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SMOOTHING STORE ATMOSPHERE WITH DARKNESS
MASTER THESIS
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in Strategic Management
Dr. Mathias STREICHER
Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism
The University of Innsbruck School of Management
Submitted by:
Jessica ELSÄSSER 4
Innsbruck, May 2019
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Abstract
While extant research investigated the effect of cue congruency on consumer behaviour, we
aim to fill a gap in literature by examining how perceived cue congruency can be improved by
manipulating illumination. Within an experimental study, we tested whether darkness
improves perceived cue congruency between smell and haptic; thus, increasing willingness to
pay. Results have shown that, compared to the bright condition, participants in the dark
condition indicated higher WTP estimates; whereas, perceived cue congruency mediated the
effect of darkness on WTP. The findings provide an innovative and easy solution to improve
perceived cue congruency and therefore consumer behaviour.
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Table of contents
List of tables ............................................................................................................................ IV
List of figures .......................................................................................................................... IV
List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................... IV
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
2 Store atmospherics ....................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Olfactory .................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Haptic ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Vision ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 How do store atmospherics influence behaviour? ................................................... 7
2.5 Store Atmosphere and Boundary Conditions .......................................................... 8
2.5.1 Expectations of consumers ............................................................................... 9
2.5.2 Individual reactions - addressing the right audience ...................................... 10
2.5.3 Differentiation and re-design .......................................................................... 11
2.5.4 Negative Outcomes of Store Atmosphere ...................................................... 11
3 Cue Congruency ......................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Cue congruency versus incongruency ................................................................... 15
3.2 Sensory overload .................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Product and ambient cue congruency .................................................................... 16
3.4 Semantic cue congruency ...................................................................................... 17
4 Perceptual processing style ........................................................................................ 19
4.1 Gestalt theory ......................................................................................................... 19
4.2 Abstraction ............................................................................................................. 20
4.3 Global versus local processing style ...................................................................... 20
4.3.1 Faith in intuition ............................................................................................. 21
4.3.2 Creativity ........................................................................................................ 21
4.3.3 Mood ............................................................................................................... 22
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4.4 Similarity judgements and its connection to perceived congruency ...................... 22
5 Darkness ...................................................................................................................... 25
6 Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses ................................................................. 28
7 Study – Illumination and Multisensory Integration ............................................... 29
7.1 Design .................................................................................................................... 29
7.2 Participants ............................................................................................................. 29
7.3 Stimuli .................................................................................................................... 29
7.4 Field setting and equipment ................................................................................... 29
7.5 Procedure ............................................................................................................... 30
7.6 Results .................................................................................................................... 32
8 General Discussion ..................................................................................................... 35
8.1 Theoretical Implications ........................................................................................ 35
8.2 Practical Implications ............................................................................................. 37
8.3 Limitations and Future Directions ......................................................................... 38
9 References ................................................................................................................... 40
Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 48
Affidavit ................................................................................................................................... 50
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List of tables Table 1: Main sensory channels according to Kotler (1973) ..................................................... 4
Table 2: Measures and items used in study .............................................................................. 31
List of figures Figure 1: conceptual model ...................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2: experimental setting ................................................................................................. 30
Figure 3: product assortment ................................................................................................... 30
Figure 4: congruency and WTP ratings (Mean) in dark vs. bright condition .......................... 33
List of abbreviations WTP Willingness to pay
FI Faith in intuition
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1 Introduction
Imagine you walk into a store. What do you feel, smell, hear, and see? Is it the smell of a
certain scent? The sound of music? Or even the bright lights? Whether it is in a restaurant,
shopping centre or retail store, consumers are constantly surrounded by a combination of
sensory cues such as music, scent or light (Kotler, 1973). Importantly, everything that is
perceived by senses influences behaviour. To illustrate this, sensory cues in shopping
environments might increase the number of purchases, time spent in a shop, and willingness
to pay (WTP) (Berman & Evans, 2010). Furthermore, the perception of environments is
inherently multisensory. Sensory stimuli are perceived as one unit and not as different parts
(e.g. Soars, 2009). To illustrate this, when a car drives by several stimuli are usually received
at once - the sound of the motor, the smell of the fumes, and the visual appearance of the
vehicle (Parker & Robinson, 2018). An important component of multisensory experiences is
whether the combination of stimuli is perceived as congruent or not. Whereas, cue
congruency leads to positive consumer behaviour such as higher store evaluations,
incongruency might lead to contrary results (Spangenberg, Grohmann, & Sprott, 2005). Cue
congruency, especially its effects, has received a great deal of attention over the last few years
(e.g. Krishna, Elder, & Caldara, 2010). However, until now, there has been no attempt to
provide suggestions of how perceived congruency can be improved. Findings of Förster
(2009) might give first hints to address this issue. Förster (2009) found that participants
induced with a global processing style tend to look for more similarities; whereas, a local
processing style leads to finding more dissimilarities. As the concept of cue congruency
potentially overlaps with similarity judgments, we expect that a global processing style
improves perceived cue congruency as consumers tend to look for more similarities. That
said, the question remains of how managers induce a global processing style in stores. Steidle,
Werth, and Hanke (2011) have shown that darkness elicits a global processing style.
Therefore, within an experimental study, we aim to induce a global processing style by
dimming illumination and test if darkness improves perceived cue congruency. This leads me
to the following research question: Darkness improves perceived cue congruency and
ultimately leads to a higher WTP. The study adds important insights into how perceived cue
congruency can be improved. Additionally, the study might generate considerable interest in
practice as the findings provide an innovative solution to influence consumer behaviour, and
ultimately to increase sales (Le Gall-Ely, 2009; Turley & Chebat, 2002).
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This thesis is structured as following: First, we will begin with a literature review on store
atmospherics followed by the concept of cue congruency. After that, we will review literature
on how environments are perceived and explain the connection between global processing
style and darkness. Then the study will be presented that tests the effect of darkness on
ambient scent -haptic perception and WTP estimates. Finally, the thesis will close with a
discussion that includes theoretical aspects along with managerial implications, limitations,
and future directions.
