journal manuscripts they

review—they offer authors free advice.

Through the peer review process, manuscripts should become:

More robust: Peer reviewers may point out gaps in your paper that require more explanation or additional experiments.

Easier to read: If parts of your paper are difficult to understand, reviewers can tell you so that you can fix them.

More useful: Peer reviewers also consider the importance of your paper to others in your field.

Of course, in addition to offering authors advice, another important purpose of peer review is to make

sure that the manuscripts the journal eventually publishes are of high quality. If a journal publishes too

many low-quality manuscripts, its reputation and number of readers will decline.

Common reasons for rejection

You journal manuscript can be rejected if it:

Lacks proper structure Lacks the necessary detail for readers to fully understand the authors’ analysis Has no new science

Does not clearly explain which parts of the findings are new science, versus what was already known

Lacks up-to-date references

Contains theories, concepts, or conclusions that are not fully supported by its data, arguments, and information

Does not provide enough details about materials and methods to allow other scientists to repeat the experiment

Lacks clear descriptions or explanations of:

Hypotheses tested

The experimental design

Sample characteristics and descriptive statistics

Describes poor experimental design, or faulty or insufficient statistical analysis

Has poor language quality

Revising your paper and responding to reviewer comments

When revising your manuscript and responding to peer review comments:

Address all points raised by the editor and reviewers Describe the revisions to your manuscript in your response letter Perform any additional experiments or analyses the reviewers recommend (unless you feel that

they would not make your paper better; if this is the case, explain why in your response letter) Provide a polite and scientific rebuttal to any points or comments you disagree with Differentiate between reviewer comments and your responses in your letter Clearly show the major revisions in the text, either with a different color text, by highlighting the

changes, or with Microsoft Word’s Track Changes feature Return the revised manuscript and response letter within the time period the editor tells you

Reviewer comment:

Response in agreement with the reviewer:

Response disagreeing with the reviewer:

When to submit to a different journal

It is important to be persistent when trying to publish a manuscript. Often, writing a response letter

defending your submission after an initial rejection can lead to eventual publication. It is best not to

choose another journal until at least one of the following happens:

The editors say your manuscript is a poor subject match for the journal. The editor rejects your manuscript without review for a second time after you write a response

to their first rejection. Your manuscript is still rejected after responding to all reviewer comments, and it has received a

negative review from at least two reviewers. Your results are time sensitive, the review process is taking much longer than normal for that

journal, and the editors cannot speed up the process. In this case, it is important to notify the editors that you are withdrawing your manuscript before you submit it to a different journal.

Publication is a difficult process, and you must be prepared to defend your submission against rejection

from both editors and peer reviewers. However, do not be too persistent. Generally, only one letter

defending your submission will be accepted for each of the review stages (editorial review and peer

review). If you are unsuccessful after sending a response letter, then you should strongly consider

selecting another journal.

About Edanz

The Author Academy is a joint program by Springer and Edanz aimed at equipping researchers for

publication success. The materials have been developed from the training workshops Edanz gives to

researchers worldwide. Through its workshops Edanz seeks to instill in authors a positive attitude

towards peer review, awareness of publication ethics, and an understanding of the importance of

language quality and professionalism. This enables authors to have a positive manuscript writing and

submission experience and to become active participants in the global scientific community.

Springer recommends Edanz for authors who want to have their manuscript edited by a native speaker

of English who is a scientific expert. Edanz provides scientific editing and related services that raise the

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For more information and a price quotation, please contact:

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中国作者请访问

日本の著者の皆さまはこちら

Using an editing service is neither a requirement nor a guarantee of acceptance for publication. Edanz

will charge authors directly for these language polishing services.