space stations a brief survay(also cover pakistan progress)

8/9/2019 space stations a brief survay(also cover pakistan progress)

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PROJECT REPORT

PROJECT REPORT : SPACE STATIONS

SUBJECT : ENGINEERING DYNAMICS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

TAXILA.



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THE SPACE STATIONS

Space station or space platform, artificial earth satellite, usually manned, that is placed in a fixed

orbit and can serve as a base for astronomical observations; zero-gravity materials processing;

satellite assembly, refueling, and repair; or, possibly, as weapons platforms.

SATELLITE USED AS SPACE BASE: a spacecraft or satellite designed to be occupied by a crew for

extended periods of time and used as a base for the exploration, observation, and research of

space.

DESCRIPTION: A space station is an artificial structure designed for humans to

live and work in outer space for a period of time.

To date, only low earth orbital (LEO) stations have been implemented, otherwise knownas orbital stations. A space station is distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its

lack of major propulsion or landing facilities²instead, other vehicles are used astransport to and from the station. Current and recent-history space stations are designedfor medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even years. The onlyspace station currently in use is the International Space Station. Previous stations includethe Almaz and Salyut series, Skylab and Mir .

Space stations are used to study the effects of long-term space flight on the human bodyas well as to provide platforms for greater number and length of scientific studies thanavailable on other space vehicles. Since the ill-fated flight of Soyuz 11 to Salyut 1, allmanned spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations. The durationrecord for a single spaceflight is 437.7 days, set by Valeriy Polyakov aboard Mir from

1994 to 1995. As of 2009, three astronauts have completed single missions of over a year,all aboard Mir .

Space stations have been used for both military and civilian purposes. The last military-use space station was Salyut 5, which was used by the Almaz program of the SovietUnion in 1976 and 1977.



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HISTORY:

Space stations have been envisaged since at least 1869 when Everett Hale wrote about a'brick moon' in Atlantic monthly magazine.

Space stations were also later envisaged by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and HermannOberth.

In 1929 Hermann Noordung's The P robl em of Space T r avel was published. Thisremained popular for over 30 years.

In 1951, in Collier's weekly, Wernher von Braun published his design for a wheeledspace station.

TYPES

Monolithic

Description of a space station in Hermann Noordung's The P robl em of Space T r avel (1929).(Legend: Aufzugschacht : elevator shaft. K : electric cable to an external observatory.

K ond ensat orrohr e: condenser pipes. S : airlock . T r eppenschacht : stairwell.Verd amp fungsrohr : boiler pipe).

Broadly speaking, the space stations so far launched have been of two types; the earlier stations, Salyut and Skylab, have been "monolithic", intended to be constructed andlaunched in one piece, and then manned by a crew later. As such, they generallycontained all their supplies and experimental equipment when launched, and wereconsidered "expended", and then abandoned, when these were used up.



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Starting with Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, a change was seen; these were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them (for technical reasons, a Soyuz capsule cannot safely spend more than a few months in orbit,even powered down. This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. Skylab wasalso equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port

was never utilized. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be broughtto aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "harddocked" with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof-of-concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seenas a transition between the two groups.

Modular

The second group, Mir and the ISS, have been modular ; a core unit was launched, andadditional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that. (On Mir they

were usually launched independently, whereas on the ISS most are brought by the SpaceShuttle). This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing theneed for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. These stations are also designedfrom the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support, which allows for alonger lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.



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List of occupied space stations, with statistics

Space

statio

n

Image Launche

d

R eentere

d

Days in use Visits

Mass

(k g) In

orbi

t

Occupie

d

Manne

d

Unmanne

d

Salyut1

19 April1971

01:40:00UTC

11October

1971175 24 2 0

18,425 kg(40,620 lb)

Skyla b

14 May1973

17:30:00UTC

11 July1979

16:37:00UTC

2,249

171 3 077,088 kg(169,950 l b)

Salyut3

25 June1974

22:38:00UTC

24January

1975213 15 1 0

18,500 kg(40,786 lb)

± ]

Salyut4

26Decembe

r 1974

04:15:00UTC

3February

1977

770 92 2 118,500 kg(40,786 lb)

Salyut5

22 June1976

18:04:00UTC

8 August1977

412 67 2 019,000 kg(41,888 lb)

Salyut6

29Septembe

r 197706:50:00

UTC

29 July1982

1,764

683 16 1419,000 kg(41,888 lb)

Salyut7

19 April1982

19:45:00UTC

7February

1991

3,216

816 12 1519,000 kg(41,888 lb)



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Mir

19February

198621:28:23

UTC

23 March2001

05:50:00UTC

5,511

4,594 39 68124,340 kg(274,123 l b)

ISS20

November 1998

Currentlyin orbit

4190 3479 50 41344,378 kg(759,224 l b)

List of unoccupied and failed space stations

Space

station Image Launched R eentered

Days in

orbit

Mass

(k g)

DOS-2

29 July 1972

Failed to exit earthorbit

29 July

1972 0

18,425 kg

(40,620 lb)

Salyut 2

4 April 197328 May

197354

18,425 kg(40,620 lb) ±

Cosmos557

11 May 197322 May

197311

18,425 kg(40,620 lb) ±

PAST AND PRESENT SPACE STATIONS

( d ate s r e f er t o periods when stat ions wer e inhabited by cr ew s)

y Salyut space stations (USSR, 19711986)

y Salyut 1 (1971, 1 crew and 1 failed docking)

y DOS-2 (1972, launch failure)

y Salyut 2 / Almaz (1973, failed shortly after launch)

y

Cos

mos

557 (1973, re-entered eleven days after launch) y Salyut 3/Almaz (1974, 1 crew and 1 failed docking)

y Salyut 4 (1975, 2 crews and 1 planned crew failed to achieve orbit)

y Salyut 5/Almaz (19761977, 2 crews and 1 failed docking)

y Salyut 6 (19771981, 16 crews (5 long duration, 11 short duration and 1 failed

docking)

y Salyut 7 (19821986, 10 crews (6 long duration, 4 short duration and 1 failed

docking)



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y Skylab (USA, 19731974, 3 crews)

y Mir (USSR/Russia, 19862000, 28 long duration crews)

y International Space Station (ISS) (USA, Russia, Japan, European Space Agency, Canada,

Italy 2000-ongoing, 22 long duration crews to date)

Following the controlled deorbiting of Mir in 2001, the International Space Station is theonly one of these currently in orbit; it has been continuously occupied since October 30,2000.

MAIN COUNTRIES IN SPACE STATIONPROGRAMMES



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The International Space Station will provide astronauts from around the world with anideal location from which they will be able to live and work in space. When it iscompleted in 2005 the Space Station will be the biggest laboratory ever built in space.It will be 108,5 metres by 88,4 metres, which is about the size of a Canadian football

field.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA RUSSIA

JAPAN IRELAND BRAZIL ITALY FRANCE

SWITZER LAND SPAIN ENGLAND CHINA

A organisation for combined working on the space ships and space stations for space

exploration is made and named ISS.

Introduction to the International Space StationThis section introduces the overall purpose, objectives, organization, and elements of theInternational Space Station (ISS). The operational concepts that define crew andcontroller rolesand responsibilities are also addressed, in addition to the ³traffic model´ or when Earth-to-OrbitVehicles (ETOVs) such as Shuttle, Progress and Soyuz can rendezvous with the Station.

Detailsregarding activities which occur during and between ETOV visits are also included.

Objectives



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After completing this section, you should be able to:· List the purpose and objectives of the ISS· Describe the purpose of each major ISS element/module· Describe the typical operations performed during the major mission activities of ISS.

Purpose, Objectives, and Organization of the ISS

The purpose of the ISS is to provide an ³Earth orbiting facility that houses experiment payloads,distributes resource utilities, and supports permanent human habitation for conductingresearchand science experiments in a microgravity environment.´ (ISSA IDR no. 1, ReferenceGuide,March 29, 1995)This overall purpose leads directly into the following specific objectives of the ISS

program:· Develop a world-class orbiting laboratory for conducting high-value scientific research· Provide access to microgravity resources as early as possible in the assembly sequence· Develop ability to live and work in space for extended periods· Develop effective international cooperation· Provide a testbed for developing 21st Century technology.To accomplish these objectives, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) has joined with four other space agencies and their major contractors. Besides NASA, withits primecontractor Boeing, the ISS Program consists of:· Russian Space Agency (RSA), with its contractors Rocket Space Corporation-Energia(RSC-E) and Khrunichev Space Center (KhSC)· Canadian Space Agency (CSA), with its contractor Spar Aerospace

Working agencies

.National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), with its contractor MitsubishiHeavy Industries

·

European Space Agency (ESA), with its contractor Deutsche Aerospace.The NASA/Boeing team is further broken down. Besides the Program Office, there arefour Product Groups (PGs), each of which has its own responsibilities for specific module or hardware development. These groups and their responsibilities include:

· PG 1: McDonnell Douglas - Integrated Truss, Distributed Avionics, Node Integration



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· PG 2: Rocketdyne - Solar Arrays, Power Management, and Distribution

· PG 3: Boeing - Habitation (Hab) and Laboratory (Lab) modules, Node structures, LifeSupport System

· PG 4: Italian Space Agency (ASI) and its contractor, Allenia - Mini-PressurizedLogisticsModule (MPLM). (Note: ASI is considered a ³contractor´ to NASA due to thecontractualrequirements for MPLM development. Basically, NASA is buying the MPLM fromASI.).To integrate all these organizations, the following various levels of agreements have beendeveloped:

· Government-to-Government agreements, called Inter-Government Agreements (IGAs).