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2 Store atmospherics
Why do we purchase products? Literature suggests that our actual purchase decision does not
only rely on product characteristics, but also on the shopping setting (e.g. Donovan &
Rossiter, 1982; Kotler, 1973). Kotler (1973) emphasized that consumers respond to more than
just the product itself. Customers consider the total product when purchasing. The total
product comprises all characteristics that accompany a product such as warranties, packaging,
price, and advertising. Additionally, Kotler (1973) came up with the idea that the place where
products are consumed or bought are even more influential than the product itself. Starbucks,
for example, provide basic products, but has become one of the largest coffee chains in the
world. The success of Starbucks possibly relies on their atmosphere which is an important
part of their service setting (Spence, Puccinelli, Grewal, & Roggeveen, 2014). They provide
cosy chairs, fireplaces, free electricity, and access to the internet. An important component of
the shopping places are sensory cues (Kotler, 1973). We are constantly surrounded by sensory
stimuli, whether it is in a store or in a private setting (Kotler, 1973). Importantly, sensory cues
can affect our mind in unconscious ways, which means that we might not be always aware of
the influence sensory stimuli have on us (Turley & Chebat, 2002; Soars, 2009). In her often-
cited review on sensory marketing, Krishna (2012) provides many examples of how sensory
cues may impact consumer perception and behaviour. It is important to note, however, that
sensory cues can have different sources: On a product-level, retailers use specific colours,
shapes, and sizes to differentiate from competitors and to influence a consumer´s buying
decision (Cowen-Elstner, 2018). On an ambient-level, brick-and-mortar stores, for example,
use sensory cues to influence consumer behaviour by creating a specific store atmosphere
(Schreuder, van Erp, Toet, & Kallen, 2016). An important, but largely underresearched,
aspect of the store atmosphere is illumination although it is often used in business places in
intended ways. Hollister, for example, designed a store in the United Kingdom that explicitly
uses dark illumination in their store (Weinmann & Groth, 2011). The Canadian fashion brand
Holt Renfrew, on the contrary, typically uses low illumination, but with bright spots to
highlight products (Yee, 2007). Practically, the store atmosphere depends on various cues so
that store illumination and other atmospheric cues often appear together (Custers, de Kort,
IJsselsteijn, & de Kruiff, 2010; Turley & Milliman, 2000). Retailers such as Lush Cosmetics
use specific scents to evoke a memory in the buyer’s mind. Other stores create their own
scents, so-called “signature scents” that fit to the brand identity and to the store itself (Spence
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et al., 2014). A study conducted by Spangenberg, Sprott, Grohmann, and Tracy (2006) has
shown that sales almost doubled by adding a scent to the store. However, nothing is known as
to how illumination and scent interact with each other. Apart from scent or music,
illumination is always part of store atmospherics because it cannot be removed as
consumption always occurs along a continuum from dark to bright. Before this thesis
discusses such potential interactions of illumination with other aspects of the store
atmosphere, the construct of store atmosphere will be reviewed.
Store atmospherics describes the intended creation of a shopping environment with the aim of
increasing the probability of purchase (Kotler, 1973). The term “Atmospherics” was
introduced by Kotler in 1973 and includes the sensory factors vision, audition, haptic, and
smell. Since an environment cannot be tasted (i.e., taste is an object-related sense) the taste
modality is usually not included in established literature on store atmospherics (Kotler, 1973).
However, certain ambient cues can arouse the memory of taste, such as the smell of
chocolate, can be related to the taste of sweetness (Spence et al., 2014). Sensory factors may
be designed into the space or may be inherent to the environment (Kotler, 1973). To
exemplify this illumination might be intrinsic, on the one hand, resulting from the daylight
shining through the windows of a store. On the other hand, illumination might be a designed
quality of space by using artificial light. Table 1 provides the main dimensions of an
atmosphere described by Kotler (1973), followed by a short description of the dimensions
relevant for the underlying study.
Visual dimensions Aural dimensions Olfactory dimensions Tactile dimensions
- Colour
- Brightness
- Size
- Shapes
- Volume
- Pitch
- Scent
- Freshness
- Softness
- Smoothness
- Temperature
Table 1: Main sensory channels according to Kotler (1973)
2.1 Olfactory
Scent is besides music probably the most researched sensory cue in literature. Scent impacts
perception and behaviour. More precisely, scent might increase time spend in the store, the
likelihood of purchase, and WTP (Spence et al., 2014). For example, authors observed an
increase of purchase intentions, in rooms with ambient scent compared to unscented rooms
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(Spangenberg, Crowley, & Henderson, 1996). Additionally, Cowen-Elstner (2018) underlines
that ambient scent improves consumers evaluation of the store. Interestingly, Li, Moallem,
Paller, and Gottfried (2007) have shown that, in some cases, scent exerts an even greater
influence on participants if they are not aware of it. Another important aspect of scent is the
power of recall. It can be argued that scent is the strongest sense in terms of memory.
Individuals are capable memorizing a scent in their long-term memory. Consumers pay more
attention to the stimuli in a store with a pleasant scent; thus, enabling them to recall this
information more easily (Cowen-Elstner, 2018). Due to its effect on consumer behaviour,
scent is an important tool for increasing sales. Many companies such as Samsung or Sony
create own scents for its stores. To illustrate this, Samsung stores are surrounded by a
honeydew melon scent. Sony created a vanilla and mandarin orange scent to make their
customers feel relaxed and to make their store a pleasant place to be (Spence et al., 2014).
Although, haptic is a strong sense for humans, potentially stronger than olfaction (Krishna,
2012), the influence of haptic on consumer behaviour has been neglected in literature so far.
2.2 Haptic
Aristoteles proposed that our senses are hierarchically ordered. In first place is the haptic
sense, followed by the other senses. Additionally, he claimed that all other senses merely
improve the acuity of haptic. It is argued, that haptic might be an important, but often
neglected, modality. Literature provides several studies that demonstrate the importance of
touch for humans (e.g. Harlow, 1958), however there is relatively little knowledge about how
tactile dimensions determine consumer behaviour. Several studies have revealed that touching
products improves product evaluation (Grohmann, Spangenberg, & Sprott, 2007) and actual
choice of the product (Streicher & Estes, 2015). On the other side, consumers are not willing
to purchase a product if they have the feeling that it has been touched by others (Argo, Dahl,
& Morales, 2006). Although haptic has been neglected in literature so far, it could be an
important part of the purchasing decision, especially for products where vision fails to provide
all the information that might be necessary for an informed decision. These might be products
with material properties such as towels or carpets. For instance, touching bathroom towels
delivers, in comparison to only-visual cues, information about the texture and softness of said
good (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003). Therefore, within our experimental study, we used a towel
as tactile sensory stimuli to gain more insights into the effect of haptic on consumer behaviour
and the interplay with scent. Although haptic is considered to be the strongest sense for
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humans (Harlow, 1958; Krishna, 2012), Schreuder et al. (2016) found support for the
dominance of vision over touch in a consumption related context.
2.3 Vision
The visual modality has received presumably the most attention in consumer research. Kotler
(1973) categorized vision into the dimensions colour, brightness, size, and shapes. Vision is
often said to be a predominant and omnipresent factor in human perception, which can also
dominate judgements and behaviours (Cowen-Elstner, 2018; Helmefalk, 2016; Krishna,
2012). In a study by Schifferstein (2006), participants had to evaluate the importance of
vision, hearing, feel, smell, and taste in using products which were sampled from various
categories. Consonant with the dominant view, vision turned out to be the most important
factor from a consumer perspective to evaluate products. Therefore, it seems fair to conclude
that vision is the most dominant sensory factor in shaping consumer behaviour. This
dominance of vision has been illustrated by Hoegg and Alba (2007) in their seminal study. In
this study, participants had to rate the taste of orange juice. Critically, the authors manipulated
the colour and the taste of the drink so that the orange juice would either differ in terms of
taste or colour (e.g., two glasses of orange juice were identical in taste but not in colour).
