SOIL TEST BASED INTEGRATED NUTRIENT TAILORING FOR OPTIMUM BANANA PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABLE SOIL HEALTH USING ARTIFICAL NEURAL NETWORKS Thesis submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the award of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Computer Science By N.MANOHARAN, (Reg.No.M698800014) Supervisor Dr.R.BALASUBRAMANIAN, Ph.D., M.Phil (Maths)., M.Phil (C.S.)., M.Phil (Mgt)., M.S., M.B.A., M.A.D.E., PGDIM., PGDOM., PGDCA., PGDHE., DIM., DDE., CCP., Professor & Dean Faculty of Computer Applications Erode Builder Education Trust’s Group of Institutions Nathakadaiyur, Kangayam. VINAYAGA MISSION’S UNIVERSITY, SALEM-636 308, Tamil Nadu, India. June-2012
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cordage, garlands, shelter, clothing, smoking material, and numerous
ceremonial and religious uses. With the exception of India, banana and
plantain are ideally suited for traditional and agro forestry, for inter planting
in diversified systems, and for plantation-style cultivation in full sun.
Although mostly consumed locally in the Indian region, the fruit enjoys a
significant worldwide export market.
Indian agriculture has responsibility of providing national as well as
household food and nutritional security to its teeming millions in a scenario of
planting genetic potential in all major crops and declining productivity in vast tracts
of rain fed/ dry land areas constituting approximately 44.2 percent of net cultivated
area. Wide-spread occurrence of ill-effects of green revolution technologies (GRTs)2
in all intensively cultivated areas is threatening the very sustainability of the
important agricultural production systems and national food security. It has also to
share local as well as global responsibilities to ensure environmental safety for human
kind.
1 Biological name of Banana is musa2 Green Revolution Technologies is used to share the global and local responsible for environmentsafety for human kind
2
A mismatch between the national food grain production and requirement has
already crept into the system, which is further widening. The human population of
India has increased to 1210.2 million at a growth rate of 1.76 per cent in 2011 over
2001 (1028.7 million) and is estimated to increase further to 1530 million by 20303
(Census of India, 2011). On the other hand our national food grain production for past
3-4 years is hovering around 234 million tonnes. This means that per capita food
grain production is only about 193 kg per year. There are projections that demand for
food grains would increase from 234 million tonnes in 2009-10 to 345 million tonnes
in 2030 (GOI, 2009)4. Hence in the next 20 years, production of food grains needs to
be increased at the rate of 5.5 million tonnes annually [99].
Simultaneously, the demand for high-value commodities such as fruits,
vegetables, livestock products, fish, poultry etc., is increasing faster than food grains,
and is expected to increase by more than 100% from 2000 to 2030. As a result, area
under horticultural crops has increased appreciably during past two decades .At
present, more than 20 million hectare area is reported under horticultural crops with a
total production of 207 million tonnes, of which major contribution comes from fruits
(60.8%) and vegetables (30.7%). The fruits are grown in approximately 5.78 million
hectare with a production level of 63.50 million tonnes. Likewise, total production of
vegetables is about 125.90 million tonnes which comes from an area of 7.80 million
hectare (Agricultural Situation in India, 2009) Of the total vegetable production, more
than 65 percent comes from potato, tomato, onion, brinjal, okra, cabbage and
cauliflower.
3 Census of India 2011 to increase food grain production and requirement for increasing population inindia.
4 Vision 2030 Project Director, Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research (ICAR),Modipuram,Meerut-250 110 (U.P.), India. Typeset & Printed in: Yugantar Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.,WH-23, MayapuriIndustrial, Area, Phase-I, New Delhi.
3
From an historical point of view, the understanding of the banana soil-plant
relationship can be divided into periods before and after 1990. Before 1990, the
banana industry in general was very respectful of soil quality; only soils with
optimum morphological, physical and chemical conditions were placed under banana
production.
It can be stated without a doubt that climate and soil determine the success of
banana production enterprises. In most cases, climatic factors are easier to determine;
however, the soil component is much more difficult to characterize due to the
variation of the soil morphological, physical and chemical properties within a given
area (large or small) under the same climate. The effect on banana root performance
of the various components of these two factors has not been fully understood mainly
due to the interactions that occur among them. However, the effect of some soil
properties on root performance has been understood to a considerable extent after the
experience gained during the great expansion of the banana industry in the 1990s.
Plant analysis has been considered a very practical approach for diagnosing
nutritional disorders and formulating fertilizer recommendations (Kelling et al.,2000;
Self, 2005) [49]. Plant analysis, in conjunction with soil testing, becomes a highly
useful tool not only in diagnosing the nutritional status but also an aid in management
decisions for improving the crop nutrition (Rashid, 2005) [80].
Plant analysis is the quantitative analysis of the total nutrient content in a plant
tissue, based on the principle that the amount of a nutrient in diagnostic plant parts
indicates the soil’s ability to supply that nutrient and is directly related to the
available nutrient status in the soil (Malavolta, 1994 [62]; Kelling et al., 2000 [49];
Havlin et al., 2004[37]; Rashid, 2005[80]). It is a very practical and useful technique
for fruit trees and long duration crops (Rashid, 2005) [80]. Hence, it seems quite
convenient and appealing for bananas also.
4
Bananas are heavy feeder of nutrients (Jones, 1998) [47] and thus need balanced
nutrition for optimum growth and fruit production, and gives in turn potential yields.
A deficiency or excess of nutrients can cause substantial damage to the plant (Memon
et al., 2001) [68]. The early (until the mid-1960s) researches on banana nutrition had
concentrated on the description of symptoms of nutrient imbalance and the conduct of
field experiments comparing response to rates of applied fertilizer on a range of soil
types. During last three decades, scientists attempted to understand more clearly the
role of nutrients in the growth and development of bananas. Field studies of fertilizer
response are still being conducted, but attempts to relate nutrient concentrations in the
soil and plant to yield have complemented this work. Analysis of plant parts for
mineral elements and the attempt to set standards for interpreting leaf analysis data
came to the fore in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
However, each researcher approached the problem differently, probably
reflecting a lack of unifying concepts in the understanding of the growth and nutrition
of bananas, until Martin-Prevel (1974 [64], 1977 [65]) initiated the formation of an
International Group on Mineral Nutrition of the Banana that resulted in a suggested
International Reference Method for sampling in banana fertilizer experiments.
