Running Head: REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE Social Media Addiction: Effective Intervention through Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour Name: Samantha McVicar Student Number: n8547394 Tutor: Michelle Livock Tutorial: 11am – 12pm Thursday Due Date: 5 th September, 2016 Word Count: 2,493
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Running Head: REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE
Social Media Addiction: Effective Intervention through Differential Reinforcement of Other
Behaviour
Name: Samantha McVicar
Student Number: n8547394
Tutor: Michelle Livock
Tutorial: 11am – 12pm Thursday
Due Date: 5th
September, 2016
Word Count: 2,493
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop and implement an intervention for internet addiction
behaviour through the operant conditioning technique differential reinforcement of other
behaviour (DRO). It was hypothesised that the intervention would decrease the frequency of
social media use through the positive reinforcement of other behaviour. The participant was
23 year old university student S.M. who feels her excessive social media use is leading to a
dependency and addiction to the online social networking site Facebook. Self-monitoring and
functional analysis methods were utilised in order to understand the contingencies of the
target behaviour and to assist the development of the intervention. The findings supported the
research hypothesis and showed that DRO intervention through positive self-reinforcement of
on-task study behaviour, and high-value activity reinforcement, were effective techniques for
reducing social media use. However, due to the limitations and restricted parameters of this
study, further research is needed in order to provide a greater understanding of the
proficiency of operant conditioning techniques, like DRO, for the treatment of internet
addiction.
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 3
Social Media Addiction: Effective Intervention through Differential Reinforcement of Other
Behaviour
Due to the growing accessibility and integration of the internet in daily life, internet
addiction is becoming an emerging global concern (Carlisle et al., 2016; Telef, 2016).
Internet use is now an integral part of work, academics, communication, as well as
entertainment (Carlisle et al., 2016). Social networking sites in particular are increasing in
popularity, resulting in a growing number of users developing maladaptive behaviours
(Przepiorka & Blachnio, 2016). Facebook addiction is defined as excessive or compulsive use
of Facebook causing disruption in daily life (Przepiorka & Blachnio, 2016). More
specifically, Facebook can be utilised as an avoidance strategy, escaping real world problems
and stressors (Przepiorka & Blachnio, 2016).
Internet use is often perceived as pleasurable and provides satisfaction to the user; this
alteration of an individual’s mood can lead to dependence due to reinforcement from the
brain’s reward system (Carlisle et al., 2016; Telef, 2016; Yuan, Qin, Liu & Tian, 2011).
Internet addiction can be defined through compulsive-like behaviours, displaying symptoms
such as: cravings, urges, and disruption of social and occupational functioning (Carlisle et al.,
2016). Research shows high rates of comorbidity between internet addiction and: depressive
symptoms, anger problems, anxiety disorders, as well as social isolation (Przepiorka &
Blachnio, 2016; Ruiz, 2012; Yuan et al., 2011). Growing dependence on the internet can
result in maladaptive behaviours and negative consequences such as low psychological well-
being, and decreased academic and work performance (Carlisle et al., 2016; Telef, 2016;
Yuan et al., 2011). Despite this, research into effective interventions for internet addictions
remains somewhat limited.
Operant conditioning is an effective learning paradigm and behaviour modification
technique in which consequences are used to control and manipulate the frequency of
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 4
behaviour (Murphy & Lupfer, 2014). Consequences can be positive or negative and are
defined as either reinforces, used to increase the frequency of behaviour, or punishers, used to
decrease the frequency of behaviour (Murphy & Lupfer, 2014). Differential reinforcement of
other behaviour (DRO) is an effective operant conditioning method for the treatment of
addictive and problem behaviours; delivering reinforcement contingent on the presence of
other behaviours and absence of the target behaviour (Jessel, Borrero & Becraft, 2005;
Karsten & Carr, 2009; Watts et al., 2013).
Watts et al. (2013) explain that DRO is a commonly used and successful technique for
behaviour reduction interventions where the target behaviour occurs in excess. The DRO
process works through reinforcing the occurrence of a more appropriate behaviour that is
unrelated to the target behaviour (Vance, Gresham & Dart, 2012). As such, a reinforcer is
awarded in the presence of the other behaviour and absence of the target problem behaviour
(Jessel et al., 2005).
Vance et al. (2012) explain that DRO, along with a self-monitoring method, can be
effectively used to increase an individual’s on-task behaviour (i.e. study), whilst decreasing
disruptive problem behaviours (i.e. internet addiction). Furthermore, fixed-interval positive
reinforcement schedules are highly effective at decreasing problem behaviour, in particular
when high-value incentives such as leisure activities are awarded as reinforces (Cerutti &
Staddon, 2003; Payne & Dozier, 2013).
A functional analysis methodology will be utilised in this study in order to determine
the contingencies surrounding the problem behaviour of internet addiction (Payne & Dozier,
2013). Functional analysis assists in the formation of measurable and operational definitions,
as well as identifies contextual factors, environmental relationships, and consequences that
help influence and maintain certain behaviours (O’Brien & Carhat, 2011). This technique is
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 5
considered highly effective for the treatment of problem behaviours, as it facilitates the
development of unambiguous and measurable interventions (Matson et al., 2011; Payne &
Dozier, 2013).