However, participants rated the juices which differed in their visual appearance (but were
identical in taste) to be more dissimilar than the juices that only differed in the taste
dimension. Differing samples of orange juice with the same colour, in contrast, were
perceived to be more similar even when the taste differed. This example illustrates the
dominance of vision (here the colour) over taste. Although, the visual dimensions colour, size,
and shapes have received a great deal of attention in literature, illumination has been
neglected so far. However, illumination is an omnipresent factor (Kotler, 1973) potentially
providing an easy opportunity to impact consumer behaviour. Merely changing the level of
illumination increases sales (Hultén, 2012), the amount of actual consumption (Gal, Wheeler,
& Shiv, 2007), the time spent in the store, and the numbers of touched items (Summers and
Herbert, 2001). As already mentioned, touching products, in turn, impacts, for instance,
product evaluation (Grohmann et al., 2007) and choice of a specific product (Streicher &
Estes, 2015). Due to the potential effects of illumination on consumer behaviour and the easy
manipulation of lighting, we aim to discover whether darkness positively affects WTP.
Literature reveals plenty of studies on the effects of sensory cues, especially regarding scent
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and music. (e.g. Spangenberg et al., 2005). However, the effect of darkness remains, for now,
an underresearched topic. It is clear that illumination as well as scent are of practical
reasoning which makes our study relevant not only for literature but also in managerial terms.
Additionally, tactile dimensions are not widely researched in literature on store atmospherics.
Therefore, we aim to contribute to existing literature by investigating the interplay between
haptic, scent, and illumination. To gain deeper understanding about the concept of store
atmospherics, the process of how behaviour is influenced by sensory stimuli is clarified.
2.4 How do store atmospherics influence behaviour?
Although consumers may already have pre-existing purchase plans, much of their actual
shopping behaviour is determined by the context in which consumption takes place. Thus,
store atmospheres might transform the wishes and purchase intentions into actual purchases
(Kotler, 1973). But why is this the case?
The classic environment model developed by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) might give a
deeper understanding of the mechanism of how environments influence consumer behaviour.
Mehrabian and Russell (1974) argue that environments create specific emotions which may
positively influence behavioural responses. The model developed by Mehrabian and Russell
(1974) states that certain environmental stimuli trigger emotions, like pleasure, arousal and
dominance and emotions, in turn, affect behavioural responses (Donovan, Rossiter,
Marcoolyn, & Nesdale, 1994). This statement is in line with more up-to-date neuroscientific
literature. Damasio (2006) highlighted that emotions play an important role in the decision-
making process and, in some cases, emotions even determine our decisions. To illustrate this
point, studies have shown that shopping-related intentions and WTP are higher when the
atmosphere is perceived as being pleasant and arousing (Donovan & Rossiter,1982).
Furthermore, Spies, Hesse, and Loesch (1997) have shown that in pleasant store
environments, the consumers’ mood improved; thus, consumers spent more money and were
more satisfied. Furthermore, a positive mood has been shown to increase willingness to
communicate with store employees (Berman & Evans, 2010). The model proposed by
Mehrabian and Russell (1974) explains the effects of environments on behaviour in general.
Donovan and Rossiter (1982) modified the model of Mehrabian and Russell (1974) to apply it
to store atmospheres. This enables us to get a deeper understanding of the relation of store
atmospherics to consumer behaviour.
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The concept of (1) stimulus-(2) organism-(3) response (SOR) adapts the model of Mehrabian
and Russell (1974) to store atmospherics by including sensory cues as environmental stimuli.
Similarly to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), Donovan and Rossiter (1982) argue that sensory
stimuli such as light, music or scent cause certain emotions that influence customers’
behavioural responses. In the case of the SOR model, (1) stimuli are sensory factors. (2)
Organism is the emotional reaction towards sensory cues. Ultimately, (3) response illustrates
the resulting behaviour, which can be linked to approach (positive) or avoidance (negative)
behaviour. Approach and avoidance behaviour include shopping-related intentions (Donovan
& Rossiter, 1974). To illustrate this, environmental stimuli might increase time spent in a
shop and, in turn, time spent in a shop improves purchase probability (Berman & Evans,
2010). Literature reveals that it is more than twice as likely that customers who spend 40
minutes in a shop would buy something, compared to customers that spend only 10 minutes in
a store (Soars, 2009). Furthermore, it has been argued that customers spend more time
exploring the goods a store peddles in pleasant atmospheres (Berman & Evans, 2010). This in
turn, is likely to influence both, planned and unplanned purchases (Turley & Chebat, 2002).
Additionally, if the atmosphere is perceived as being pleasant, customers’ intent to return to
the store (e.g. Berman & Evans, 2010; Bitner, 1992) and to visit the store more frequently
(Spence et al., 2014). Furthermore, environmental stimuli facilitate the development of a
store’s image. A store’s image, in turn, results in store loyalty towards the establishment and
continued patronage (Turley & Chebat, 2002).
As shown, several studies confirm the positive impact of atmospheres on consumer behaviour
(e.g. Spies et al., 1997). Unsurprisingly, store atmospherics have grown in importance over
the last decades, not only in literature but also in practice.
2.5 Store Atmosphere and Boundary Conditions
Over the past few years, store atmospherics have received a lot of attention not only in
literature, but also in practice. Restaurants, for instance, were among the first service
industries that tried to create extra value for their customers by creating so-called “atmosphere
restaurants”. The owner of Pier Four in Boston once said: “If it weren`t for the atmosphere, I
couldn`t do nearly the business I do.” (Kotler, 1973, p. 58). Apart from restaurants, store
atmospherics grew in importance for retailers as well. As discussed above, illumination is an
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omnipresent factor in service escapes that is often used to create a specific store atmosphere.
To illustrate this, shoe stores like ‘Holt Renfrew Shoes’, make use of lightning to create a
dynamic and luxurious atmosphere. The shoe retailer uses low ambient lightning with high
contrasts to highlight specific products (Yee, 2007). Store atmospherics have not only
changed the rules for restaurants and retailers, to name a select few, but is also relevant for
airlines, psychiatric offices, and advertisement agency offices (Kotler, 1973). Kotler (1973)
argues that creating a store atmosphere is especially relevant for stores where the consumers
buy or consume the product and where design options are given. Hence, store atmospherics
are particularly of importance for retailers whilst being less relevant for manufactures and
wholesalers, making it reasonable to provide, within the underlying study, managerial
implications for retailers.