These commit the various countries and national space agencies to ISS.· Agency and Program-level agreements, usually called Memorandums of Understanding(MOUs). These define the roles and responsibilities of the various national spaceagencies.The most important operational MOU is the Concept of Operations and Utilization(COU).This defines how the Station will be operated and used.· The COU itself is further developed in the Station Program Implementation Plan(SPIP),which defines how the program will implement the COU. The SPIP has 10 volumes.

- Vol. I: The high-level statement of the implementation plan

- Vol. II: Program Planning and Manifesting

- Vol. III: Cargo Integration

- Vol. IV: Payload Integration

- Vol. V: Logistics and Maintenance

- Vol. VI: Launch Site Processing

- Vol. VII: Training

- Vol. VIII: Increment Execution Preparation

- Vol. IX: R eal-Time Operations - Vol. X: Sustaining Engineering

Of most interest to the Mission Operations Directorate (MOD) is Vol. IX, which defineshow the



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various partner space agency¶s control and payload centers will interface and eachcenter¶s rolesand responsibilities. Each partner has development and operational responsibilities for theelements and transportation systems that it provides. NASA is the lead integrator for the program. The control and payload centers are as follows:

· NASA

- Mission Control Center-Houston (MCC-H)- Payload Operations Integration Center (POIC) in Huntsville, Alabama- MPLM Technical Support Center in Turin, Italy

· RSA

- Mission Control Center-Moscow (MCC-M)

· CSA

- Space Operations Support Center in St. Hubert, Quebec

· NASDA

- Space Station Integration and Promotion Center in Tsukuba



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SUCCESSFUL SPACE EXPLORATIONS

Russian breaks time-in-space record

Veteran Russian spaceman Sergei Krikalev, 46, has set a new record for the longest

time spent in space. Krikalev recorded his 748th day in orbit on August 16. He will

celebrate his record-breaking achievement by going on a six-hour space walk to do

routine maintenance and upgrades. His first journey into space was in November 1988

on a visit to the Mir space station. In 1994, he was the first Russian to ride on the

space shuttle. He was also on the first mission to assemble the International Space

Station in 1998.

Krikalev said his profession was a ³challenge´. He explained his reasons for choosing to

spend so much time in space: ³Why do people climb mountains? ² It¶s cold, it¶s windy,

it¶s difficult to haul up all of the equipment, but then it¶s exciting. You overcome some

difficulties. You see some new sights. You do things that other people cannot.´ He said

living in the heavens was the perfect job. His lengthy periods of time in space have also

provided precious scientific data on the physical and psychological stresses on the body.

The Space Shuttle

The Space Transportation System (STS)²the Space Shuttle²is a partially reusablelaunchvehicle and is the sole U.S. means for launching humans into orbit. It consists of anairplane-like

Orbiter, with two Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) on each side, and a large, cylindricalExternalTank (ET) that carries fuel for the Orbiter¶s main engines. The Orbiters and SRBs arereused; theET is not. NASA has three remaining spaceflight-worthy Orbiters: Discovery, At l ant is,and End eavour .



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The International Space Station (ISS)

NASA launched its first space station, Skylab, in 1973. Three crews were sent to live andwork there in 1973-1974. It remained in orbit, unoccupied, until it reentered Earth¶satmosphere in July1979, disintegrating over Australia and the Indian Ocean. Skylab was never intended to be permanently occupied, but the goal of a permanently occupied space station with crewsrotatingon a regular basis, employing a reusable space transportation system (the space shuttle)was highon NASA¶s list for the post-Apollo years following the moon landings. Budgetconstraints forced NASA to choose to build the space shuttle first. The first launch of the shuttle was inApril 1981.When NASA declared the shuttle ³operational´ in 1982, it was ready to initiate the spacestation program.In his January 25, 1984 State of the Union address, President Reagan directed NASA todevelop a permanently occupied space station within a decade, and to invite other countries to join.On July

20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the first Apollo landing on the Moon, President GeorgeH. W.Bush voiced his support for the space station as the cornerstone of a long-range civilianspace program eventually leading to bases on the Moon and Mars. That ³Moon/Mars´ program,theSpace Exploration Initiative, was not greeted with enthusiasm in Congress, primarily dueto budget concerns, and ended in FY1993, although the space station program continued.President Clinton dramatically changed the character of the space station program in1993 by

adding Russia as a partner to this already international endeavor. That decision made thespacestation part of the U.S. foreign policy agenda to encourage Russia to abide by agreementsto stopthe proliferation of ballistic missile technology, and to support Russia economically and politically as it transitioned from the Soviet era. The Clinton Administration stronglysupportedthe space station within certain budget limits.



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The International Space Station program thus began in 1993, with Russia joining theUnitedStates, Europe, Japan, and Canada. An Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) establishedthree phases of space station cooperation. The IGA is a treaty in all the countries except the

UnitedStates, where it is an Executive Agreement. It is implemented through Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) between NASA and its counterpart agencies.During Phase I (1995-1998), seven U.S. astronauts remained on Russia¶s space station Mir for long duration (several month) missions with Russian cosmonauts, Russian cosmonautsflew onthe U.S. space shuttle seven times, and nine space shuttle missions docked with Mir toexchangecrews and deliver supplies. Repeated system failures and two life-threateningemergencies on Mir

in 1997 raised questions about whether NASA should leave more astronauts on Mir , but NASAdecided Mir was sufficiently safe to continue the program. ( Mir was deorbited in 2001.)Phases IIand III involve construction of the International Space Station itself, and blend into eachother.Phase II began in 1998 and was completed in July 2001; Phase III is underway.President George W. Bush, prompted in part by the February 2003 space shuttleC olumbiatragedy, made a major space policy address on January 14, 2004, directing NASA tofocus itsactivities on returning humans to the Moon and eventually sending them to Mars.Included in this³Vision for Space Exploration´ was a decision to retire the space shuttle in 2010. ThePresidentsaid the United States would fulfill its commitments to its space station partners.

THE SUCCESSFULLY LAUNCHED SPACE STATIONS

Salyut 1



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Sk ylab

Salyut 3

Salyut 4

Salyut 5



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Salyut 6

Salyut 7

Mir



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PAKISTAN IN SPACE EXPLORATION

On July 25, 1964, Dr. Abdus Salam arranged a meeting with President Ayub Khan whereSUPARCO was placed under the direct control of the President of Pakistan. On 8 March1966, President Ayub Khan constituted SUPARCO as a separate organisation under theadministrative control of Dr. Abdus Salam[3]. Dr. Abdus Salam, along with Dr. W. J. M.

Turowicz, led a team of aerospace engineers and rocket scientists to design a Rehbar sounding Rocket series.Dr. Abdus Salam also established space centers in different citiesof Pakistan, notably in Karachi and Lahore. Abdus Salam also initiated an aerospaceengineering program in SUPARCO. He was one of the pioneering figures in the 1960s tolead Pakistan in the space power world.

Abdus Salam knew the importance of space technology as well as the importance of nuclear technology. Abdus Salam effort was involved in the development and installationof a high-powered astronomical telescope at the Karachi University. Abdus Salam wasnoted for his theories and its relationship to Islam in SUPARCO, his efforts wereinvolved in inducting applied physics and experimental physics laboratories at Karachi

University. Abdus Salam also established an aerospace engineering course at the PakistanAir Force Academy.

With the establishment of SUPARCO, Pakistan was the first South Asian country to starta space program[4]. However, the Pakistani Space Program has been frozen several times.In 1970s, under the Governments of President of Pakistan, General Yahya Khan and thePrime Minister of Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the space program was frozen for morethan a decade. In 1993, both Pakistan's nuclear and space programs were frozen for four years due to an economic depression. However, the program was unfrozen by then-President of Pakistan General Pervaiz Musharraf and a satellite development programwas developed rapidly, while its neighbour space agency Indian ISRO progressed verywell and in fact a notable agency like ESA, NASA, ROS COSMOS, JASA, & Chinesespace agency. Furthermore, Suparco faced strict sanctions on the import of severalmaterials required to launch and manufacture rockets during the early 1990¶s from theUnited States and Russia. The delay of the Russian launch vehicle also resulted in a longdelay for the launch of Pakistan¶s second satellite (Badar-B). These events had animmense impact on Suparco¶s plan to launch and place its own satellite in orbit. Despiteits talented nuclear and space scientists, Pakistan has followed a Policy of deliberate



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ambiguity for many decades. This is why it is still unclear what the plans and operationas well as capabilities of SUPARCO and its space facilities are.