Plant analysis can serve as a nutritional guide. Plant analysis, normally, is a
laboratory analysis of collected plant tissue. Using established critical or standard
values, or sufficiency range, a comparison is made between the laboratory analysis
results with one or more of these known values or ranges in order to access the plant’s
nutritional status (Jones et al., 1991 [45]; Kelling et al., 2000 [49]; Rashid, 2005
[80]). Hence, it can be successfully used to identify the hidden hungers of plants (PPI,
1997; Kelling et al., 2000; Tisdale et al., 2002; Rashid, 2005).
The use of plant analysis as a diagnostic tool has a history dating back to
studies of plant ash content in the early 1800's. While working on the composition of
plant ash, researchers recognized the existing relationships between yield and the
nutrient concentrations in plant tissues. Quantitative methods for interpreting these
5
relationships in a manner that could be used for assessing plant nutrient status arose
from the work of Macy (1936) [60]. Since then, much effort has been directed
towards plant analysis as diagnostic tool.
Banana is one of the important fruit crops in India. In India, 16.5 million
tones of banana are being produced from 4.5 lakh hectares, with 16-lakh tones of
inorganic fertilizers, annually. By 2020, India has to produce 25 million tones of
banana for exploding population and for export purposes.
For this requirement of inorganic fertilizers it is extrapolated to about 25 lakh
tones. The cost of inorganic fertilizers is increasing day by day. Fortunately, N and P
fertilizers are manufactured / mined in India sufficiently based on our needs and their
prices are in our control, but unfortunately, we are depending on foreign countries for
K fertilizers, which account nearly 50 per cent of the cost of inorganic fertilizers
required for banana. There is no chance of reduction in hike in cost of K fertilizers
and hence in the cost of total fertilizer input for banana. As this is the present
situation, the target, 25 million tones of banana is likely to be out of reach.
On the other hand, banana being a K-loving crop depletes soil K rapidly and
replacement of K in banana soils is not in proportion due to increasing cost of K
fertilizers in the market and hesitation of the banana farmers to application of such a
costly K fertilizers adequately to their soils. Such type of problems leads to sever
nutritional imbalances, which are the permanent soil health damages.
Crop yield history suggests that crop production systems are very complex.
Both process-oriented crop growth models and traditional statistical methods can be
used to study crop growth and yield response to environment and management. For
example, Paz et al. (1999, 1998) [76] developed a technique to characterize corn yield
variability using the CERES-Maize process-oriented crop growth model, and to
characterize soybean yield variability using the CROPGRO-Soybean process-oriented
crop growth model.
6
Drummond et al. (1995) [23] compared several methods for predicting crop
yield based on soil properties. They noted that the process of understanding yield
variability is made extremely difficult by the number of factors that affect yield. They
used several multiple linear regression methods --- such as multiple linear regression
(MLR), R 2 = 0.42; stepwise MLR (SMLR), R 2 = 0.43; partial least squares
regression (PLSR), R 2 = 0.43; projection pursuit regression (PPR), R 2 = 0.73; and
back-propagation neural network (BPN), R 2 = 0.67 --- for modeling the relationship
between corn yield or soybean yield and soil properties. They concluded that less-
complex statistical methods, such as standard correlation matrices, did not seem to be
particularly useful in understanding yield variability. The correlation matrices
described each factor's linear relationship to yield. However, when complex nonlinear
relationships between factors exist, correlation may provide inaccurate and even
misleading information about these relationships.
Data mining tools are beginning to show value in analyzing massive data sets
from complicated systems and providing high-quality information (White and Frank,
2000) [97]. An artificial neural network (ANN) is an attractive alternative for
building a knowledge-discovery environment for a crop production system.
Ambuel et al. (1994)[3] used a “fuzzy logic expert system” to predict corn
yields with promising results. The functional relationship using the fuzzy logic expert
system was expressed linguistically instead of mathematically. The authors suggested
the use of a neural network to predict within-field yields.
Mining of nutrients from soil is a major problem causing soil degradation and
threatening long-term food production in developing countries. In present research, an
attempt was made for carrying out nutrient budgeting, which includes the calculation
of nutrient balance at (plot / field) and meso (farm) level and evaluation of trends in
nutrient mining / enrichment.
7
Banana production systems at the current level of yields are not found to be
sustainable, in the long run, as there is significant reduction of plant nutrients in soil.
Hence Artificial Neural Network can be used to build a crop yield prediction model
for precision farming applications.
Setting a realistic yield goal in each part of the field is one of the critical
problems in precision for agriculture. The factors affecting crop yields are soil,
weather, and land management. Traditional statistical methods do not give accurate
results. Crop yield history suggests that crop production systems are very complex. If
less fertilizer is applied, the yield may be reduced, if too much is applied, money will
be wasted and the environment may suffer.
ANN as a base, development of new model was practised and found to be
very useful in setting more realistic target yields within fields for precision
agriculture. The newly developed model is an Absolute Update Technique, which
involves various analyses and reduces the more number of iterations. The Absolute
Update Technique has been used to drastically reduce the dimension of the network
and computational effort. It is mainly based on inorganic fertilizers and integration of
organic nutrient sources based on initial soil test values. This method is very
economical that is very farmer-friendly and can be easily practised by them without
affecting the soil health and farmers’ wealth.
8
1.2 Research Motivation
Banana is one of the important fruit crops in India. In India, 16.5 million tones
of banana are being produced from 4.5 lakh hectares, with the 16-lakh tones of
inorganic fertilizers, annually. By 2020, India has to produce 25 million tones of
banana for exploding population and for export purposes.
For this requirement of inorganic fertilizers is extrapolated to about 25 lakh
tones. The cost of inorganic fertilizers is increasing day by day. Fortunately, N and P
fertilizers are manufactured / mined in India sufficiently based on our needs and their
prices are in our control, but unfortunately, we are depending on foreign countries for
K fertilizers, which account nearly 50 per cent of the cost of inorganic fertilizers
required for banana. There is no chance of reduction in hike in cost of K fertilizers
and hence, in the cost of total fertilizer input for banana. As this is the present
situation, the target, 25 million tones of banana is likely to be out of reach.
On the other hand, banana being a K-loving crop depletes soil K rapidly and
replacement of K in banana soils is not in proportion due to increasing cost of K
fertilizers in the market and hesitation of the banana farmers to application of such a
costly K fertilizers adequately to their soils. Such type of problems leads to sever
nutritional imbalances, which lead to permanent soil health damages.