Although store atmospherics provide potential to increase sales, in some cases, designing
store atmospheres involve high investments that perhaps fail to pay off (Turley & Chebat,
2002). Thus, it is advised to thoughtfully plan the creation of store atmospheres and to
consider the following points.
2.5.1 Expectations of consumers
To begin with, whether store atmospheres successfully improve consumer behaviour or not
might depend on the expectations of consumers; thus, it is advisable to create store
atmospheres that meet consumers’ expectations (Kotler, 1973). To illustrate this, customers
expect marketing agencies to be creative; therefore, offices with an avant-garde look are
designed to meet the expectation of creativeness. Additionally, customers usually have pre-
determined expectations of what they wish to have from the shopping experience (Kotler,
1973). The creation of a desired shopping experience might be facilitated by sensory factors.
For instance, customers frequenting high-end hotels desire a luxurious experience. Sensory
stimuli such as the furniture, lighting or music might be incorporated into the design to create
an association with a luxurious, special atmosphere. Therefore, many upscale hotels use, for
instance, their own scents (olfaction) or high-quality furniture such as leather seats (haptic)
(Choi & Kandampully, 2019). Importantly, expectations, but also the perception, of certain
stimuli might vary from customer to customer.
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2.5.2 Individual reactions - addressing the right audience
Individuals perceive stimuli differently (Turley & Chebat, 2002). For example, genders
might perceive stimuli differently. Recent studies have found differences between men and
women in shopping motivation, shopping styles, and - most importantly - how environmental
cues are processed (Hart, Farrell, Stachow, Reed, & Cadogan, 2007). To further illustrate this,
Spangenberg et al. (2006) conducted a field experiment at a clothes boutique and have shown
that men prefer a sweet floral aroma; whereas, women long for a vanilla scent. Using different
scents in the men’s (sweet floral) and women’s department (vanilla) increased sales.
Additionally, studies have revealed a link between age and the preference for specific types of
ambient music. For example, younger people spend more time than planned at stores where
instrumental music is played while more mature shoppers spend a greater amount of time than
planned in shops where music with lyrics has been played (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1990).
Hence, customers’ reaction towards sensory stimuli strongly depends on individual
characteristics; therefore, reactions might vary from customer to customer.
Kotler (1973) concludes that the higher the dissimilarity among customers, the higher the
differences in reactions towards sensory stimuli and the more difficult it is to design an
intended store atmosphere perceived equally among consumers. In practice, some retailers
create store atmospheres in line with their target group. ‘Forever21’, for instance, usually
plays loud music, uses bright colours, and display a plethora of items to attract teenagers. In
contrast to that, high-end clothing stores like ‘Holt Renfrew’ display a few items at spacious
locations with a minimalistic interior. If a store attracts a homogenous group of customers, it
might be easier to design an appealing atmosphere. However, creating store atmospheres that
positively influence consumer behaviour is challenging when serving a heterogenous group of
customers (Kotler, 1973; Turley & Chebat, 2002). In the case of serving a heterogenous
audience, Kotler (1973) suggests choosing between a neutral atmosphere or designing
different atmospheres for different parts of the store. In line with this, Turley and Chebat
(2002) suggest different strategies ranging from consistent stores to the creation of several
atmospheres. Hence, creating a store atmosphere also influences segmentation and positioning
strategies (Kotler 1973; Turley & Chebat, 2002).
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Consequently, the design of store atmospheres strongly depends on the target group, as
customers perceive sensory cues differently (Turley & Chebat, 2002). Surely, competition and
design trends might also influence the creation of atmospheres.
2.5.3 Differentiation and re-design
If price differences and product heterogeneity are small, differentiation is an important factor
to succeed in the market. While price and quality have been the major success factors
historically, the atmosphere nowadays is a decisive factor for differentiation (Kotler, 1973;
Spence et al., 2014; Turley & Chebat, 2002). An example would be ‘Apple’, a company was
able to differentiate from their competitors on both a product-level and on an ambient-level.
In contrast to their competitors such as Samsung, they created large stores with minimalistic
design principles. Apple stores, compared to their competitors, deliver a shopping experience.
To provide an effective and competitive atmosphere in the long-term, re-designs of the
atmosphere might be necessary (Kotler, 1973).
Design trends are continuously changing over time. Additionally, there could be a wear-out-
effect, which means that customers might get used to the atmosphere (Kotler, 1973; Turley &
Chebat, 2002). Therefore, Turley and Chebat (2002) suggest regularly assessing store
atmospheres according to their efficiency, influence on consumers and if the right message is
delivered. Studies have shown that redesigning atmospheres pays off. Even small changes in
the environment impact consumer behaviour and sales (Turley & Chebat, 2002).
2.5.4 Negative Outcomes of Store Atmosphere
Although even small changes in the atmosphere can have an enormous impact on consumer
behaviour, mishandling elements might have an adverse effect. The lifestyle brand Hollister
for example designed a new clothing store in the United Kingdom. In the store, illumination
was dimmed to create a club-like atmosphere where people spend more time and ultimately
purchase more items. However, customers were dissatisfied and criticized the low level of
illumination. Customers indicated that the prices are not visible, and some even argued that
they got lost in the shop due to the darkness (Weinmann & Groth, 2011).
Besides the aforementioned boundary conditions, the combination of sensory stimuli play a
vital role in the creation of efficient store atmospheres. Earlier literature investigated the
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effects of sensory stimuli on a sense-to-sense basis. However, researchers observed an
interaction across different sensory factors. Therefore, scholars started revising their concepts
by stating that sensory factors are perceived as one unit and not as different parts (e.g. Soars,
2009). Specifically, it has been argued that perceptions of environments are multisensory by
nature. Therefore, managers increasingly aim to create multisensory experiences that form a
holistic perception (e.g. Schreuder et al., 2016).
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3 Cue Congruency
Consumption experience is inherently multisensory. We are constantly surrounded by a
combination of sensory cues (Soars, 2009). To illustrate this on a product-level, the
consumption of coffee involves all senses – vision, auditory, olfactory, taste, and haptic.
Visual cues, for example, are present during coffee consumption through the colour of the
coffee or the presence of foam. It could be argued that multisensory consumption already
starts with the preparation of the coffee. Visual cues such as the colour (vision) or sound
(auditory) of the machine can shape consumption experience. Additionally, the way how
coffee is served is perceived by senses. For example, the colour (vision) and the material of
the mug (haptic) might influence consumption. A study conducted by Van Doorn, Wuillemin,
and Spence (2014) reveals the relationship between the colour of a coffee mug and the
intensity rating. White mugs enhanced the ratings of intensity compared to transparent mug.