NASA-SUPARCO Cooperation

In 1961 Pakistan set up the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission(SUPARCO) with the announced goal, not yet reached, of launching Pakistani satellitesaboard Pakistani rockets. In June 1962, the United States launched the first rocket fromPakistani soil. The launch used a combination of two U.S. rocket motors the Nike-Cajun.Fired from Sonmiani Beach, 50 kilometers west of Karachi, the rocket reached an altitudeof almost 130 kilometers. The U.S. space agency NASA hailed the launch as the beginning of "a program of continuing cooperation in space research of mutual interest."

The NASA-SUPARCO cooperation agreement called for the training of Pakistaniscientists and technicians at NASA space science centers. Before the June 1962 launch, NASA had begun to train Pakistani scientists at Wallops Island and the Goddard Space

Flight Centers. NASA also set up fellowships and research associate programs atAmerican universities for "advanced training and experience."

In 1981, SUPARCO also planned a astronautic programme with the co-operation of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). An agreement betweenSUPARCO and NASA was to send Pakistan's first astronaut into the space. However,after the Space Shuttle Challenger incident, the program was put on hold. Later, the program was cancelled in 1990.

Communication satellites

Pakistan's first satellite, Badr-1, was launched by the Chinese in 1990. At presents,Pakistan controls 2 satellites in the space.

Badr-1 Digital Communication Satellite

Badr-1 digital communication satellite, Pakistan's domestically built satellite.

SUPARCO started its first digital communication satellite in 1986

[12]

. According to the plan, the satellite was launch from the Pakistani Satellite launch Centers, notebalySonmiani Satellite Launch Center . But the programme was changed due to political andeconomic reasons. The Government of Pakistan held talks with United States but the U.SGovernment did not show any motives in Pakistan's space Program. Instead China offersPakistan to launch its satellite from its soil. The satellite was shipped to People's Republicof China. Pakistan launched its Badr-1, Pakistan's first indigenously developed DigitalCommunications Experimental satellite, was launched in 1990 from Xichang Satellite



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Launch Center , People's Republic of China aboard a Long March 2E. The satellitesuccessfully completed its designed life. The launch of satellite was the key success toSUPARCO. After badr-1, SUPARCO continued to developed its badr-B satellite after thesuccessfully developed satellite.

PAKSAT-1 Telecommunication Satellite

Pakistan's Pak sat-1 was originally known as Palapa. It was launched by Hughes Spaceand Communications Company for Indonesia. Later Indonesia declared the satelliteunusable after an electric power anomaly. The insurance claims were paid and the titlewas transferred to Hughes Space and Communications Company. . HGS-3 was thenacquired by Pakistan from M/s Hughes Global Services on "Full Time Leasing " andrelocated to Pakistan's reserved slot at 38 Degree. After a series of orbital maneuvers, theSatellite was stabilized at the final location on December 20, 2002 with 0-degreeinclination. The satellite is in position at the Pakistani-licensed orbital location, 38° eastlongitude. Paksat 1 is operational and is ready to offer services. The PAKSAT Satellite

will be decommissioned from its services in the late of 2012.

PAKSAT-1R Communication Satellite Project

By the end of 2011, Pakistan plans to replace PAKSAT-1 with a new PAKSAT-1R,which will be manufactured and launched by China. The satellite will support allconventional and modern Fixed Satellite Service (FSS) applications. The satellite willhave a total of up to 30 transponders: 18 in Ku-band and 12 in C-band. To ensure highdegree of reliability / availability of the system, two (02) fully redundant Satellite Ground

Control Stations (SGCS) would be established in Karachi and Lahore, one to act as theMain and the other as Backup respectively.

Earth Observational Satellite

Badr-B (Earth Observational Satellite)

In 1992, SUPARCO was given ordered to developed its first Low-Earth observationsatellite. The project manager was dr. Abdul Majid (physicist). According to the program,the satellite was to launch on June 1996. However, when SUPARCO faced severe globalsanctions, the program was put on hold. SUPARCO, however, secretly continued todevelop its satellite. The project was completed in 1996. The satellite was planned tolaunch from the Sonmiani Satellite Launch Center . But it was postponded. On December 10, 2001 at 17:19 hours UT, Pakistan launched its second satellite, Badr-B, an Earthobservation satellite from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan aboard a Russian Zenit-2 rocket, Russia. According to the Government of Pakistan, SUPARCO has upgraded theBadr-B Low Earth Observational Satellite. According to the Interior Ministry of Pakistan,

the Satellite is being using to monitored Pakistan's western border .



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Pakistan Remote Sensing Satellite System (PRSSS)

After successful launching and operation of BADR series of experimental Low Earth

Observational satellites (BADR-1 and BADR-B) in the 1990s and early 2000s,SUPARCO now plans to launch high resolution Pakistan Remote Sensing Satellite (PRSSS) to meet the national and international user requirements in the field of satellite

imagery.

A feasibility and system definition study was concluded in January 2007 whichrecommended the launch of a constellation of Optical and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Satellites to ensure that the domestic and international user requirements arecompetitively met. In this respect the RFP for RSSS consultancy services was launchedin July 2007. Launch of RFP for the manufacturing of the satellite is planned in the thirdquarter of year 2008.

PRSS is planned to be a progressive and sustainable program. Initially, SUPARCO plansto launch an optical satellite with payload of 2.5 meter PAN in 700 km sun-synchronous orbit by the end of year 2011, which will be followed by a series of optical and SAR satellites in future. Necessary infrastructure for ground control and image reception and processing is also planned to be setup .The satellite is underdevelopment process and it is being developed by SUPARCO. However, it is unclear whether the satellite will launchfrom Pakistan's Satellite launchers or Chinese Satellite Launchers.

Human Spaceflight Program

In 1981, the United States Government agreed to send Pakistan's first astronaut into spaceand astronaur selection began. At first, SUPARCO decided to send its first astronaut inspace would be a Pakistan Air Force general. SUPARCO and NASA also made sure thatthe astronaut would have strong experiential background in science and mathematicswhile serving in the Pakistan Air Force. However, in 1986, after the Space ShuttleChallenger disaster , the program was put on hold. The program was cancelled in

1990. because of strict sanctions on Pakistan.

After the 9/11 attacks and Pakistan's role on war on terror, the United States Government lifted an embrago on SUPARCO, allowing SUPARCO to buy and manucfactured thespace-related components. Namira Salim, a Paris-based Pakistani artist bought a ride togo into space in the Virgin Galactic Space Ship in 2008. Salim visited Pakistan where shemet with Tariq Azeem, then-Minister of Science and Technology. The minister said ³wehave a daughter of our country who will take our flag into the space[.´

According to the Media sources, China showed interest in Pakistan's motivation in thehuman spaceflight programme and offered Pakistan to send its first astronauts fromChinese spaceflight aircrafts



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Specific programs and missions

y Scientific space research y Remote sensing of Earth y Satellite telecommunication systems

y Geographic Information System y Natural Resource Surveying y Environmental monitoringy Acquisition of data for atmospheric/meteorological studiesy Development of the ground-based infrastructure for navigation and special

information systemy Space activities in the interests of national security and defensey Development of research, test and production base of the space sector

International Cooperation

China

In August 2006, China committed to work with Pakistan to launch three Earth-resourcesatellites over the next five years. In May 2007, China (as a strategic partner) agreed andsigned an accord with Pakistan to enhance cooperation in the areas of space science andtechnology. Pakistan-China bilateral cooperation in the space industry could span a broadspectrum, including climate science, clean energy technologies, atmospheric and earthsciences, and marine sciences.

Turkey

In December 2006, Turkey has showned interests to join Pakistan's space program.Turkish Ambassador to Pakistan signed the Memorandum of understanding (MOU). Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey and TurkishAerospace Industries's representative signed an accord with SUPARCO to enhance thecooperation in the satellite development program

y SUPARCO and the Department of Space have signed formal

Memorandum of Understanding agreements with a number of foreign political entities:

y China y Russia y Thailand



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y Ukraine y Iran y Brazil y Argentina y Turkey y France y South Korea y United Kingdom y Italy



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ACHIEVEMENTS OF A SPACE STATION

The atmospheric conditions we need in a space station are in correspondance with the

conditions we may need in a artificial world.