9
1.3 Soil and factors
1.3.1 Soils<
The fast deterioration of the banana root system takes place when the soil has
one or more of the following characteristics. More than 60% coarse fragments by
volume, high sand content (loamy sand or sand of coarse and very coarse size), very
high clay content without soil structure (massive) or with coarse and very coarse
blocks and prisms. Effective soil depth less than 30 cm is restricted by continuous
rock, massive clay or a shallow permanent water table.
1.3.2 Climatic and topographic factors,
High water table, Frequent water logging of the upper soil horizons (rain and
poor surface drainage), Frequent flooding, Effects in the banana root system.
1.3.3 Effects in the banana root system
The above mentioned factors ends up in weak root system, many dead roots,
few live roots, Short, weak and rotten roots, abundant dead roots, short, shallow and
horizontal roots and few short functional roots with frequent injuries many dead
roots.
1.3.4 Climate and topography
Rainfall is the most important factor involved in banana root system
deterioration.It interacts with topographic factors that may result in severe adverse
conditions for banana root development. The most important of the possible
interactions are flooding, puddles after rains, shallow water tables (permanent or
frequently fluctuating), and areas too close to sea level to be effectively drained.
10
1.3.5 Biological factors
Areas with high nematode populations, other banana root parasitic micro
organisms and insects can cause fast banana root deterioration, especially when the
areas have been previously planted with bananas.
Soil quality is defined as the capability of the soil to function effectively in the
present and future. This integrates physical, chemical and biological soil processes
establishing the most relevant for the production of biomass of sustainable quality
necessary to generate good plant and animal health (Doran and Parkin 1994) [19].
The quantification of the effect of soil in biomass production will depend on
the impact of each individual soil property on the performance of the crop of interest.
The concept applied by Karlen and Stott (1994), to assign weightings to the relevant
soil properties involved in the effects of soil erosion, was applied to evaluate the
effect of these properties in the production of crops other than bananas (Barahona
2000) [9]. The success of the practical application of these concepts (Fernandez
2003[29], Cueva 2003 [15], Orellana 2003)[75] and their usefulness to predict the
performance of several crops has lead to the application of these concepts to banana
cultivation
11
1.4 Research Problem
Plant analysis has been considered as a very promising tool to assess
nutritional requirements of plants for cost effective and environment friendly
agriculture. Diagnosing nutritional status of bananas through plant analysis not only
provides the basis of correct fertilizer requirement of the crop but also guides towards
the nutritional requirements of future crops. The total contents of nutrients in leaves,
and plant parts, compared with Critical Nutrient Range (CNR)5, provide the basis for
interpretation. The Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS)6 is also
used for interpreting plant analysis data, based on a comparison of calculated
elemental ratio indices with established norms.
The Plant Analysis with Standardized Scores (PASS)7, the most efficient
diagnosis systems, has not been effectively utilized for bananas. The accurate plant
sampling, handling, and analysis of the sample coupled with a thorough knowledge of
cropping history, sampling techniques, soil test data, environmental influences, and
nutrient concentrations favour efficient diagnosis and interpretation system (Menon et
al., 2005) [69]. This, in turn, leads towards more efficient nutrient management and
sustainable crop production. This research based on various critical aspects of the use
of soil variables and plant analysis as a diagnostic tool for banana nutrition
management.
5 Critical Nutrient Range6 Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System7 Plant Analysis with Standardized Scores
12
1.5 Aim and Objectives
Banana production systems at the current level of yields are not found to be
sustainable in the long run, as there is significant depletion of plant nutrients in soil.
Build up and maintenance of soil fertility and consequent provision of balanced
nutrition to banana crop is the key to sustain long term banana productivity.
This is the crucial time to encourage judicious application of inorganic
fertilizers and integration of organic nutrient sources based on initial soil test values
and leaf analysis through the development of farmer-friendly fertilizer adjustment
equations and allied computer packages, specific to different banana varieties,
locations, soil series etc. to get a targeted banana yield, based on the financial position
of the farmers, without affecting the soil health and farmers’ wealth adversely. The
following main objectives are given below:-
“ The objective of this research is to build up an ANN based Absolute Update
Technique relating banana yield to soil, weather, and land management factors leaf
nutrients, and to evaluate targeted banana yield based on initial soil test values and
financial position of the farmers using ANN and optimize the quantity of fertilizer
used in the soil based on balanced nutrition concept and sustain soil health by
avoiding inorganic fertilizers in banana cultivation.”
13
1.6 Scope of the Study
Banana production systems at the current level of yields are not found to be
sustainable, in the long run, as there is significant depletion of plant nutrients in soil.
Build up and maintenance of soil fertility and consequent provision of balanced
nutrition to banana crop is the key to sustain long term banana productivity.
In this work a systematic approach has been developed to train different
Artificial Neural Networks with different architectures for banana yield prediction
with new model. To achieve there is a need to develop a more advanced model which
is the ANN Absolute Update Technique. This technique consists of following aspects
Decision-making for agricultural scientists
Advising level of formers
Cost effective Solutions
14
1.7 Limitations of the study
1. Constraints on time and resources restricts to select a cluster of Tamil Nadu soils
and plant nutrients for the study. Hence the results are largely applicable to those
areas where similar conditions prevail.
2. The personal interview method of data collection requires the respondents to recall
from their memories about cultural operations of banana cultivation. Hence, the
findings may be subject to memory lapses of the study.
3. The average price realized during the study year was calculated and used in
converting Production figures from quantities to value terms, although the prices
realized differ from farmer to farmer every year.
4. In the study area, the duration of banana crop yield was different for many farmers.
So the findings of the study permitted to get the same yield.
15
1.8 Significance of the research
Banana is one of the important fruit crops in India. In India, 16.5 million tones
of banana are being produced from 4.5 lakh hectares, with the 16-lakh tones of
inorganic fertilizers, annually. By 2020, India has to produce 25 million tones of
banana for exploding population and for export purposes.
Banana production systems at the current level of yields are not found to be
sustainable, in the long run, as there is major depletion of plant nutrients in soil.
Hence, we are in need of a better and more profitable method of development. In such
a scenario this research gains significance at large. It attempts to set a realistic yield
goal in each part of the field which one of the complicated and critical problems in
precision in the field of agriculture today.
16
1.9 Statement of Problem
In Crop yield history, it is observed that crop production systems are very
complex. Presently, in agriculture, old vegetative methods are used which speaks on
the analysis of past data only. It does not have any relevancy for future prediction
with enough confidence. In this scenario, the researcher has identified the need of a
better and more profitable method of development which is discussed in this research
titled as “SOIL TEST BASED INTEGRATED NUTRIENT TAILORING FOR
OPTIMUM BANANA PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABLE SOIL HEALTH
USING ARTIFICAL NEURAL NETWORKS”.