Furthermore, the coffee has been perceived as being less sweet in white mugs compared to
transparent and blue mugs. Furthermore, the aroma and flavour of the coffee are perceived by
taste and smell.
Multisensory experience might also take place on an ambient-level. In the case of airplanes,
passengers are constantly surrounded by sensory cues ranging from visual elements such as
the colour of the cabin to the sound of the cabin or specific scent. To illustrate this, visual
cues like the colour of the seats or the dresses of stewardesses and stewards are present in
every airplane. The impact of colours in cabins has been studied by Cowen-Elstner (2018).
The author identifies a more positive evaluation of coloured cabins compared to grey cabins.
Coloured cabins are perceived as being more attractive and of higher quality. The sound of
the cabin can be referred to auditory cues. It could be the inherent sound of a plane or a
manipulated sound. Austrian Airlines for example, play classical music during boarding. Ren
and Xu (2018) argue that music positively affects the boarding time. This in turn, leads to
customer satisfaction and economical as well as operational benefits for airlines. Thus, the
combination of different senses is of practical importance and managers increasingly
incorporate various cues in the consumption environment. Finnair, for instance, became aware
that music affects taste and thus created menus that match their music. To further exemplify
this, sweet corn and chicken soup has been matched with a bubbling sound to evoke feelings
of freshness (Mejia, 2017). These examples have shown how different stimuli interact with
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each other shaping consumption experiences. Hence, we cannot speak of consumption on a
sense-by-sense basis as customers are inherently surrounded by a combination of sensory
stimuli (Soars, 2009).
The concept of multisensory integration provides a good explanation of how various sensory
stimuli are perceived. When a car drives by, you see it, you can probably hear the motor and
at the same time you smell its fumes. Our brain receives various types of information from
different sensory modalities at the same time and processes it into one perception instead of
different stimuli (Parker & Robinson, 2018). Therefore, it has been suggested to create a store
atmosphere approaching different senses (e.g. Cowen-Elstner, 2018).
Schreuder et al. (2016) confirms the statement of creating a multisensory consumption
experience by highlighting that, in comparison to a unisensory environment, a multisensory
setting can intensify emotional response, which in turn is said to impact behaviour (Donovan
& Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). For instance, a multisensory stimulation with
the senses vision and haptic leads to a positive attitude toward the product and an increase of
purchase intention; whereas, in the conditions of vision-only and touch-only, lower ratings
can be observed (Schreuder et al., 2016). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in
investigating sensory cues in a multisensory frame; therefore, the combination of two sensory
factors has been examined (Krishna et al., 2010; Spangenberg et al., 2005). Many studies
have revealed that the right combination of sensory cues is vital in order to positively
influence consumer behaviour (Schreuder et al., 2016). Literature calls this fit between
sensory stimuli “cue congruency” (Peracchio & Tybout, 1996)
Cue congruency can be described as the quality of the similarity and alignment of two or
more stimulus features (Peracchio & Tybout, 1996). Krishna et al. (2010, p.412) define cue
congruency as the following: “[…] to be the degree of fit among characteristics of a
stimulus.” Research has illustrated the impact of congruency on behavioural intentions and
feelings (Schreuder et al., 2016). Cue congruency leads to faster reactions times of
recognition, enhanced quality of information processing, and to a more positive product
evaluation (Krishna et al., 2010). Soars (2009) concludes that the right combination of
sensory cues might impact decision-making and probability of purchase. Additionally, one
sensory cue might help to uncover other unpleasant sensory factors. For example, Schreuder
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et al. (2016) mentioned that the negative effects of traffic noise (auditory) might be reduced
by visual elements such as green plants. However, is cue congruency always better than
incongruency?
3.1 Cue congruency versus incongruency
We could argue that individuals prefer consistency. For example, people prefer people who
are similar to them (Förster, 2009). Therefore, we could expect that individuals prefer stimuli
that are congruent and, on the contrary, we could assume that cue incongruency might lead to
contrary results. However, some research has shown that incongruency between sensory
stimuli might be beneficial in some cases (Spence et al., 2014). Roggeveen, Goodstein, and
Grewal (2014) for example, highlighted that incongruency might lead to higher evaluations
compared to congruency; nevertheless, these cases are rare. Examples of this might be high-
end merchandise and modernist restaurants (Spence et al., 2014). As the underlying study
focuses on retailers in general and not on rare cases, studies that facilitate cue incongruency
can be neglected. Additionally, there are several studies that confirm the positive effect of cue
congruency in comparison to incongruency, giving enough reasons to strive for cue
congruency. For instance, research regarding vision and audition has shown that congruency
leads to a better evaluation of the store and product compared to incongruency (Schreuder et
al., 2016). In line with this, Spangenberg et al. (2005) have shown that congruency between
music and scent leads to better store ratings compared to incongruency. In addition, Krishna
et al. (2010) argues that congruency between haptic and smell leads to a more positive
product evaluation compared to incongruency. Although it is advised to combine several
congruent sensory stimuli to shape consumption experiences (e.g. Schreuder et al., 2016), too
many cues might negatively impact consumer behaviour (Krishna, 2012).
3.2 Sensory overload
Whereas it is argued that consumption experience is inherently multisensory, and stores
should combine various sensory cues (e.g. Spence et al., 2014) other authors such as Krishna
(2012) mention the negative outcome of sensory overload. Just as we are confronted by
information overload, we can also have sensory overload. For instance, research by Homburg,
Imschloss, and Kühnl (2012) has shown that in comparison to two congruent cues, three
congruent sensory stimuli might lead to dissatisfaction. This phenomenon might be associated
with the level of stimulation, as three moderately stimulating cues lead to satisfaction. The
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right level of stimulation might differ from individual to individual. The loud and vibrant
store atmosphere found in ‘Abercrombie & Fitch’ might be appealing to young customers, but
the loud music and intensive scent might be too overwhelming for older patrons (Spence et
al., 2014).
The discussion above indicates that a multisensory atmosphere is not always better than a
unisensory environment. Just like Spence et al. (2014), Schreuder et al. (2016) argues that
multisensory cues do not necessarily contribute to desired consumer behaviour. Spangenberg
et al. (2005) advises that it is better to use a unisensory environment instead of an incongruent
atmosphere. The authors base their suggestion on the finding that the use of a single sensory
cue (in their case music) might lead to the same results as a congruent mix of scent and music.
Therefore, we cannot argue that multisensory cues are better than unisensory atmospheres. On
the contrary, we know from cognitive neuroscience and marketing research that multisensory
atmospherics are potentially stronger than unisensory atmospherics (Spence et al., 2014). If
multisensory cues are combined well, positive results could be observed (e.g. Krishna et al.,
2010; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001; Spangenberg et al., 2005). This discussion confirms the need for
future research on the effect of multisensory stimuli. More studies should be conducted to
facilitate designing atmospheres resulting in positive behavioural reactions.