Breathing on the Space Station

The air we breathe on Earth is composed of a mix of different gases. Scientists have

conducted experiments that tell us how much of each type of gas is normally found in

pure air. With this information we can create Table #1 and Chart #1: Atmospheric

Components by Percentage

Table 1

A B C D

Atmospheric

Component

Percentage in Earth's

Atmosphere*

Ideal Values for the

Space Station

Astronaut

Exhalation

Nitrogen 78.084% 78.000% 74.200%

Oxygen 20.946% 21.000% 15.300%

Argon 0.934% 0.000% 0.000%

Carbon Dioxide 0.033% 0.000% 3.600%

Water Vapor 0.040% 1.000% 6.200%

Trace Elements 0.003% 0.000% 0.800%



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*Composition of the atmosphere at sea level, in clean air, no weather disturbance,

at Standard Temperature and Pressure.

The loss of power, computer f ailur e s and an

out br eak of fir e ar e only a

f ew sampl e s of the t y pe s of

accid ent s that have

occurr ed on Mir.



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Instrumentation for the Future

Looking toward future missions, high performance X ray sensors are being developedin collaboration with MIT¶s Lincoln Laboratory, including a new process in thefabrication of photon counting CCD¶s that greatly improve their sensitivity andresolving power at low energies. X ray polarimetry is being developed, a potentially powerful tool for studying neutron stars and quasars. Work continues in the Space Nanotechnology Laboratory on advanced X ray optics with applications targeted tofuture missions such as Constellation X, Generation X, and the MicroArcsecond X rayImaging Mission. An adaptive optics system for the Magellan telescopes is under development. Haystack Observatory work continues on the development of a large,

low frequency radio array. The Advanced LIGO proposal for a second generation of gravitational detectors to be installed in the LIGO infrastructure is being reviewed by the NSF. Research continues on techniques to improve the quantum limits togravitational wave detector sensitivity.

Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology

With its discovery of a bright, nearby gamma ray burst (GRB), HETE and opticalfollow up observations conclusively established the link between these bursts and

core collapse supernovae. The long standing ³dark burst´ problem has also been solved by showing that 90 percent of the HETE localized GRBs have optical or near infraredcounterparts. As a result of these discoveries, the satellite¶s results were highlighted byScience M a g a zine in December 2003 as being among the 10 most important discoveriesin all fields of science during the year 2003.The Chandra HETG Spectrometer is being used to probe the warm hot intergalactic

medium, which is thought to contain a large fraction of the ³missing´ baryons in the

nearby universe. Chandra studies also show quantitatively that substructure in galaxies is

higher at high redshift, consistent with expectations of cluster evolution. Further studies

of the relationship between the X rays and light emitting by high redshift clusters

indicate the light may not be a reliable tracer of mass at that epoch, with important

implications for our understanding of structure formation. In theoretical cosmological

studies, a new parallel dark matter simulation code has been developed and run on the

newly constructed 48 processor Astrophysics Beowulf Cluster. The effects of dark

energy on the microwave background fluctuations was used to constrain quintessence

models. A study of gravitational lensing by the supermassive black holes at the centers of



Page | 27

galaxies makes quantitative predictions of the lensing signatures that will be observed by

next-generation telescopes.

$JUDYLWDWLRQDOOHQVLPDJHGE\WKH:DOWHU%DDGH PWHOHVFRSHRQHRIWKHWZR0DJHOODQWHOHVFRSHVDW/DV&DPSDQDV2EVHUYDWRU\LQ&KLOH7KHIRXULPDJHVRIDEDFNJURXQGTXDVDUDUHFOHDUO\YLVLEOHDORQJZLWKWZRUHGGLVKIRUHJURXQGJDOD[LHVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHOHQVLQJ0,7LVDSDUWQHULQWKH0DJHOODQ&RQVRUWLXPWKDWEXLOWDQGQRZRSHUDWHVWKHWHOHVFRSHV7KH&&'FDPHUDXVHGWRFDSWXUHWKLVLPDJHZDVEXLOWDW&65E\3URIHVVRU-DPHV(OOLRW3KRWRFRXUWHV\RI3URIHVVRU6FRWW0%XUOHV

Galactic Astronomy

RXTE and Chandra investigations into the nature of black holes, neutron stars, and

related objects continue. Studies of fast oscillations from millisecond X-ray pulsars, both

in and out of the stellar thermonuclear explosions known as X-ray bursts, provide insight

into the physics of neutron stars. In one highlight this year, timing studies of the

pulsations of X-ray pulsars have revealed a change in the spin rate of a neutron star. This

may represent the first detection of a sudden change in the structure of an accreting

neutron star. Theoretical exploration of the progenitors of hypernovae demonstrates that

massive binaries provide an ideal environment for the development of rapid rotation in

their cores, a possible site of gamma-ray burst emission. A new model describing orbiting

clumps in a relativisitic accretion disk has been developed and shows promise for

explaining the quasiperiodic oscillations of black hole binaries.



Page | 28

Chandra studies of globular clusters have demonstrated that the large number of X-ray

binaries in the clusters were formed inside the cluster due to tidal interactions and close

encounters. This was suspected for decades, but it has now been demonstrated in a

quantitative manner. Innovative software is being developed to exploit the exquisite

X-ray spectra provided by the Chandra HETG Spectrometer. These studies are mapping

the dynamics and composition of supernova remnants and providing a detailed

investigation of cosmic ray electrons. Chandra spectra were also used to look for

absorption in the atmospheres of neutron stars in order to determine their surface

redshifts, which provide a strength of the surface gravity and a measure of these stars¶

compactness.

The Solar System and Space Plasma Physics

It has recently been recognized that some Kuiper Belt (trans- Neptunian) objects exist in

binary systems, allowing new studies of the mass distribution and dynamics of this

important component of the solar system. A survey with the Magellan telescopes has

resulted in the discovery of a new binary system. This system and others previously

known are being studied. Studies of plasma in the solar wind continue from three

spacecraft: IMP 8 and WIND, Near Earth, and Voyager 2. Modeling of the neutral and

plasma environment near Saturn has shown that the recent discovery by the

Cassini-Huygens spacecraft that the outer edges Saturn¶s rings are water rich could result

from the deposition of material from near the moon Enceladus. An innovative theory of complexity in space plasmas in the Earth¶s magnetosphere, the solar corona, and the solar

wind has been developed using the concepts of forced and/or self -organized criticality

and topological phase transitions.

Human Space Flight

CSR is developing virtual reality display devices, restraint systems, and software tools for

the International Space Station (ISS) Human Research Facility. The system supports

VOILA (Visuomotor and Orientation Investigations in Long-Duration Astronauts), a setof flight experiments planned for 2007. These experiments use virtual reality techniques

to study three-dimensional spatial orientation and navigation abilities of astronauts. Other



Page | 29

experiments being developed for the ISS include the Cell Culture Unit for biologicalexperiments and an astronaut microgravity disturbance experiment.

WE LIVE IN HEADY AND EXCITING TIMES

Today scientists seriouslyconsider whether they may soon have a sample of an alien biologyto study: life from another world. Some of these scientists are oldenough to remember that when the famous biologist Joshua Lederberg coined theterm exobiology, it was ridiculed as µµa science without a subject.¶¶ The scientific tidehas turned, and today there is growing enthusiasm for trying to find out whether life exists elsewhere in the universe.Life as we know it is a planetary phenomenon. The Earth has hosted life andhas strongly influenced its evolution for the past 3.8 billion years. Life in its turnhas significantly modified its host planet. At one time, life may have called the surface

of the planet Mars home, and some scientists speculate that Mars may still harbor life, deep beneath its surface, where liquid water might persist today. Europaand Callisto, two of the planet-sized moons of Jupiter, may have oceans of liquidwater, and possibly even life, beneath their icy exteriors. With only our single exampleof terrestrial biology to guide us, our search for life beyond the Earth muststart with searching for µµhabitable,¶¶ planet-like places. As we learn more about lifeon Earth, and as we begin to appreciate how tough and opportunistic it is²livingaround the scalding-hot vents of the deep ocean floor, in sulfurous hot springs, inthe radioactive cooling water of nuclear reactors, and within rock miles beneath theEarth¶s surface²our definition of µµhabitable¶¶ expands.During the past five years, the number of planets known to be orbiting other

stars like our own sun has grown from 0 to more than 50! The biases imposed byour instruments have thus far excluded detection of other solar systems like our own. Before another decade passes, however, we should know whether other worlds similar to the Earth are common or rare in our Milky Way galaxy. This is akey piece of information.The universe is vast and old. Humans are newcomers on the scene. Throughoutour short history,we have looked to the heavens and wondered whether we arealone. Over the millennia there have been many religious and secular belief systemswhose leaders have offered their own answers to this question. Increasinglythroughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first, partial answers of a differentkind have been pieced together. Answers based on observation, experiment,and rigorous scientific study have emerged in fields as diverse as molecular biologyand high-energy astrophysics. The authors of this text, Donald Goldsmith andTobias Owen, introduce you to our current understanding of humankind¶s place inthe cosmos, and provide perspective by showing how our ideas have changed over time and where they are likely to change again in the future. To do this it is necessaryto consider scales of space and time so vast that they are measured in the billions,as well as scales so tiny that we measure them with billionths; we must consider both the universe and the world of viruses.