17
Structure of Thesis
The thesis is split up into several chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Review of literature
Chapter 3 Survey Analysis and Design
Chapter 4 Methodology
Chapter 5 Result and Discussion
Chapter 6 Comprehensive conclusion and Scope of the future work
Chapter 7 Reference
18
2. REVIEW OF LITERATUREA review of the research work done in the past relating to the present study
has been presented in this chapter. Number of studies conducted in banana yield. A
long with a review of literature is presented under the following sub titles.
2.1 Soil based banana plant yield
2.2 Artificial Neural Networks based on other crops yield methods
2.3 Applications of Fertility Gradient approach for various crop yield prediction
2.4 Costs and returns of tissue culture banana and sucker propagated banana.
2.5 Resource use efficiency in tissue culture banana and sucker propagated
banana.
2.6 Marketing channels and marketing costs.
2.7 Problems in production and Marketing of banana.
2.1 Soil based banana plant yield
Delvaux (1995) [16] suggested that soil fertility (health), was a poorly defined
concept that not only relied on soil chemical, physical and biological properties, and
their interaction with the plant community, but on management practices, farming
skills and economics.
Doran and Parkin (1996) [19] defined soil health as “the capacity of a soil to
function within an ecosystem and land use boundary, to sustain biological
productivity, maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health”.
Van Bruggen and Semenov (2000) suggested that a healthy soil is a stable soil
with resilience to stress, high biological diversity and internal cycling of high
19
amounts of nutrients. Knowledge of the function of the soil ecosystem is a basic
requirement for soil stewardship (Ferris et al. 2001) [30].
Nematodes are components of the soil ecosystem that interacts with biotic
and a biotic soil factors (Yeates 1979). Because of this interaction, nematodes are
excellent bio-indicators of soil health, because they form a dominant group of
organisms in all soil types, have high abundance, high biodiversity and play an
important role in recycling within the soil (Neher 2001, Schloter et al. 2003 [82]).
Nematodes are heterotrophy, higher in the food chain than micro-organisms and so
serve as integrators of soil properties related to their food source, predators and
parasites (Ferris et al. 2001 [30], Neher 2001). Nematode diversity tends to be the
greatest in ecosystems with the least disturbance (Yeates 1999) [95].
The disturbance to the soil by environmental or land management practices
changes the composition of nematodes (Bongers 1990 [12], Yeates and Bongers
1999, Ferris et al. 2001) [30]. There are a number of indices derived from nematode
community analysis that can be used to determine the impact of management changes
on the soil ecosystem (Bongers 1990, Yeates and Bongers 1999, Ferris et al. 2001)
[30].
However, the finest use of nematodes is that they serve as the indicators of
soil ecosystem. Health and banana management is not a practical tool for farmers, as
it requires specialized knowledge and equipment (Neher 2001). Doran (2002) [21]
suggested linking “science to practice” in assessing the sustainability of land
management practices, by the use of simple indicators of soil quality and health that
have meaning for farmers. To embrace changes in environmental management of
their land, farmers need to understand why they need to change (Marsh 1998) [66].
The best way to achieve this is by the use of participatory research strategies using
simple on-farm techniques (Freebairn and King 2003[34], Lobry de Bruyn and Abbey
2003). A basic set of soil quality indicators was developed by J.W. Doran (USDA-
ARS, Lincoln, NE), and developed into an on farm test kit
2.7 Problems in production and marketing of banana
Senthilnathan, and Srinivasan (1994)[ 83], estimated the cost and returns of
Poovan cultivar banana production in Thrichirapalli district of Tamil Nadu. The study
revealed that, in Trichy taluk twenty per of cent farmers expressed high initial
investment, sixteen percent farmers expressed problem of heavy wind damage
similarly twelve price fluctuations and ten disease problems. In Lalgudi taluk there
were seventeen high initial investment, eleven price fluctuation, thirteen disease
incidence and nine wind damage. In Kulikathi taluk two disease incidence, eighteen
wind damage and fourteen price fluctuations.
Qaim (1999) [78] studied Socio-Economic impact of Tissue Culture (TC)
technology in banana production in Kenya. The study revealed that, due to high
expenses for the technology itself and for complementary inputs, small farms were
facing the most severe adoption constraints.
More (1999) [ 72] studied the economics of production marketing of banana
in Marathawada region of Maharashtra state. The study identified problems faced by
the farmers that, all the farmers in the study area were facing the problem of Musa
sercospora disease. The other major problems were high labour wages, non
availability of quality planting materials at right time at reasonable price and non
availability of adequate technical assistance from experts on behalf of government.
The problems in marketing were spatial variation in the prices creating uncertainity
among cultivatiors in choosing the markets for sale of produce. The higher
transportation cost was also one of the major marketing problems in marketing of
banana in the study area. Inadequate availability of the loan at right time by the
financial institutions was the main problem in the production of banana in the study
area.
37
Mishra et al., (2000) [71] in their study on production and marketing of
banana in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, identified problems faced by the
farmers in the production and marketing of banana, unavailability of quality suckers
and high cost of seed suckers, high cost of transportation, lower ruling price for
produce due to unavailability of adequate storage facilities and weak finance
structure. The problem of poor supply of power electric power in critical period,
unavailability of fertilizers and insecticides at reasonable prices.
Kameswara Rao (2000) [ 48]studied the problems of production and
marketing of banana in Tungabhadra command area. The study revealed that, the
major problems faced by the 85 per cent of the farmers was non availability of
sufficient irrigation water. 73 per cent of farmers were opined that higher prices of
fertilizers, 68 per cent of the farmers were facing the problem of non availability of
quality planting material. The other major problems in production of banana in study
area were labour shortage in peak time, hazards of soil salinity, hail storms of heavy
winds. The major financing problems in the study area were available loan was
inadequate, high procedural complication of loan and high rate of interest. The major
problems in marketing of banana in study area were high price fluctuations, high
transportation cost, delayed payments on sale proceeds by the trader/businessman and
high commission of intermediaries.
Begum and Raha (2002)[ 10], studied on Marketing of banana in selected
areas of Bangladesh. The existing marketing system for bananas in selected areas of
Bogra district,Bangladesh, was examined, based on data from 40 market
intermediaries. Also examined were the marketing costs and margins at different
levels of banana marketing and the existing marketing constraints. Results revealed
that banana marketing is a profitable venture and major marketing problems are price
instability, lack of capital, inadequate facilities, and lack of adequate market
information.