Within the underlying study, we categorised congruency into two different levels: ambient
and product cue congruency, and semantic congruency. In the following section, literature
about these different levels of cue congruency will be reviewed.
3.3 Product and ambient cue congruency
Research has moved from studying congruent combinations between single sensory factors
and other variables such as the product, to multisensory cue congruency. For instance
congruency between music and marketing stimuli has been shown to influence consumer
perception. A study by North, Hargreaves, and McKendrick (1999) revealed that wine is sold
better with congruent music. Therefore, French wine is better sold with French music instead
of German music. On the contrary, German wine is sold better with German music.
Similarly, it has been argued that sensory stimuli should be congruent with the product. For
instance, congruency between music and products impacts purchase behaviour (Spangenberg
et al., 2005). Moreover, scent impacts decision-making (Spangenberg et al., 2005). and
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product evaluation (Bosmans, 2006) when it is perceived as congruent with the product or
with the product class.
While past studies failed to investigate how sensory cues interact with each other, research
has shifted their focus from the examination of one stimulus to multisensory cues (Spence et
al., 2014). For instance, Morrison, Gan, Dubelaar, and Oppewal (2011) noted that congruency
between music and scent leads to pleasure, which in turn impacts shopping behaviour
(Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Likewise, Mattila, and Wirtz
(2001) studied the interaction between music and scent in a retail store setting and observed
improved store evaluation, customer satisfaction, and an increase in impulse buying compared
to an incongruent combination of stimuli. Spangenberg et al. (2005) adds that congruency
between music and scent increases the intention to visit the store in the future and improves
the evaluation of store atmospheres.
Music-scent combinations are a widely researched topic. However, literature about research
on the interplay between other sensory cues such as vision-olfaction and olfaction-haptic is
somewhat lacking. Thus, the underlying research aims to contribute to literature by studying
the interplay between haptic, illumination, and scent. As haptic and scent might evoke
semantic associations, existing literature on semantic congruency will be reviewed.
3.4 Semantic cue congruency
Krishna et al. (2010) argues: “An interesting component of congruence is that it is determined
by the appropriateness or fit of the semantic associations among the characteristics” (p.412).
The perception of sensory cues is linked with experiences resulting in experiences being
related to specific associations. Due to these associations with experiences, semantic
meanings arise. To illustrate this, it has been argued that scent stimulates semantic
associations. More specifically, the smell of citrus, for instance, is associated with cleaning
(Krishna et al., 2010). Holland, Hendriks, and Aarts (2005) revealed that customers that are
surrounded by the smell of citrus are more likely to clean their cubicles after eating cookies
compared to the condition with no scent. This behaviour might be due to the association of
citrus scent to cleaning products. Similarly, a study by Liljenquist, Zhong, and Galinsky
(2010) exemplifies the meaning of semantic associations. The authors replicated a retail-like
condition in which individuals were surrounded by a scent of a recognizable cleaning product.
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The study revealed that the recognizable scent led participants to be tidier. Consequently, we
can say that the activation of semantic sensory associations impacts behaviour (Krishna et al.,
2010). Apart from the impact of semantic meanings on behaviour in general, Spangenberg et
al. (2006), have shown that if the semantic meaning between scent and product is congruent,
the perception of the product and the store atmosphere is improved; thus, semantic cue
congruency positively affects consumer behaviour. Hitherto, semantic cue congruency
between more than one sensory stimulus has not been researched. Krishna et al. (2010) had
the first attempt to fill this gap in literature.
In comparison to other authors, Krishna et al. (2010) focused their study on more than a single
sense. The authors imply that multisensory semantic congruency between haptic and smell
might lead to a more positive product evaluation compared to incongruency. In the
congruency condition, participants had to evaluate either the combination of a rough paper
(masculine) and a masculine scent or the combination of a smooth paper (feminine) and
feminine scent. In the incongruency condition, masculine and feminine cues were combined.
The authors conducted two pre-tests showing that haptic and scent can have semantic
meanings. With the first pre-test, the authors wanted to ensure that rough paper is linked to
masculine and smooth paper to feminine. With the second test, the authors aimed to find
perfumes that are perceived as either masculine or feminine. The studies have shown, that the
scent of a product impacts the perception of haptic. Additionally, the authors discovered that
semantic congruency between scent and texture/temperature leads to an improved haptic
appraisal and product evaluation. The study by Krishna et al. (2010) provides novelty by
highlighting that if congruent, semantic meanings of two sensory stimuli improve consumer
behaviour.
The existing studies about the positive effects of cue congruency give enough reasons to aim
congruent stimuli. The question remains how perceived cue congruency can be improved. To
examine this question, we are taking a step back and putting our attention to how we perceive
environments. Therefore, in the next chapter, existing literature on perceptual processing
styles will be reviewed.
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4 Perceptual processing style
How do we perceive environments and what impact has perception on our behaviour? We
already know from previous chapters that the perception of sensory cues plays a vital role in
store atmospherics, especially in respect to congruency between stimuli (e.g. Schreuder et al.,
2016). Several studies from authors such as Spangenberg et al. (2005) or Krishna et al. (2010)
have revealed that whether we perceive stimuli as congruent or not has several effects such as
on store evaluation (see Chapter two). Hence, perception drives cue congruency (Schreuder et
al., 2016). In a broad sense, the present thesis aims to manipulate how customers perceive
environments to positively impact cue congruency. To examine this, we review existing
literature on perception.
4.1 Gestalt theory
There have been several attempts to explain how we perceive our surroundings. One
explanation delivers gestalt psychologists and perception principles (Lin, 2004). The term
“Gestalt” is German and can be described as the silhouette of a scene or a whole
configuration. Lin (2004, p.164) describes perception as the following: “Perception is a
function of multiple sources of input from the environment and from one’s own
predisposition, expectations, motives, and knowledge gleaned from past learning
experiences.” All these elements shape how we see our world (Lin, 2004). This definition is
similar to what has been examined in previous chapters. Customers receive different input
from store atmospheres at one time and form it into a single percept (Parker & Robinson,
2018). Gestalt principles are in line with this theory. Gestalt psychologists argue that we
perceive stimuli not on a feature-by-feature basis, but simultaneously as a whole (Lin, 2004).
Hence, leading us again to the statement that cues cannot be considered independently.
Additionally, basic assumption of gestalt psychologists is, that we process visual information
all at once, independently of how rich certain stimuli are. In contrast to this, Navon (1977)
mentions that the assumptions of gestalt theorists are probably too vague and are removed
from reality. Navon (1977) argues that the longer we look at something respectively the
longer we are surrounded by cues, the more detailed a picture gets. At first, we focus on the
gestalt, then our perception gets sharper, which means we are looking at the details. The
longer the exposure, the more likely it is that individuals perceive their environment on both
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levels. In other words, we are processing information from abstract to detail, from global to
local levels. Clearly, gestalt principles can be referred to the concept of abstraction.