Page | 30

Earth vs. Other Worlds

Is Earth the planet in the Solar System best suited for life? Perhaps Earth is the

only planet that harbors life. If so, what is it about Earth that might make itunique?Earth possesses all the things that life as we know it needs. The atmosphere provides us protection from the Sun¶s harmful radiation, and ensures that temperaturesdon¶t vary too much from night to day. Temperatures found acrossmost of the Earth allow liquid water to exist, which is necessary for life.Howdoes Earth¶s favorable environment for life compare to the other worlds of theSolar System?A) Liquid Water. There are not many other places in the Solar System whereliquid water might exist. Most other places in the Solar System seem either too hot (e.g., Mercury,Venus) or likely too cold (e.g., the outer planets and

their moons) for liquid water. On Mars, the surface temperature and air pressure are both too low for liquid water to exist²although conditions onMars long ago may have allowed for abundant water. It is possible that liquidwater still exists below Mars¶ surface. Astronauts visiting the Moonfound it devoid of water in the areas they explored.Yet there is growing evidencethat there might be frozen water near the north and south poles of the Moon.One place where there is evidence for liquid water is on Jupiter¶s moonEuropa²or rather, in Europa, where an ocean may exist under a layer of surfaceice. Even though it is extremely cold at that distance from the Sun,Jupiter and its other moons create tides in Europa that flex and stretch the

entire moon, warming it on the inside.B) Energy Source. Life requires a source of energy. The Sun supplies most of theenergy that life uses on Earth, and is responsible for the global climate. Plantlife survives by extracting the energy in sunlight through photosynthesis.CHALLENGER CENTER¶S JOURN EY THROUGH TH E UNIV E RS E 32



Page | 31

Grade Level

An Artificial Ecosystem in Space

A new European Space Agency (ESA) project is examining ways of using human

waste to recreate an artificial ecosystem during space flights. The proposed system

would provide oxygen and water and enable astronauts to grow their own food.

The MELISSA project (Micro-ecological life support alternative) aims to provide a

workable system for long-haul space flights which may take years to complete and

during which nothing will be thrown away - including human waste. The project

goes further than other recycling systems used on Mir or the International space

station, which purify water and recycle exhaled carbon dioxide, but do not attempt

to recycle organic waste for food production.



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Crystallising Proteins in Space

With the activation of ESA¶s Advanced Protein Crystallisation Facility (APCF) -

launched with Shuttle mission STS-105 on 10 August , the European utilisation of

the International Space Station has formally started.

The APCF, Europe's first experiment facility to arrive at the ISS, will perform aseries of automated experiments that could be a step towards a better understandingof protein crystallisation. Without the interfering tug of the Earth's gravity, thequality of the crystals may be improved, which is why the APCF was installed onthe International Space Station.



Page | 33

DATA COLLECTED THROUGH SPACE

STATIONS BY SPACE

ESA Low Gravity Research

European involvement in low gravity research began approximately 30 years ago, with

nationally funded programmes (in particular those of France and Germany) and US

collaborations. Later, in January 1982, a European Space Agency (ESA) funded

programme was initiated by the ESA Member States, who agreed to a small programme

to which governments could contribute according to their interests and budgets. The first

phase of this new ESA programme (Microgravity Programme: Phase-1) was established

for the period 1982-1985. This allowed ESA to participate in the German Texus

Sounding Rocket programme (later extended to include Swedish Maser Sounding

Rockets) to perform short duration microgravity experiments. The Phase-1 programme

also covered the development of a first set of multi-user experiment facilities to be flownon the Space Shuttle Spacelab and SpaceHab missions.

Since then, ESA has sponsored more than 2000 experiments, payloads and facilities,

which have been integrated and operated on various types of low gravity platforms,

including:

Drop Towers; Parabolic Flights; Sounding Rockets; Retrievable Capsules; Space Shuttle; MIR Space Station; International Space Station.

The Five Major Low Gravity Platforms

This document mainly covers the research executed on/in the 5 major low gravity

platforms currently supported by ESA, which are:

the ZARM (Zentrum für Angewandte Raumfahrt Microgravitation) Drop Tower,located in Bremen, Germany, which was officially declared an ESA ExternalFacility on 2 October 2003;

the Novespace Airbus A-300 ³Zero-g´ aircraft based at the Bordeaux-Mérignacairport, which has been used by ESA since 1997;



Page | 34

the four ESA supported sounding rockets (miniTexus, Texus, Maser and Maxus),which are launched from the Esrange base near Kiruna, Sweden;

the Russian Foton retrievable capsule, an unmanned Earth-orbiting spacecraftoffering microgravity and space exposure, that ESA has used since the early1990¶s;

the most complex platform currently accessible through ESA, the InternationalSpace Station (ISS).

R adial velocity track ing

An astronomer can determine much information about a distantstar by recording its spectrum. As the star moves in thesmall orbit resulting from the pull of the exoplanet, it will movetowards the Earth and then away as it completes an orbit. Thevelocity of the star along the line of sight of an observer on

Earth is its radial velocity. Changes in the radial velocity of thestar cause the lines in the star's spectrum to shift towards redder wavelengths when the star is moving away from us andtowards bluer wavelengths when the planet is approaching us(see image). This is the Doppler effect, and is noticeable withsound waves in everyday life, for example in the change of pitchof an ambulance siren as it drives past on the street. The periodic changes in the star¶sradial velocity depend on the planet¶s mass and the inclination of its orbit to our line of sight.These tiny changes or ³wobbles´ can be measured by a distantobserver. Astronomers use high precision spectrographs to

study Doppler-shifted spectra, looking for small regular variationsin the radial velocity of a star. As the inclination of the planetaryorbit is unknown, the measurement of this regular variationgives a minimum value for the mass of the planet.The radial velocity method has proven to be the most successfulin finding new planets. At present, the most successful lowmassextrasolar planet hunter is HARPS (High Accuracy RadialVelocity for Planetary Searcher), which is mounted on the ESO3.6-metre telescope at La Silla, Chile.

What can we learn from a extra solar planet

Extrasolar planets are fascinating because they may solve mysteriesabout our own Solar System. There is a wealth of dataavailable to study different types of galaxies and stars, whichhave enabled astronomers to develop models and theories onstar and galaxy formation and to place our own galaxy and star amongst them. The Solar System is 4.6 billion years old, but



Page | 35

there is no way to measure directly how it formed and it was,until recently, the only planetary system that we knew of, sothere was nothing to compare it with. We had no idea if it wasone of many, a typical example of a planetary system or aunique one-off. Studying the formation of other young planetary

systems may give us answers.Protoplanetary discs are regions of dust and gas orbiting veryyoung stars, where planets are formed. Current theories of planetary formation suggest that dust particles start to collapseunder gravity and stick together, forming bigger and bigger grains. If young protoplanetary discs survive the threat of stellar radiation and impacts by comets and meteorites, then matter continues to clump together and eventually planetoids mayform. Planetoids are celestial objects bigger than meteoritesand comets, but smaller than planets. After a few million years,most of the circumstellar dust will have been swept away as

planetoids accumulate mass and grow into planets.Most of the planets found so far are large, gaseous and veryclose to their star, unlike the situation in our own Solar System.The concept of orbital migration has been revived to explain theclose proximity of some giant planets to their star: these planetsmay have formed undisturbed relatively far from the star andthen slowly spiralled inwards over time.

A list of the most recent ESO achievements

is given below.



Page | 36

2009: Lightest extrasolar planet found using the most successful low-

mass extrasolar

planet hunter in the world, the HARPS spectrograph.

2008: First planet discovered around a fast-rotating hot star,

discovered by

three undergraduate students and confirmed by ESO¶s VLT.

2008: First direct image of a planet that is as close to its host star as

Saturn is

to the Sun.

2008: Unsurpassed details revealed on the motion and mak eup of

planet-forming discs around Sun-lik e stars.

2008: A trio of super-Earths are observed using ESO¶s HARPS

instrument. Data

suggests one in three Sun-lik e stars have such planets.

2007: Discovery that extrasolar planets may pollute the atmospheres of

their

parent stars with planetary debris.

2007: ESO develops a new imaging spectrograph so as to be able to

image

faint objects obscured by their bright parent stars directly. This paves

the

way for many thrilling new discoveries.

2007: Discovery of the most Earth-lik e planet: located 20 light-years

away, it

may have water on its surface.

2006: Observations show that some objects that are several times the

mass

of Jupiter have a disc surrounding them and may form in a similar way

to stars. It thus becomes much more difficult to define precisely what a

planet is.



Page | 37

2006: Detection of three Neptune-lik e planets, each of a mass between

ten and

20 times that of Earth, around a star that also possesses an asteroid belt.

Of all k nown systems, this is the most similar to our own Solar System.

2006: Discovery of the first terrestrial-sized extrasolar planet, five

times the size

of the Earth.

2005: Discovery of a planet with a mass comparable to Neptune

around a lowmass

star, the most common type of star in our galaxy.