38
Guledgudda et al., (2002) [36] conducted a study on economics of banana
cultivation and its marketing in Haveri district of Karnataka. The study identified
production problems like lack of technical know-how, scarcity of labour, pest and
diseases, lack of adequate credit facility, and scarcity of water. The farmers in the
study area expressed also marketing problems like involvement of intermediaries,
lack of storage facilities and inadequate transportation.
Stephen et al (2002) [87] studied the Socio-economic impact of tissue culture
banana compared with non tissue culture banana in Kenya. The study revealed that
the tissue culture banana producers appear to be constrained by capital for investment
in irrigation facilities and acquisition of fertilizers or organic manures to produce
good banana crop. Lack of organized marketing facilities makes exploitation of
banana producers by traders/brokers fairly easily.
Shivanad (2002) [ 84]studied the performance of banana plantations in
northern Karnataka. The study revealed as perceived by the farmers the major
problems in cultivation of banana were severe incidence of Musa sercospora disease
in all the districts of northern Karnataka, the disease lead to heavy crop losses. Erratic
onset of monsoon was another problem in Belgaum district affecting banana
plantations. In Gulbarga district the non availability of labour and high labour wages
and non availability of technical assistance for improved cultivation of banana
possesses severe problem in production of banana. In marketing of banana farmers
were facing delayed payments of sale proceeds, high cost of transportation of
produce, wide price fluctuations and high commission charges as major problems.
,
Mali et al., (2003)[ 63], studied economics of production and marketing of
banana in Jalgaon district of Maharashtra. The study identified that high cost of
transportation, non availability of sufficient credit by the institutions in time, high
price fluctuations, the problem of cheating in weighing of produce and lack of
suitable grading of the produce according to quality as main problems in production
and marketing.
39
Alagumani (2005) [2] in study on economic analysis of tissue- cultured
banana and sucker-propagated banana, in Theni district of Tamil Nadu. The study
revealed that, the risk in cultivation of banana using tissue culture plantlets was lower
than that of sucker propagated banana production. The constraints in tissue culture
banana production were cost of tissue culture plantlets were very higher, and few
farmers were also expressed problem of marketing of big size bunches obtained from
tissue culture banana.
Rane and Bagade (2006) [79] studied economics of production and marketing
of banana in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra, the study reveals that farmers were
facing the problem of disease i.e. bunchy top disease of banana and also farmers were
facing the problem of pest i.e. aphids of banana in production of banana.
40
2.2 Synthesis of the Literature Review
This analysis proceeded towards the literature survey for the research work,
started working on Banana production systems at the current level of yields are not
found to be sustainable, in the long run, as there is significant reduction of plant
nutrients in soil. An Artificial Neural Network was used to build a crop yield
prediction model is Absolute Update Technique. This Technique involved for various
analyses and reduces the more number of iterations and used to drastically reduce the
dimension of the network and computational effort and farmer-friendly and based on
the financial position of the farmers, without affecting the soil health and farmers’
wealth adversely.
41
CHAPTER-III
Survey Analysis and Design
3.1 IntroductionIn the previous chapter, A review of literature on agriculture crop yield
prediction based yield variables like a soil, weather, plant analysis and land
management etc was discussed. This chapter exhibits yield prediction of banana
based on different type’s of soil in India with a difference in the genetic and
environment factors. Plant analysis is the quantitative analysis of the total nutrient
content in a plant tissue. It is based on the principle that the amount of a nutrient in
diagnostic plant parts indicates the soil’s ability to supply that nutrient and is directly
related to the available nutrient status in the soil. Artificial neural network training is
used to get yield variables to get optimum result. Hence, it seems quite convenient
and appealing for bananas also.
3.2 Soils
Soil may be defined as a thin layer of earth’s crust which serves as a natural
medium for the growth of plants. It is the unconsolidated mineral matter that has been
subjected to, and influenced by genetic and environmental factors parent material,
climate, organisms and topography all acting over a period of time. Soil differs from
the parent material in the morphological, physical, chemical and biological properties.
Also, soils differ among themselves in some or all the properties, depending on the
differences in the genetic and environmental factors. Thus some soils are red, some
are black; some are deep and some are shallow; some are coarse-textured and some
are fine-textured. They serve in varying degree as a reservoir of nutrients and water
for crops, provide mechanical anchorage and favorable tilth. The components of soils
are mineral material, organic matter, water and air, the proportions of which vary and
which together form a system for plant growth hence the need to study the soils in
perspective8.
8 A study of soil profile supplemented by physical, chemical and biological properties of the soilwill give full picture of soil fertility and productivity. Department of Agriculture & CooperationMinistry of Agriculture Government of India New Delhi January, 2011
42
Rocks are the chief sources for the parent materials over which soils are
developed. There are three main kinds of rocks: (i) igneous rocks, (ii) sedimentary
rocks and (iii) metamorphic rocks.
The rocks vary greatly in chemical composition and accordingly the soil
differs in their properties because they are formed from the weathering of rocks.
Weathering can be physical or chemical in nature. The agents of physical weathering
are temperature, water, wind, plant and animals while chemical processes of
weathering are hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
A developed soil will have a well defined profile which is a vertical section of
the soil through all its horizons and it extends up to the parent materials. The horizons
(layers) in the soil profile which may vary in thickness may be distinguished from
morphological characteristics which include colour, texture, structure etc. Generally,
the profile consists of three mineral horizons – A, B and C.
The A horizon may consist of sub-horizons richer in organic matter intricately
mixed with mineral matter. Horizon B is below A and shows dominance of clay, iron,
Aluminum and humus alone or in combination. The C horizon excludes the bedrock
from which A and B horizon are presumed to have been formed.
Physical properties of the soil include water holding capacity, aeration,
plasticity, texture, structure, density and colour etc. Chemical properties refer to the
mineralogical composition and the content of the type of mineral such as Kaolinite,
illite and montmorillonite, base saturation, humus and organic matter content. The
biological property refers to a content of extent and types of microbes in the soil
which include bacteria, fungi, worms and insects.
43
3.3 Major soil types of India
Some dominant groups of Indian soil, classified according to soil taxonomy and
chemical property are mentioned below:
3.3.1) Red soil
They are quite wide in their spread. The red colour is due to diffusion of iron
in the profile.