4.2 Abstraction
Burgoon, Henderson, and Markman (2013) argue that experiences can be interpreted in a
broad respectively abstract way or in concrete, detailed terms. To exemplify abstract thinking,
a cup can be seen on a higher level of abstraction - beautiful cup - and on a lower level of
abstraction - ceramic cup. A beautiful cup is not easy to imagine, whereas a ceramic cup is a
more concrete description of a cup. Money is also an abstract definition, whereas dimes and
quarters can be linked to more concrete levels of thinking (Burgoon et al., 2013). Importantly,
the level of abstraction can be referred to the concept of processing styles. A high level of
abstraction can be associated with a global processing style, whereas a low level of
abstraction can be associated with a local processing style (Förster, 2009).
4.3 Global versus local processing style
Whether individuals adapt a local or global processing style depends on how people observe
objects. A global processing style is characterized by the tendency to focus on the gestalt of
an environment rather than focusing on the details (Förster, 2009). In other words, when
thinking in a global way, people see the world abstractly. To exemplify this, imagine you
have a picture of a forest in front of you. You can either zoom-in or zoom-out. When zooming
into the picture of the forest, you perceive the trees; whereas, when zooming out, the whole
forest can be seen. This phenomenon can be linked to perceptual-level-theory. In
psychological terms, looking at the forest can be regarded to global processing style; whereas,
paying attention to the trees refers to local processing style. In other words, if we zoom-in, we
perceive all the details of the forest, enabling a local processing style. On the contrary, if we
zoom-out, we perceive the “gestalt” of the picture, the forest (Förster, 2009; Navon, 1977).
Consequently, adapting a global versus local processing style affects an individual’s
behaviour. For instance, the way how we organize information - either in an abstract or
detailed way - impacts human interaction. To illustrate this, when judging other people, we
tend to rely on very abstract stereotypes instead of looking at the details and considering
individual personality traits. In addition to this, thinking in an abstract way regulates
behaviour, influences how people learn information, and how judgements are formed
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(Burgoon et al., 2013). To illustrate this, a global processing style results in higher creativity
(Steidle & Werth, 2013) and faster decision making (Förster, 2009). Compared to Navon´s
(1977) theory that global features are perceived first, other authors argue that some people
think more abstract and some more in concrete terms (Burgoon et al., 2013). But why is this
the case? According to Burgoon et al. (2013) the way how we think depends on situational
factors. To name just a few, abstract thinking correlates with self-control, life satisfaction
(Burgoon et al., 2013) and mood (Gasper & Clore, 2002).
4.3.1 Faith in intuition
Besides global and local processing styles, there are several modes of how individuals process
information. For example, some might process information either in an analytical or intuitive
way. More precisely, people rating high in intuition, process information automatically,
holistically, and trust their gut feeling (Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Ray, & Heier, 1996; Keller,
Bohner, & Erb, 2000). People high in intuition make spontaneous and emotional decisions
(Weinhardt, Hendijani, Harman, Steel, & Gonzalez, 2015). On the other side, processing
information analytically means relying on their consciousness and refers to rational thinking
(Epstein et al., 1996; Keller et al., 2000). In other words, people high in analytical reasoning
make deliberate decisions (Weinhardt et al., 2015). Analytical thinking might be associated
with focusing on the details, thus we can speak of local processing style. In comparison to
this, intuitive thinking might be referred to heuristic processing; thus, we might refer intuitive
thinking to a global processing style (Epstein et al., 1996). As the degree to which we think in
an intuitive way differs among individuals, Epstein et al. (1996) emphasised the need to
develop measures. The scale to measure the level of individuals’ intuitive thinking is called
faith in intuition (Epstein et al., 1996; Keller et al., 2000). Potentially there are more factors
that correlate with abstract thinking. For example, creativity can be associated with global
processing style (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010).
4.3.2 Creativity
Literature revealed that a global processing style facilitates creativity. On the contrary, a local
processing style comes along with less creativity (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010). Friedman,
Fishbach, Förster, and Werth (2003) have shown that participants primed with a global
processing style scored higher in creativity tasks. For example, participants primed with
global processing style mentioned more unusual applications of a bed. In detail, participants
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thinking in a more abstract way associated bed with sex instead of sleeping. Other studies
confirmed this statement by showing that participants induced with a global processing style
found more creative titles for cartoons compared to participants in the local-processing-style-
condition (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010). Countering this, Klauer and Singmann (2015)
cannot support the statement that processing styles are associated with creative thoughts. The
scholars aim was to replicate the findings of studies conducted by Förster and Dannenberg
(2010). In a study, participants had to find a creative title for a cartoon picture in which a dog
sitting on a sofa has been drawn. Although the authors used a sample size 2.5 times larger
than in the original study by Förster and Dannenberg (2010), the authors were unable to
replicate the findings; thus, studies have shown no impact of processing styles on creative
thoughts. Nevertheless, other conditions such as the fact that the authors used just one item to
measure creativity or different settings might have influenced the results. Furthermore, in
addition to Förster and Dannenberg (2010) other authors such as Friedman et al. (2003)
delivered supporting evidence that processing styles can be associated with creativity and
there is a large amount of research to support this link. As well as global processing style,
positive mood also impacts the level of creativity, whereas mood influences processing styles
(Lin, 2004).
4.3.3 Mood
The way how we process information affects mood. In turn, it is said that mood may alter
how we process information (Burgoon et al., 2013; Förster, 2009; Gasper, 2004). Gasper
(2004) has shown that positive moods activate global processing styles. On the contrary,
negative moods activate local processing styles. Additionally, not only the current mood is
associated to processing styles, as chronic moods such as optimism or anxiety can be referred
to the adaption of global or local processing styles (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010).
Furthermore, Isen and Daubman (1984) found that good moods can be linked to higher
similarity judgements. In other words, participants in a good mood noted more similarities,
unlike participants who were in a bad mood, as they found more dissimilarities. Speaking of
similarities, Förster (2009) argues that a global processing style facilitates finding similarities.
4.4 Similarity judgements and its connection to perceived congruency
Studies conducted by Förster (2009) indicate a connection between processing styles and
similarity/dissimilarity judgements. More specifically, the author argues that a global
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processing style facilitates finding similarities, whereas a local processing style facilitates
finding dissimilarities. Additionally, a bidirectional effect has been shown. After participants
had to search for similarities, participants perceived global figures faster than local figures.