The purpose of this study was to further supplement research by developing and
implementing an intervention, utilising functional analysis and self-monitoring methods, to
modify internet addiction behaviour through the operant conditioning technique DRO. It was
hypothesised that the intervention would decrease the frequency of social media use through
the positive reinforcement of other behaviour.
Method
Design
This study implemented a single subject experimental design with a baseline phase of
seven days, and intervention (treatment) phase of seven days.
Participant
The participant was 23 year old Caucasian female, S.M., who feels her excessive
social media use is leading to a dependency and addiction to the online social networking site
Facebook. This participant was chosen as she was motivated to change this excess behaviour.
S.M. currently studies a full time university degree at Queensland University of Technology
and works flexible hours form home. S.M.’s maladaptive checking behaviour negatively
impacts daily productivity and motivation, often leading to the procrastination of academic
and work endeavours. Therefore, this type of behaviour has been known to result in negative
consequences for S.M., such as decreased psychological wellbeing, assessment failure, and
social isolation (Ruiz, 2012).
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 6
Self-Monitoring Method
S.M.’s target behaviour was social media use, which referred to the intentional act of
accessing and engaging in social networking sites through mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets. For the purpose of this study, social media was specifically defined
as the social networking site Facebook. This is due to the fact that S.M.’s excessive behaviour
primarily involves Facebook checking, and other popular social media platforms such as
Twitter and Instagram are not used. The behaviour, social media use, was only scored if
S.M.’s engagement on the social media site lasted longer than 5 seconds. This was in order to
account for any ‘accidental’ accessing of the page, for example through already open
smartphone applications. Furthermore, the behaviour was not scored when S.M. accessed
Facebook Messenger, as this was used as a main form of communication and interaction
between S.M.’s friends, colleagues and academic associations.
Event record was the monitoring method utilised for this study. This method scored
each occurrence of the target behaviour, the number of daily social media checks, throughout
both the baseline and intervention phase. Duration recording was also considered as a
monitoring method for this study; however S.M. was not overly concerned with the amount
of time spent on social media, just the excessiveness of her checking behaviour.
A narrative record was kept for each day of the baseline and intervention phase, in
order to tally and record the circumstances surrounding the target behaviour (refer to
Appendix A and B). The running tally was recorded using the ‘Notes’ application on S.M.’s
smartphone and later transferred to the narrative record. This smartphone application was
chosen as a scoring method due to its accessibility and convenience. In this narrative record,
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 7
S.M.’s behaviour and experiences were documented in order to assist the development of the
functional analysis.
Functional Analysis of Behaviour
A functional analysis was conducted using the SORCK method (refer to Appendix C)
in order to provide the necessary foundations for developing the intervention. Historically,
S.M.’s behaviour has developed gradually over the duration of her university degree, as a
result of decreasing motivation and increased disinterest in her studies. Contextually, S.M.’s
social media was contingent during times that provoke boredom or disinterest, or times that
lacked social interaction; usually occurring during university lectures, whilst studying, or
when commuting on public transport. Social media use was contingent on immediate stimuli
such as the feeling of boredom (disinterest) or the need for avoidance (procrastination), as
well as the appearance of Facebook notifications. Therefore, boredom, disinterest, lack of
motivation, procrastination, notifications and low social interaction were the main
contingencies that moderated S.M.’s social media use. Immediate consequences of S.M.’s
behaviour included the instant alleviation of boredom and the associated satisfaction of
feeling preoccupied. Delayed consequences of S.M.’s behaviour included falling behind on
study and assignments; resulting in the feelings of stress and guilt that further facilitated
avoidant behaviour that lead to social media use. Therefore, S.M.’s maladaptive social media
use was maintained through a continual cycle of positive reinforcement.
Intervention
The aim of this intervention was to decrease the excess target behaviour, social media
use. The target rate for the intervention phase was to decrease S.M.’s social media use to less
than 10 times a day. This target was chosen as it was the lowest frequency of social media
use during the baseline phase. The intervention aimed to reduce S.M.’s dependence on social
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 8
media use during times of boredom or disinterest and as a result a DRO positive enforcement
schedule was utilised (Cerutti & Staddon, 2003; Payne & Dozier, 2013). Since S.M.’s social
media use increased in frequency during designated times of study, successful and
undisturbed fixed-interval study was chosen as the reinforced other behaviour (Cerutti &
Staddon, 2003; Otero & Haut, 2016). Hayes, Munt and Korn (1986) explain that positive self-
reinforcement schedules can improve studying behaviour during short intervention periods.