2004: Ingredients for the formation of rock y planets discovered in the innermost

regions of protoplanetary discs around three young stars. This suggests

that the formation of Earth-lik e planets may not be unusual.

2004: First direct image tak en of an extrasolar planet, paving the way

for more

direct studies.

2004: Discovery of the first possible rock y extrasolar planet, an object

with 14

times the mass of the Earth.

2004: Confirmation of the existence of a new class of giant planet.

These planets

are extremely close to their host stars, orbiting them in less than two

Earth days, and are therefore very hot and ³bloated´.

2002: The discovery of a dusty, opaque disc surrounding a young Sun-lik e star,

in which planets are forming or will soon form. This disc is similar to

the

one in which astronomers think the Solar System formed.



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Planets Outside Our Solar System: Is there

life on other worlds?

1.The total number of

stars in the Milk y Way

Galaxy

These numbers are based on observations of the stars in our galaxy and of other galaxies we believe to be like our own.Most scientists believe the number of stars to be 400 billion.100 billion

2. The percentage of

stars that are

appropriate

Many scientists believe that a star has to be like our Sun. Only



Page | 39

about 5% of the stars in our galaxy are sun-like stars, thoughabout 10% are closely related, either slightly warmer or slightlycooler. About 50% of stars exist in binary or multiple systems,which many scientists feel make them inappropriate.0.05%

3. The average number

of planets around

each appropriate star

Appropriate stars may not have planets circling them. We haveonly just begun detecting extra-solar planets, so we don't reallyknow how common they are.1


planets within a solar

system that are

habitable

Our only example of this term is our own solar system. CouldEarth be the only habitable place in our solar system? Is our system typical? Remember that if one system has no habitable planets and another has four, the average would be two per system.10% Onaverage, there isone habitable planet in everysystem


habitable planets that

develop life

Having a planet that is appropriate for life doesn't necessarilymean that life will arise. No real data are available to help usestimate this term. Earth is the only planet on which we knowthere is life. However, bacterial life existed on Earth shortly(geologically speaking) after its formation, possibly indicatingthat the development of life is easy. Many scientists believe thatwhether or not life arises depends on many factors.



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0.000001% Lifeis a rare accidentthat is unlikelyto happenelsewhere


planets with life that

develop intelligent life

On Earth, humans developed intelligence, aparently as anevolutionary advantage. However, this term depends on howyou define intelligence. Are dolphins, gorillas, octopus, and antsintelligent? Furthermore, single-celled life existed on Earth veryearly, and multicellular life took 2.5 billion years to form (a very

long time, geologically speaking). Maybe the development of complex life, let alone intelligent life, is unusual.0.0001% or lessOnly one in amillion planetswith life willdevolopintelligent life


intelligent life that

develops radio

technology

Communication with intelligent extraterrestrials requires thatwe hear from them. Given the vast distances of space, theywould probably send signals that travel at the speed of light,such as radio waves. On Earth, humans have only justdeveloped radio technology, so possibly this term should havea low value. But, we did eventually develop radio technology,so maybe this is true of all intelligent beings.0.0001% or lessOnly one in1,000,000 planets withintelligentcivilizations willdevelop radiotechnology



Page | 41


"current" civilizations

having radio

technologies

Will an extraterrestrial's signals overlap with the lifespan of thereceiving civilization? Extraterrestrials that sent signals ahundred thousand years ago from a world a hundred thousandlight years away would still overlap with us, even if they diedout long ago. So, how long do civilizations with radiotechnology last? A high level of technological developmentcould bring with it conditions that ultimately threaten thespecies. Or maybe, once a society has radio technology, it maysurvive for a long time. Finally, radio signals may give way tomore advanced, less noisy technologies such as lasers. No one

would hear us then!0.0001% or lessOnly in amillioncivilizationswith radiotechnology willdevelop it intime to detectsignals fromanother civilization

NEED AND FUNCTION OF A SPACE STATION



Page | 42

Humans have dreamed of leaving the earth and traveling space for many years, and up to

this day they have taken many steps in the right direction. Yet, with every new frontier

they approach, new problems loom over the horizon. All problems involved with space

exploration may not directly involve space itself. Many of those problems surface right

here on Earth. Some of the easier issues have been resolved, such as escaping the forces

of gravity to reach outer space. More of these problems are far more arduous and the

solutions need more time to be worked out properly. In ³The Coming Schism´ by James

E. and Alcestis R. Oberg, humans have already begun colonizing space, yet there are still

new problems arising. Major problems such as financing, communication and culture

conflicts are important in the journey to space, because they all have the potential to

disrupt progress.

When people think of troubles that are related to space, they tend to overlook one of the

most obvious and most important problems, financing. Money may prevent humans from

leaving the very earth we stand on in the first place. Money can easily be the solution to

a problem or the cause of one. In the supporting film, Stat ioned in the Stars, it was

mentioned that in 1992, NASA spent 8 billion dollars without building a single piece of

material. The money was spent on other things such as payroll and international

conferences. The film also brought up the fact that every pound of water needed would

cost up to 10 thousand dollars; therefore, 100 lbs. of water would cost 1 million dollars.

This problem was later solved with the help of Russia in the creation of the closed loop

system. But Russia has not always been so helpful. While Russia was working with

NASA to help build a service module, they purposely delayed their efforts in order to

receive more money from NASA, until NASA had enough and gave them a deadline to



Page | 43

comply with. There are times when financing may prevent a project from being ventured

into completely without even spending the money. For example, further servicing of the

International Space Station would have cost upwards of 100 billion dollars. That is why

that project is still uncompleted.

Also, in ³The Coming Schism,´ the subject of money is brought up differently.

³It might reach out and, at some point, try to strangle off-world economics and the

pursuit of happiness in space with taxation, quotas, and embargos´ (Oberg and Oberg

24). The ³it´ the authors are referring to is the Earth. The taxation of the people living in

space by the people on Earth may cause some tension between the two groups which

could possibly result in a war, which would become a huge problem. In the end, money is

always needed, but it is not always available, and that is why it is a problem now and why

it will be a major problem, facing space exploration in the future.

Communication is another problem that may disrupt the journey ahead to space.

There are a lot of problems that can come from communication or even a lack of it. The

most recent example is the Columbia tragedy. Lower level engineers tried to relay the

possibility of a problem to the higher officials who would relay it to the astronauts on the

Columbia spacecraft, and warn them of a possible danger. But the letters never made it

that far and because of this communication block, the astronauts were unaware of the

possible danger awaiting them. Communication problems can also arise from language

barriers, such as in Stat ioned in the Stars between the Russians and the Americans. Also

there was one point at which France, Russia, China and other countries would have sent

astronauts up to the space station in other shuttles that would have attached to the space



Page | 44

station. If this had succeeded, there would have been some confusion amongst them,

because they do not speak the same languages and they probably would not have had a

good way to communicate among them. In ³The Coming Schism,´ it is mentioned briefly

that when trying to communicate among citizens of different planets, there could be a

considerable lag and during an emergency this might cause problems; not being able to

communicate vital information quickly enough (21). In The V oya g er Mission C osmic

J ourne y, it is mentioned that it takes years to travel between the planets so human

language would be a far less inferior method to be used. Definitely in the end, not being

able to communicate properly will cause problems in a journey to space.

Different types of culture conflicts cause problems right here on Earth, so they

may cause problems in space. Racism and prejudice would not simply be extinguished

because people have left this planet. ³The Coming Schism´ states that many races may

live in space. There may be problems among all of the different types of races living out

in the same space colony. But as they eventually overcome the differences between them

a new type of prejudice may evolve between the people that are living in space and the

people that are remaining on Earth (24). This can be compared in way to the cultural

differences between the United States and the Taliban. These differences started to

surface in the manner of devastating attacks. The same could happen between the spacers

and the earthlings. Because of their opposing views in culture, a war could break out

between the two groups. ³Some spacers may hate Earth´ (Oberg and Oberg 23).

The authors then go into detail why the spacers may begin to dislike the Earth:



Page | 45

Imagine a world free of mosquitoes, gnats, and cockroaches, and then

imagine coming back to Earth where these little intrepid little vectors of

disease and filth thrive. If this Moon native travels into any large city, he

or she will see congestion, pollution, and traffic, and will hear noise and

confusion. Hotel rooms are cluttered with furniture, and no Earth mattress

can ever be as comfortable as a sleeping bag in weightlessness. (Oberg

and Oberg 23)

Problems like these can cause one¶s opinions to change over time. The longer the people

live away from the Earth the more they will change from the people on Earth. The

differences between them, their beliefs and their culture, and why they choose to hate, are

not problems that can be solved with technology. Each problem is better left for the

people themselves to solve, and by the current looks of things, such psychological and

social problems will continue to affect the Earth now and the space in the future.