3.3.2) Lateritic soil
Lateritic soil is composed of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminum and
iron with small amounts of manganese oxide.
3.3.3) Black soil
Black soil contains a high proportion of Calcium and Magnesium Carbonates
and has a high degree of fertility.
3.3.4) Alluvial soils
This is the largest and agriculturally most important group of soils.
3.3.5) Desert soils
Desert soils occur mostly in dry areas and its important content is quartz.
3.3.6) Forest and Hill Soils high in organic matter
The soils are studied and classified according to their use which is termed
as land capability classification. In this classification, inherent soil characteristic,
external land features and environmental factors are given prominence. For this
purpose, soil survey is carried out to record the crop limiting factors such as soil
depth, topography, texture-structure, and water holding capacity, drainage features,
followed by evaluation of soil fertility status, based on soil testing / analysis.
3.4 Soil groups
The above soil groups which have been extensively studied because of their
extent and agricultural importance are described below:
44
3.4.1 Red Soils
The red soils of India, including red loams and yellow earths, occupy about
200,000 sq.miles and extend over a large part of Tamil Nadu, Mysore, south-east
Maharashtra and a tract along the eastern part of Madhya Pradesh to Chota Nagpur
and Orissa. In the north and north-east these extend into and include great part of the
Santhal Parganas of Bihar Birbhum, Bankura and Midnapur districts of West Bengal
Khasi, Jaintia, Garo and Naga Hills areas of Assam Mirzapur, Jhansi, Banda and
Hamirpur districts of Uttar Pradesh Baghelkhand division of Madhya Pradesh and
Aravallis and the eastern half of Rajasthan.
The main features of these soils, besides their lighter texture and porous and
friable nature, are: (a) the absence of lime (kankar) and free carbonates, and (b) the
usual presence of soluble salts in a small quantity, not exceeding 0.05 percent. These
soils are generally neutral to acid in reaction and deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, humus and perhaps lime. They differ greatly in depth and fertility, and produce
a large variety of crops under rain fed or irrigated conditions. They are divided into
two broad classes: (1) the red loams, characterized by a cloddy structure and the
presence of only a few concretionary materials; and (2) the red earth with loose top-
soil, friable but rich secondary concretions of a sesquioxidic clayey character.
The soil contains a high percentage of decomposable hornblende, suggesting a
comparatively immature nature. The silica-alumina ratio of the clay fractions is 2.7-
2.46 and their base exchange capacities are below 20 m.e. per 100 gm., suggesting
their predominantly kaolintic nature. In the typical red earth the silica-alumina ratio
of the clay fractions is higher than 2 and they are fairly rich in iron oxide.
The soils have undergone excessive weathering and very low amount of
decomposable mineral hornblende. In Tamil Nadu the red soils occupy a large part of
cultivated area. They are rather shallow, open in texture with the pH ranging between
6.6 and 8.0. They have a low base status and low exchange capacity, and are deficient
in organic matter, poor in plant nutrients, and with the clay fraction ratio of 2.5 – 3.0.
45
The predominant soil in the eastern tract of Mysore is the red soil, overlying
the granite from which it is derived. The loamy red soils are predominant in the
plantation districts of Shimoga, Hassan and Kadur. They are rich in total and
available K2O, and contain fair amounts of total P2O5 (0.5 – 0.3 percent); the lime
content is 0.1 – 0.8 per cent, nitrogen below 0.1 per cent, and iron and alumina 30 –
40 per cent. A broad strip of area lying between the eastern and western parts of
Coorg is red loam, easily drained and with a fairly dense growth of trees.
The acid soils in the south of Bihar (Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Santhal Parganas,
Manbhum and Singhbhum) are red soils. Their pH is 5.0 – 6.8 and they have high
percentage of acid-soluble Fe2O3 as compared with Al2O3 ; sufficient available
potash but P2O5 is low. The soils from Manbhum, Palamau and Singhbhum are
preponderant in zircon, hornblende and rutile respectively; those of Ranchi contain a
mixture of epidote and hornblende, neither of which is preponderating.
In West Bengal the red soils, sometimes misrepresented as laterites, are the
transported soils from the hills of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. The existing tracts of
soils in north-west Orissa are quite heterogeneous. There seems to be a prominent
influence of the rolling and undulating topography on soil characteristics. The soils
are slightly acidic to neutral in reaction and the total soluble salts are fairly low.
Ferruginous concretions are invariably met with, whereas calcareous
concretions are present only in a few cases at lower depths of the profiles. In a typical
red soil profile the total exchangeable bases is about 20 m.e., the SiO2- R2O3 ratio of
the clay fractions varies between 2 and 3, and the C – N ratio is near about 10.
The soils of Raipur district (Chattisgarh area) are grouped into the following classes:
Dorsa
These are Soils along the slopes, somewhat darker with same texture as above and
good paddy lands.
Kanhar
Kanhar is Lowland soil, dark, slightly heavier than Dorsa paddy is the main
crop and wheat is also grown in these lands.
46
Bhate
These are barren waste lands with gravel and sandy reddish-yellow and
usually in uplands. A part of Jhansi district (Uttar Pradesh) comprises red soils. These
are of two types : Parwa, a brownish-grey soil, varying from good loam and sand or
clay loam, and rakar, the true red soil is generally not useful for cultivation.
In the Telungana division of Andhra Pradesh both red and black soils
predominate. The red soils or chalkas are sandy loam located at higher levels and are
utilized for cultivation of kharif crops.
Another type of soil occurring in Andhra Pradesh is locally known as dubba.
It is loamy sand or very coarse sandy loam, and mostly pale-brown to brown with
reddish-brown patches here and there ; clay content is quite low (less than 10 percent)
and it has very low fertility ; invariably neutral in reaction and low in soluble salt
content. The content of organic matter is little to negligible. The soils are severely
eroded with surface soil depth below five inches and very often covered with multi-
sized gravels and cobbles. Being sub-marginal lands they are well suited for pasture
and forage crops rather than for rice growing.
3.4.2 Laterite and lateritic soils:
These soils occupy an area of about 49,000 sq.miles in India. The laterite
is specially well-developed on the summits of the Deccan Hills, Central India,
Madhya Pradesh, the Rajmahal Hills, the Eastern Ghats, in certain plains of Orissa,
Maharashtra, Malabar and Assam. These are found to develop under fair amount of
rainfall, and alternating wet and dry periods. The laterite and lateritic soils are
characterized by a compact to vesicular mass in the subsoils horizons composed
essentially of mixture of the hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. These soils are
deficient in potash, phosphoric acid and lime. On higher levels these soils are
exceedingly thin and gravelly, but on lower levels and in the valleys they range from
heavy loam to clays and produce good crops, particularly rice.