Therefore, positive self-reinforcement was implemented contingent on every hour of on-task
studying behaviour; during designated study periods, and with the absence of social media
use. Delayed activity reinforcement was also awarded if social media use was below the
target rate at the end of each day (Vance et al., 2012). Therefore, if social media use was
present during the designated study period, or the frequency reached the target rate, then
neither self-reinforcement nor an activity reinforcer was awarded (Jessel et al., 2005; Otero &
Haut, 2016). Activity reinforcers were activities that offered a high-value incentive to S.M.,
such as watching Netflix ‘guilt-free’ (Cerutti & Staddon, 2003; Payne & Dozier, 2013).
Results
The results of the baseline phase and intervention phase are presented in Figure 1
below. In the baseline condition, there was a significantly larger number of instances of social
media use (M = 14, Range = 10 - 18) compared to the intervention condition (M = 7.86,
Range = 6 - 9) (refer to Appendix D). Baseline data showed an increase in instances
throughout the duration of the condition, with both relative and absolute change showing
deterioration (relative change = 1, absolute change = 8). Whereas the data in the intervention
condition remained relatively stable (relative change = 1, absolute change = 0). This is also
reflected in Figure 1 where the baseline phase shows a larger variability in social media use
compared to the intervention phase.
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 9
Structured visual analysis (SVA) is one of the most common data-analysis techniques
used for single subject research designs, due to its ability to provide a reliable estimate of
trend in variable data patterns (Gast & Spriggs, 2010). SVA allows data to be inspected
visually in order to easily determine the effectiveness of an intervention (Gast & Spriggs,
2010). The estimate trend in Figure 1, as demonstrated by the quarter-intersect and split-
middle lines, unexpectedly indicated acceleration (an increase in value over time) during the
intervention condition, as well as during the baseline condition (Gast & Spriggs, 2010). This
suggests a deterioration of the intervention over time, as social media use increased during
the condition. However, Gast and Spriggs (2010) explain that SVA trends are merely an
estimate and may not accurately represent the interventions effectiveness. The percentage of
non-overlapping data was 100%.
Figure 1. Structured visual analysis of baseline and intervention conditions
Key
Split Middle
Quarter Intersect
PND Line
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 10
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a DRO intervention for
reducing the excess behaviour associated with internet addiction. The findings of this study
support the hypothesis that the implementation of the DRO intervention, and positive
reinforcement, would decrease the frequency of social media use.
The findings showed that social media use during the intervention phase was
significantly lower and the frequency remained below the daily target rate; with the average
frequency of the intervention phase nearly half of that in the baseline. Furthermore, the
percentage of non-overlapping data indicated that the intervention had a high impact on the
target behaviour social media use (Gast & Spriggs, 2010). This suggests that positive self-
reinforcement of other behaviour, and the high-value activity reinforcer, was successful at
reducing the social media use over a short period. Watts et al. (2013), Cerutti and Staddon
(2003), and Payne and Dozier (2013), support these findings and explain that fixed-interval,
high-value, and positive reinforcement schedules are extremely effective at decreasing
problem behaviour.
The findings suggest that implementation and reinforcement of on-task study
behaviour was an effective ‘other behaviour’ as it helped reduce the frequency of social
media use. This is supported by Vance et al. (2012) who found that DRO, along with self-
monitoring, was able to increase on-task behaviour whilst decreasing disruptive problem
behaviour.
Several limitations were identified throughout this study. Firstly, the short-time frame
for both the baseline and intervention phase may not provide an accurate representation of the
participant’s behaviour, impacting the reliability of the results. External validity is also
considered a limitation to this study, due to the sample consisting of only one participant;
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 11
limiting generalizability of the findings (Hayes et al., 1986; Otero & Haut, 2016). The
Hawthorne effect may have also impacted reliability of results as the participant was made
aware of their behaviour during the self-monitoring process; this may have cause a decrease
in the frequency of problem behaviour during the experimental conditions (Sedgwick &
Greenwood, 2015). Although the participant’s behaviour was excessive and exhibited certain
addictive traits, an addiction may not yet have been present, influencing the perceived
effectiveness of the DRO intervention for internet addictions. Furthermore, this study is
limited to one social media platform, Facebook, and does not take into account other social
media networks that may have been utilised during the experiment.
Future research is necessary to further examine the effectiveness of DRO and positive
reinforcement as an intervention (Otero & Haut, 2016). Research should aim to alleviate the
limitations of this study, in order to provide a reliable and generalizable intervention for the
modification of problem behaviours like internet addiction.
The findings of this study suggest that DRO and positive reinforcement are effective
techniques for reducing social media use. However, due to the limitations and restricted
parameters of this study, further research is needed in order to provide a greater
understanding of the proficiency of operant conditioning techniques, like DRO, for the
treatment of internet addiction.
REDUCING SOCIAL MEDIA USE 12
References
Carlisle, K. L., Carlisle, R. M., Polychronopoulos, G. B., Goodman-Scott, E., & Kirk-
Jenkins, A. (2016). Exploring internet addiction as a process addiction. Journal of
Mental Health Counseling, 38(2), 170-182. doi:10.17744/mehc.38.2.07