In the end, there are a myriad of problems that face space exploration. Some of

them are small and easy to overcome, but others are huge and need more planning. The

recent Columbia tragedy shows us that we have not conquered space yet and that there

are still many things that can go wrong. Some of the problems that occur here on Earth

will also occur in space. To help smooth the problematic path ahead for space

exploration, major problems such as financing, communication, and cultural

differences should, at the very least, receive the most attention if they cannot be solved at

the present time. These problems cannot just be left on the back burner and ignored; they

are very important and should be at the top priority when considering how to further our

journey into space.



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Spreading Life to other planets

A new trend: people send their information to outer spacePeople all over the world gathered around a project in an aim to spread life to other

planets, andleave an everlasting mark in the universe. BeInSpace, a non governmental project, aimsto preserve and spread life as we know it to outer space. It has opened a portal that allowsusers tosend their DNA and upload Digital information that would be sent to outer space in thespring of 2009. "This is the only thing that would remain of us, and it can sprout life on a newfertile plant"says Solomon Byron an excited user that sent his DNA with hopes that it would lastforever.

Francis Crick, a Nobel Prize winner for the co-discovery of a double helical structure(DNA) published a paper suggesting that life may have arrived on Earth through a process called'Directed Panspermia. The Panspermia hypothesis suggests that the seeds of life arecommon inthe universe and can be spread between worlds. He also suggested that other civilizationscouldhave sent it to earth. "Why shouldn't we do the same? As an intelligent being we have anobligation to spread life to other planets! " Says Agmon David CEO of BeInSpace andemphasize"Someday, somehow, life on earth will come to an end, perhaps due to wars, floods,

diseases, or the expansion of the sun to a red giant. Our role as a civilization should be to help preserve life beyond earth."Intends to collect 1 Tara byte of a variety of digital data such as web pages, blogs, letters, songs, stories, photos, ideas worth spreading,MP3,EXE Flash and other filesanythingthat is digital and is uploaded to BeInSpace . Such data, known as Memes, are nungenetic replicators that define our cultural information and expresses what we are.BeInSpace also collects DNA (genetic information). participators receive a simple kit for collecting their own DNA. Once the kit returned to BeInSpace, they will separate the

DNA fromthe cell, encapsulate it, and send it to outer space. "By sending our DNA into space, wewill be protecting the millions of years of evolution that are folded within each of our cells, andassuringa part of life will float in deep space far into the future" says Agmon.How far? To ship the memes and genes into outer space, BeInSpace has establishedcontacts with



Page | 47

Leading providers of space shuttle service and will ship the data out of the atmosphere,throughspace, leaving the solar system on a permanent celestial journey.The cost for each file, that is uploaded, is fee based on the type and amount of MBs thatare

uploaded. Every MB costs $2. Sending a DNA sample is $87.30 years ago Carl Sagan sent on a voyager a plate with information and said:| P a g e 2"A billion years from now, when everything on Earth we've ever made has crumbled intodust,when the continents are changed beyond recognition and our species is unimaginablyaltered or extinct, the Voyager will still speak for us"The BeInSpace ambitious project will contain a billion times more information then theVoyager and give hope for the beginning of life in other distant planets.

simulated interferometer signals, indicates what astronomers might reasonably expect to see with a

space-based telescope. This study displays a system

about 30 light-years away, with four planets roughly equivalent in luminosity to Earth. (Each

planet appears twice, mirrored across the star.) With this sensitivity, the authors speculate that the

instrument could easily examine the planet recently



Page | 48

found orbiting 47 Ursae Majoris.

Exploring Beyond Earth Orbit while Preparing for the Future

As NASA exists in america so the basic planing for earths future horizons mainly

depends on the budget and planning of america.

On April 15th, 2010 President Obama announced a new American Space Flight Policy:

³ E arly in the next d ecad e , a set of cr ewed flig ht s will te st and prove the system s r equir ed for explor at ion be yond low E ar th orbit . And by 2025 , we expect new s pacecr a f t d e signed

for long journe ys t o allow us t o be gin the first-ever cr ewed missions be yond the Moon int o d eep s pace. S o we¶ ll star t ² we¶ ll star t by sending a st ronaut s t o an a steroid for the

first t ime in hist ory. B y the mid -2030 s, I believe we can send humans t o orbit M ars and r et urn them sa f ely t o E ar th. And a l anding on M ars will follow.´

The President set forth the why in his speech:

³F if t y years a f ter the cr eat ion of N AS A, our goal is no long er just a d e st inat ion t o r each. Our goal is the capacit y for peo pl e t o wor k and l earn and o per ate and live sa f ely be yond

the E ar th for extend ed periods of t ime , ul t imately in wa ys that ar e mor e sustainabl e and even ind e finite. And in fulfilling this ta sk , we will not only extend humanit y¶ s r each in

s pace ² we will st r eng then America¶ s l ead ershi p her e on E ar th.´

NASA is at severe risk of losing the expertise and talent that will allow America to reach

these goals ± the engineers who will design the rockets and spacecraft, the manufacturing

technicians who will build and assemble the rockets and spacecraft, the engineers who

will perform engineering services and mission operations from training to mission

execution, and last but not least our corps of astronauts who risk their lives every time

they leave our planet to push the boundaries of exploration.

While NASA is a governmental agency, it should at times think like a business. In order

to survive through Presidential churn it is vital to our continued success as a nation to

press forward with exploration at the same time as developing new technologies to reach

the goals President Obama has recently laid out for NASA. Great companies survive

because they execute their portfolio and invest in their future at the same time. While

companies are marketing their current product line they continue to invest in R&D for

their future product line. What NASA has always done is one or the other but never both

due to the structure of the American government and the priorities of the sitting

Administration. It is imperative that NASA continue to execute missions, not just to the

International Space Station but to use the existing capabilities not only within our own

country but within our world and continue to learn about living and working in space and

on foreign bodies such that when it is time to venture to an asteroid in 2025 and to the



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orbit of Mars in the 2030¶s that we are prepared not just from technological

breakthroughs but from a collective expertise of mission success.

The proposal is that we invest in both today and tomorrow. We move forward

internationally pooling the expertise of National Space Agencies and Aerospace

Companies while continuing to invest in the R&D that is vital to our future. If Americais not interested in leading, then an international consortium could be established to

maintain these critical skills and move once again Beyond Earth Orbit (BEO) within this

decade. The following is an example of how collectively as a global entity we can go

Beyond Earth Orbit.

The concept is to utilize the existing capabilities and infrastructure of existing space

agencies and aerospace contractors in order to move BEO during this decade. This is

important to maintain the vital skills of our space faring planet, to develop new skills, and

inspire our next generation of engineers, technicians, and astronauts.

The idea is to assemble the BEO vehicle using the International Space Station (ISS) as

the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Platform thus utilizing existing capabilities to launch the

BEO vehicle modules and the crew. The BEO Crew can launch to ISS using the Soyuz

Launch Vehicle and Soyuz Crew Vehicle (RSA). The Orion Crew Capsule could

continue to be developed by NASA/Lockheed Martin to serve as the BEO Crew Capsule

and be launched unmanned on a Delta IV Heavy to dock at the ISS.

There are a number of Cargo Launch Vehicles; Ariane V (ESA), Atlas V (ULA), Delta

IV (ULA), Proton (RSA), Falcon 9 (SpaceX) that can be utilized to launch the modules

that will make up the BEO vehicle. Each BEO module will have autonomous guidance,navigation, and control (GN&C) capabilities leveraged off of RSA (ISS Modules) and the

Boeing/Darpa Orbital Express lessons learned. The modules could perform automated

rendezvous and docking at the space station similar to the Progress and ATV Cargo

Vehicles or be berthed like the HTV Cargo Vehicle by the space station¶s robotic arm.

A BEO propulsion module is a necessity to leave LEO and should leverage in-space

refueling capabilities similar to Progress/ISS and incorporate lessons learned from the

Boeing/Darpa Orbital Express so that the BEO propulsion module can be refueled at the

space station or in LEO by a Progress Cargo Vehicle. This new module could be

procured under the Flagship Technology Demonstrator Program to test out refuelingcapabilities.

With the integration of the above launch vehicles and BEO modules numerous BEO

destinations within cislunar space are achievable within the next 5-7 years allowing the

engineering, manufacturing, and operational skill base to not be lost. There are numerous

missions that can be flown in cislunar space that can build upon the expertise of Apollo,



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Shuttle, and ISS and take us one step closer for being ready to venture into deep space to

an asteroid by 2025 and Mars in the mid 2030¶s.