47
Both the high-level and low-level laterites occur in Tamil Nadu. They are both
in situ and sedimentary formations, and are found all along the West Coast and also in
some parts of the East Coast,where the rainfall is heavy and humid climate prevails.
In the laterites on lower elevations paddy is grown, while tea, cinchona, rubber and
coffee are grown on those situated on high elevations. The soils are rich in nutrients
including organic matter. The pH is generally low, particularly of the soils under tea
(pH 3.5 – 4.0) and at higher elevation.
In Maharashtra laterites are found only in Ratnagiri and Kanara; those in
the latter are coarse, poor in lime and P2O5, but fairly good in nitrogen and potash. In
the former, coarse material abounds in large quantities. These are rich in plant food
constituents, except lime.
In Kerala, between the broad sea belt consisting of sandy soil and sandy loams
and the eastern regions comprising the forest and plantation soils, the mainland
contains residual laterite. These are poor in total and available P2O5, K2O and CaO.
Laterite rock in Cochin is found to the east of the alluvial areas in Trichur, Talapalli
and Mukundapuram taluks. Soil is mostly laterite in Trichur taluk.
The nitrogen content varies from 0.03 – 0.33 per cent; the lime is very poor
and the magnesium is 0.11 – 0.45 per cent. The laterite soils in Mysore occur in the
western parts of Shimoga, Hassan, Kadur and Mysore districts. All the soils are
comparable to the laterites and to the similar formations found in Malabar, Nilgiris,
etc. These soils are very low in bases, like lime, due to severe leaching and erosion.
These are poor in P2O5. The pH is not as low as that in the plantation soils.
In West Bengal, the area between Damodar and Bhagirathi is interspersed
with some basaltic and granitic hills with laterite capping. Bankura district is known
to be located in the laterite soils zone. The SiO2 – Al2O3 ratio of the clay fraction is
quite high. The percentage of K2O, P2O5 and N are also low, showing considerable
leaching and washing out of these substances due to chemical weathering. The soils
of Burdwan are in all respects similar to the Birbhum and Bankura soils with one or
two exceptions. The high value of the SiO2 – Al2O3 ratio is significant.
48
In Bihar laterite occurs principally as a cap on the higher plateau but is also
found in some valleys in fair thickness. The laterites of Orissa are found largely
capping the hills and plateau occasionally in considerable thickness. Large areas in
Khurda are occupied by laterites. At Balasore, it is gravely. Two types of laterites are
found in Orissa, the laterite murrum and the laterite rock. They may occur together.
3.4.3 Black soils
These soils cover a large area throughout the southern half of the peninsula,
the Deccan Plateau, greater part of Maharashtra State, western parts of Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, and some parts of Tamil Nadu State, including the
districts of Ramnad and Tinnevelly. The black soils or regur include a large number
of physiographic regions, each within a zone having its own combination of soils.
These soils may be divided into three groups : (1) deep and heavy; (2) medium and
light; and (3) those in the valleys of rivers flowing through regur area.
The main features of the black soils are: (1) depth one to two or several feet
deep; (2) loamy to clayey in texture; (3) cracking heavily in summer, the cracks
reaching up to more than three or four feet in depth, especially in the case of heavy
clays; and (4) containing lime kankar and free carbonates (mostly CaCO3) mixed with
the soil at some depths. These soils are often rich in montmorillonitic and beidlite
group of minerals, and are usually suitable for the cotton cultivation. They are
generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and organic matter; potash and lime
are usually sufficient. The content of water-soluble salts is high, but the investigations
carried out in connection with Tungabhadra and Nizamsagar projects have shown that
these soils may be irrigated without any danger, if irrigation is carried out on sound
lines.
Though the black soils do not have distinct demarcation of horizons between
the un weathered parent material and the weathered soil, the soil profile may be said
to possess approximately three principal horizons A, B and C, the alluvial or A
horizon being predominant and of two types, namely, darker with high organic matter
49
content and lighter. The zone of accumulation of carbonates (CaCO3) and sulphates
(chiefly CaSO4) may be taken as the B or illuvial horizon. In regions of fairly high
and evenly distributed rainfall the zone of carbonate accumulation is found deeper in
the profile and sometimes incorporated with horizon C.
The occurrence of black and red soils in close proximity is quite common in
India. In Maharashtra soils derived from the Deccan trap occupy quite a large area.
On the uplands and on the slopes, the black soils are light coloured, thin and poor;
and on the lowlands and the valleys they are deep and relatively clayey. Along the
Ghats the soils are very coarse and gravelly. In the valleys of the Tapti, the Narmada,
the Godavari and the Krishna heavy black soil is often 20 feet deep. The subsoil
contains good deal of lime. Outside the Deccan trap the black cotton soils
predominate in Surat and Broach districts. Degraded solonized black soils, locally
known as chopan, occur along the canal zones in the Bombay Deccan. A large
number of typical black soil profiles have been examined in Tamil Nadu. They are
either deep or shallow and may or may not contain gypsum in their profile, and
accordingly four types of profiles are distinguished: (1) shallow with gypsum, (2)
shallow without gypsum, (3) deep with gypsum, and (4) deep without gypsum. The
shallow profiles are three to four feet deep, often with partially weathered rock
material even at a depth of 1.5 – 2.0 feet; the deep ones extend even up to nine feet or
more.
The black soils are very heavy, contain 65-80 per cent of finer fractions, have
high pH (8.5 – 9.0) and are rich in lime (5-7 per cent); they have low permeability,
high values of hygroscopic coefficient, pore-space, maximum water-holding capacity
and true specific gravity. They are low in nitrogen but contain sufficient potash and
P2O5. They have generally a high base status and high base exchange capacity (4 60
meg.) ; about 10-13 per cent iron content, and the CaO and MgO contents are formed
from a variety of rocks, including traps, granites and gneisses.
In Madhya Pradesh the black soils are either deep and heavy (covering the
Narmada Valley) or shallow (in the districts Nimar, Wardha, west of Nagpur, Saugor
and Jabalpur). The cotton-growing areas are mainly covered by the deep heavy black
soils which, however, gradually change in colour from deep-black to light. The
50
CaCO3 content increases with the depth. Clay content is 35-50 per cent, the organic
matter is low and SiO2-R2O3 ratio is 3 – 3.5.
The black soils of Mysore are fairly heavy with high salt concentration, and
rich in lime and magnesia. The SiO2-R2O3 ratio of clay fraction is 3.6.
3.4.4 Alluvial soils:
The so-called alluvial soils of India form an ill-defined group. Various types
of alluvium are classed as alluvial, e.g., calcareous soils, saline and alkali soils, and
coastal soils. The alluvial soils occur mainly in the southern, north-western and north-
eastern parts of India: the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, parts of Assam,
Orissa, and coastal regions of southern India including the local deltaic alluvia. These
soils are the most fertile amongst the Indian soils. The whole of the Indo-Gangetic
plain is, in this alluvial area, of 300,000 square miles. These soils are very deep,
deeper than 300 ft. at some places, and deficient in nitrogen and humus, occasionally
in phosphoric acid but not generally in potash and lime. They support a variety of
crops, including rice, wheat and sugarcane. They may be sub-divided into two broad
groups, the old and the new; both are geological groupings. The former, locally called
bangar, represents reddish-brown, sandy loams with increasing content of clay in the
lower horizons ; the latter, known as khaddar, represents the fairly coarse sand on the
chars and banks of the river to the soils of very fine texture in the low-lying marshy
tracts. The old alluvium reddish in colour, is deficient in nitrogen and humus, and
occasionally in phosphoric acid.
The large expanse of these soils is yellowish to brownish and their common
feature is the presence of kankar or lime nodules intermixed with soil at varying
depths. They vary from sandy loam to clayey loam. The subsoil occasionally has
calcareous reaction. There is no marked differentiation into the various horizons, and
the profile is often characterized by the absence of stratification. The surface soil is
generally grey, varying from yellow to light brown, the intensity of colour increasing
with the depth. The immature soil near the rivers is calcareous and light brown in
colour with salt impregnation. On higher situations it becomes brown to deep brown
in colour and is non-calcareous. Kankar beds are found in the soil. Most of the
alluvial soils in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are of the above pattern.
51
3.4.5 Desert Soil:
A large part of the arid region in Rajasthan and part of Haryana, lying
between the Indus and the Aravallis, is affected by desert conditions of recent
geological origin. This part is covered under a mantle of blown sand which inhibits
the growth of soils. The Rajasthan desert proper (area about 40,000 sq. miles), owing
to its physiographic conditions receive no rain though lying in the tract of the south-
west monsoon. Some of the desert soils contain high percentage of soluble salts, high
pH, varying percentage of calcium carbonate and poor organic matter, the limiting
factor being mainly water. The soils could be reclaimed if proper facilities for
irrigation are available.
3.4.6 Forest and hill soils:
Nearly 22-23 per cent of the total area of India is under forests. The formation
of forest soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter
derived from the forest growth. Broadly two types of soil-formation may be
recognized (1) soils formed under acid conditions with presence of acid humus and
low base status; and (2) soils formed under slightly acid or neutral condition with
high base status which is favourable for the formation of brown earths. The soils of
the hilly districts of Assam are of fine texture and reveal high content of organic
matter and nitrogen, perhaps due to the virgin nature. Their chemical and mechanical
composition show great variations.
52
Soil testing refers to the chemical analysis of soils and is well recognized as a
scientific means for quick characterization of the fertility status of soils and predicting
the nutrient requirement of crops. It also includes testing of soils for other properties
like texture, structure, pH, Cation Exchange Capacity, water holding capacity,
electrical conductivity and parameters for amelioration of chemically deteriorated
soils for recommending soil amendments, such as, gypsum for alkali soils and lime
for acid soils. One of the objectives of soil tests is to sort out the nutrient deficient
areas from non-deficient ones. This information is important for determining whether
the soils could supply adequate nutrients for optimum crop production or not.
3.5 Plant Analysis as Nutritional Requirements of Bananas
Plant analysis has been considered as a very practical approach for
diagnosing nutritional disorders and formulating fertilizer recommendations (Kelling
et al., 2000[49]; Self, 2005). Plant analysis, in conjunction with soil testing, becomes
a highly useful tool not only in diagnosing the nutritional status but also an aid in
management decisions for improving the crop nutrition (Rashid, 2005)[80]. Plant
analysis is the quantitative analysis of the total nutrient content in a plant tissue, based
on the principle that the amount of a nutrient in diagnostic plant parts indicates the
soil’s ability to supply that nutrient and is directly related to the available nutrient
status in the soil (Malavolta, 1994[62]; Kelling et al., 2000[49]; Havlin et al.,
2004[37]; Rashid, 2005)[80]. It is a very practical and useful technique for fruit trees
and long duration crops (Rashid, 2005). Hence, it seems quite convenient and
appealing for bananas also.
Bananas are heavy feeder of nutrients (Jones, 1998)[47] and thus need
balanced nutrition for optimum growth and fruit production, and in turn potential
yields. A deficiency or excess of nutrients can cause substantial damage to the plant (
Memon et al., 2001)[68].
53
The early (until the mid-1960s) researches on banana nutrition had
concentrated on the description of symptoms of nutrient imbalance and the conduct of
field experiments comparing response to rates of applied fertilizer on a range of soil
types. To aid in determining the nutrient supplying power of the soil, aid in
determining the effect of treatment on the nutrient supply in the plant, study
relationship between the nutrient status of the plant and crop performance as an aid in
predicting fertilizer requirements, help lay the foundation for approaching new
problems or for surveying unknown regions to determine where critical plant
nutritional experimentation should be conducted. The succeeding research workers
opined almost similarly about the uses of plant analysis (Smith, 1986, Jones, et al.,
1991[44], Kelling et al., 2000[49]; Havlin et al., 2004[37]; Rashid, 2005; Self, 2005).
For plant analysis, a specific plant part at a particular growth stage should be
sampled because comparison of an assay result with established critical or standard
values or sufficiency ranges is used to interpret analytical results (Rashid, 2005). It is
important to follow the recommended sampling technique carefully, since criteria for
elemental analysis interpretation have been established for specific plant sampling
procedures. Therefore, for meaningful determinations of the elemental concentration,
it is essential to adhere to the given sampling procedure designed for that plant
species and the element(s) to be assayed (Jones, 1997)[46].
Sampling procedures have been investigated by many researchers (Dumas,
1959[25]; Twyford & Coulter, 1964;Martin-Prevel et al., 1969; Lahav, 1970[53];
Turner & Barkus, 1977). Earlier, researchers at the Jamaica Banana Board (Hewitt,