MAIN PEOPLE IN SPACE EXPLORATION



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Yury Gagarin Vostok 1

April 12, 1961 first man in space

Alan Shepard Mercury-Redstone 3

(F reedom 7 ) May 5, 1961 first American in space

Gherman Titov

Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 first to spend more than one day in space; youngest person (25 years old)

in space

John Glenn

Mercury-Atlas 6 (F riendship 7 ) Feb. 20, 1962 first American in orbit STS-95 (Discovery ) Oct. 28

Nov. 7, 1998 oldest person (77 years old) in space

Adriyan Nikolayev;

Pavel Popovich Vostok 3;

Vostok 4 Aug. 1115, 1962;

Aug. 1215, 1962 first simultaneous flight of two spacecraft

Valentina Tereshkova

Vostok 6 June 1619, 1963 first woman in space

Yuri Gagain Neil Armstrong Gus Grissom John Young



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Konstantin Feoktistov;

Vladimir Komarov;

Boris Yegorov

Voshkod 1 Oct. 1213, 1964 first multimanned spacecraft; first doctor in space (Yegorov)

Aleksey Leonov

Voshkod 2 March 1819, 1965 first person to walk in space Roger Chaffee;

Virgil Grissom;

Edward White II Apollo 1

Jan. 27, 1967 killed in fire while testing spacecraft Vladimir Komarov Soyuz 1 April 2324, 1967

first spaceflight casualty

William Anders;

Frank Borman;

James Lovell

Apollo 8 Dec. 2127, 1968 first to fly around the Moon

Neil Armstrong;

Edwin ("Buzz") Aldrin

Apollo 11 July 1624, 1969 first to walk on the Moon

Fred Haise;James Lovell;

Jack Swigert Apollo 13 April 1117, 1970 farthest from Earth (401,056 km [249,205 miles]);

survived oxygen-tank explosion Georgy Dobrovolsky;

Viktor Patsayev;

Vladislav Volkov

Soyuz 11/Salyut 1 June 629, 1971 first stay on a space station; first to die in space

Eugene Cernan;Harrison Schmitt Apollo 17 Dec. 719, 1972 last to walk on the Moon Vance Brand;

Donald Slayton;

Thomas Stafford;

Valery Kubasov;



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Aleksey Leonov Apollo-Soyuz July 1719, 1975 first joint U.S.-Soviet spaceflight Sigmund Jähn

Soyuz 31/Salyut 6/Soyuz 29 Aug. 26Sept. 3, 1978 first German astronaut in space

Jean-Loup Chrétien

Soyuz T-6/Salyut 7 June 24July 2, 1982 first French astronaut in space

Sally Ride

STS-7 (C hallenger ) June 1824, 1983 first American woman in space

Guion Bluford

STS-8 (C hallenger ) Aug. 30Sept. 5, 1983 first African American in space

Ulf Merbold

STS-9 (C olumbia) Nov. 28Dec. 8, 1983 first ESA astronaut in space Rakesh Sharma Soyuz T-

11/Salyut 7 April 311, 1984 first Indian in space

Marc Garneau

STS-41-G (C hallenger ) Oct. 513, 1984 first Canadian in space

Franklin Chang-Díaz

STS-61-C (C olumbia) Jan. 1218, 1986 first Hispanic American in space

Christa McAuliffe

STS-51-L (C hallenger ) Jan. 28, 1986 was to have been the first teacher in space; killed in

C hallenger explosion Akiyama Tohiro Soyuz TM-11/Mir/

Soyuz TM-10 Dec. 210, 1990 first Japanese in space;

first commercial astronaut Helen Sharman Soyuz TM-12/Mir/

Soyuz TM-11 May 1826, 1991 first Briton in space; first non-U.S., non-Russian female astronaut

Mae Jemison;

Mohri Mamoru

STS-47 (Endeavour ) Sept. 1220, 1992 first African American woman in space; first Japanese

astronaut in space

Ellen Ochoa

STS-56 (Discovery ) April 817, 1993 first Hispanic American woman in space

Valery Polyakov



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Soyuz TM-18/Mir/

Soyuz TM-20 Jan. 8, 1994

March 22, 1995 longest stay in space (438 days)

Sergey Krikalyov

STS-60 (Discovery ) Feb. 311, 1994 first Russian on U.S. spacecraft

Eileen Collins

STS-93 (C olumbia) July 2328, 1999 first female space shuttle commander Dennis Tito Soyuz

TM-32/ISS/

Soyuz TM-31 April 28May 6, 2001 first space tourist Jerry Ross STS-110 ( Atlantis)/ISS April 8

19, 2002 first person to fly into space seven times Yang Liwei Shenzhou 5 Oct. 15, 2003 first

Chinese astronaut in space Michael Melvill SpaceShipOne June 21, 2004 first private spaceflight

Yi So-yeon Soyuz TMA-12/ISS/Soyuz TMA-11 April 819, 2008 first Korean astronaut in space

The first person ever in space.

SUB SYSTEMS DEVELOPED IN SPACESTATIONS



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USES OF SPECTRUM IN SPACE APPLICATON

This provides an introduction to the application of SpecTRM(Specification Tools and Requirements Methodology) to safety-

critical software in spacecraft controllers. The SpecTRM toolset

directs the design toward modeling the formal behavior of safety-

critical software and its operation, while maintaining significantsafety information. We have studied the applicability andeffectiveness of the methodology on several projects to illustratethe variety of projects on which SpecTRM can be applied, as wellas those stages of a system design the methodology is mostuseful. These case studies have been completed for safety-

critical controllers on the International Space Station. Motivationfor the use of SpecTRM for the design of space critical systems isexplained, as well as benefits achieved from formal modelingusing SpecTRM. Our experience has shown that the benefits

gained from using SpecTRM can help to achieve safety andmission success in space systems.

Computer systems are indispensable for the success of all space systems, and will

continue to be a key technology for future space projects. The trend in system design is

toward an increase in functionality and automation of the space systems. This leads to

more complex systems with new types of safety issues concerning both the design and

management of the system. Accidents or fatal failures are commonly traceable to high-

level requirements incompleteness such as task design or system design omissions. In

light of this observation, the formal specification toolset SpecTRM has been studied tosupport the design, implementation, and maintenance of safety-critical systems.

SpecTRM is a system and software engineering environment designed to include safety

engineering processes such as safety assessment and hazard analysis (ref. 1). An intent

s pecificat ion is the system specification methodology used in SpecTRM (ref. 2). This

intent specification includes most of the features needed to structure a critical system

specification including traceability from high-level requirements and safety constraints

(with hazard analysis) to the component specification model, code, and operator tasks.

Our experience has shown that without special mathematical knowledge or extensive

training, engineers in most fields can easily use intent specifications to specify blackbox

behavior by using SpecTRM-RL (SpecTRM Requirements Language)

The structure of the intent specification is described in figure 1. Each level of an intentspecification shows the d epth of intent . However, the levels of intent are not linkeddirectly to a specific software development phase. The specification description in each



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intent level contains information about the environment, the operator tasks and thesystem description. The system description can be decomposed into components or subcomponents. Besides the two directions mentioned above, the intent specification isdesigned to deal with any abstraction level (d epth of r e finement ), i.e. it can be veryflexible and can be refined iteratively during development.

In SpecTRM, it is possible to start building any part of the intent specification, i.e. anylevel of intent, and any refinement of the specification description. The contents of intentspecifications are very carefully designed from a viewpoint of system safety.

The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space

Station

The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) is a particle physics detector designed to

measure charged cosmic rays spectra up to TV region, with high energy photon detection

capability up to few hundred GeV. With the large acceptance, the long duration (3 years)

and the state of the art particle identification techniques, AMS will provide the most

sensitive search for the existence of anti matter nuclei and for the origin of dark matter.

The detector is being constructed with an eight layers Silicon Tracker inside a large

superconducting magnet, providing a ~ 0.8 Tm2 bending power and an acceptance of ~

0.5 m2 sr. A Transition Radiation Detector and a 3D Electromagnetic Calorimeter allow

for electron, positron and photon identification, while indipendent velocity measurements

are performed by a Time of Flight scintillating system and a Ring Image Cerenkov

detector. This contribution will describe the overall detector construction which is due to be completed by 2005.

The detector has been installed on ISS (International Space Station) in 2007.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION SK YROCKETS

INTO 21ST CENTUR Y

EXTRUDED ALUMINUM TRUSS STRUCTURES LINK STATION MODULES TOGETHER INTHE

Innovation launches into orbit, thanks to aluminum industry manufacturers whoare supplying extruded aluminum tubing for the truss structures that link together the International Space Station (ISS). Boeing Company engineers are workingwith extruders on a massive scale during construction and assembly of the newestextruded truss sections: Starboard segments S3, S4, S6, and Portside segments



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P3, P4 and P5, scheduled to begin launching in Spring, 2005. Truss section P6,launched in November 2000, supports the current ISS configuration. A marvel of science and aerospace engineering, this vast ISS program is truly flourishingthanks to aluminum extruders across the globe.The ISS is the most complex international scientific

venture in history. Its crews are conductingresearch to support space exploration, and are providing a stable environment for scientific, technologicaland commercial research. Building the ISSinvolves more than 100,000 space agency andcontractor personnel from 16 countries, includingmore than 10,000 first to fourth-tier suppliers²trulyan example of international cooperation.



space stations a brief survay(also cover pakistan progress)

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