However, perception on a local level has been increased after participants had to find
dissimilarities. Several experiments confirmed the relationship between processing styles and
similarity/dissimilarity judgements. In terms of priming methods, the Navon task and map
task have been used. In each experiment, the participants had to find either similarities or
dissimilarities. The experiments differed in respect to the specific tasks - participants had to
find similarities or dissimilarities for different things such as TV shows, animals or people.
The well-grounded work of Förster (2009) provides several reasons to build upon his work.
Similarity and dissimilarity judgements are an important field of research in psychology;
however, the question of when people look for more similarities than dissimilarities might be
interesting to transfer to the field of consumer behaviour.
Consequently, it could be argued that a global processing style impacts human behaviour in
many ways (e.g. Burgoon et al., 2013). Yet, what is the connection to perceived cue
congruency? Coming back to the question from the last chapter: “How can we improve
perceived cue congruency?” we can assume that by inducing a global processing style,
customers perceive their environment more similar compared to a local processing style,
based on the findings of Förster (2009). However, what is the connection to congruency?
Taking a step back to the definition of cue congruency, congruity can be defined as the
quality of the similarity of up to one stimulus (Krishna et al., 2010). It could be argued that
the concept of cue congruency overlaps with similarity judgements. Consequently, the link
between processing styles and similarity/dissimilarity judgments might be transferred to the
phenomenon of cue congruency.
From a practical perspective, it could be recommended to induce customers with a global
processing style in order to improve perceived cue congruency and to ultimately impact
consumer behaviour. There are different ways of manipulating processing styles, such as the
letter task or the Kimchi-Palmer figures (Burgoon et al., 2013; Navon, 1977). However, it is
obvious that managers cannot induce certain processing styles with the help of priming tasks.
However, Steidle et al. (2011) found a link between illumination and processing styles that
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might provide an easy solution when inducing a global processing style in retail settings.
Therefore, the next chapter focuses on the visual dimension ‘illumination’.
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5 Darkness
Vision is said to be the most dominant sensory cue, especially in retail environments (Custers
et al., 2010; Schreuder et al., 2016). The visual dimension ‘illumination’ has an enormous
influence on different levels as it impacts physiological processes (Steidle et al., 2011),
cognition, behaviour (Zhong, Bohns, & Gino, 2010), and atmosphere perception (Custers et
al., 2010). As illumination greatly influences how we perceive our surrounding and as lighting
is part of every consumption setting (Cowen-Elstner, 2018), illumination plays a vital role in
creating store atmospheres (Custers et al., 2010). Thus illumination is an underresearched but
promising sensory cue to study.
Studies have yielded mixed results concerning the impact of darkness on consumer behaviour.
For example, Hultén (2012) has shown that dim illumination leads to increased sales in Ikea
stores; therefore, the author suggests designing darker atmospheres. Contrary to these
findings, Summers and Herbert (2001) emphasised the positive effect of brightness compared
to darkness. The experiment was carried out in two retail stores – a hardware store, and a
western apparel and feed store. The study demonstrated that brightness compared to darkness
increases time spent in the store and customers touched more items. Spending more time in a
shop consequently increases probability of purchase (Soars, 2009) and touching products
improves product evaluations for example (Grohmann et al., 2007). Research by Gal et al.
(2007) sheds a different light onto the impact of illumination. The authors have shown that
whether dim or bright illumination affects consumer behaviour might depend on other factors,
such as individual preferences. In a laboratory study, Gal et al. (2007) observed that people
preferring strong coffee tend to drink more coffee in brighter conditions; whereas, people who
prefer weaker coffee, tend to drink more coffee in darker conditions. From a practical view, it
might be beneficial to dim the lights for coffee providers that offer mainly strong coffee, such
as Starbucks, or to increase illumination, if the target group prefers weak coffee like Dunkin’
Donuts (Spence et al., 2014). Hence, it might be derived that the optimal level of illumination
depends on the target group. Additionally, the impact of illumination might vary from
industry to industry. For instance, restaurants might profit from dark atmospheres (Spence et
al., 2014). On the contrary, the example of Hollister illustrates that a too low level of
illumination might lead to customer dissatisfaction. (Weinmann & Groth, 2011). Apart from
the direct effect of darkness on consumer behaviour, other authors have illustrated the impact
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of illumination on other variables such as feelings of anonymity (Zhong et al., 2010) and the
intensity of affective reactions (Xu & Labroo, 2014).
Dim rooms are perceived as cosier (Custers et al., 2010), more relaxing, and calming (Manav,
2007; Miwa & Hanyu, 2006) compared to bright rooms. In turn, cosy and relaxing
atmospheres are associated with benign and freeing situations, that in turn, lead to unethical
behaviour (Steidle & Werth, 2013). In a similar vein, Zhong et al. (2010) suggest that people
are prone to unethical behaviour in dark compared to bright environments. A set of three
experiments has shown that participants behaved more selfishly and cheated more often with
the intention of gaining more money. As a potential reason for this, they indicated that
participants evaluated the situation as them being anonymous and, thus, had the feeling of
being socially distant from others (Zhong et al., 2010). Xu and Labroo (2014) deliver a
similar explanation as these studies of Xu and Labroo (2014) demonstrate that illumination
impacts a wide array of judgments and influences the decision-making process. More
precisely, Xu and Labroo (2014) argued that brightness is linked to the perception of heat,
which in turn activates the hot emotional system. This means, that bright illumination,
compared to dim illumination, leads to an increase in the intensity of affective reactions,
independent of whether the affect is perceived as being positive or negative. Consequently, it
could be argued that decreasing illumination reduces negative, but also positive reactions
toward stimuli. Therefore, reactions towards people’s own behaviour and emotional
connections to others are reduced in dark atmospheres (Xu & Labroo, 2014).
Arguably, feelings of anonymity and freedom from social constraints might have an impact
on consumer behaviour. Huang, Dong, and Labroo (2018) were the first to address this issue.
The authors agree that in dimly lit environments consumers feel socially disconnected to
others and, as a result, consumers choose more hedonic instead of utilitarian items, because
they decide to buy products they truly want. Perhaps decreasing illumination to reduce
affective reactions (Xu & Labroo, 2014) might also impact perception of sensory stimuli and
ultimately influence consumer behaviour. However, more research is needed to test this
relationship. Furthermore, freedom from constraints and darkness might also impact
personality traits such as creativity (Steidle & Werth, 2013).
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Steidle and Werth (2013) suggest a connection between illumination and creativity. As
already mentioned, dim rooms are associated to freedom from social norms (Zhong et al.,
2010). Both circumstances - perceived freedom from constraints and darkness - are known to
facilitate the adaption of a global processing style (Steidle et al., 2011; Steidle & Werth,
2013), which in turn enables creative thinking (Friedman et al., 2003; Förster & Dannenberg,
2010). Thus, Steidle and Werth (2013) have shown that darkness improves creativity, whereas
the effect is mediated by freedom from constraints. As already brought up, darkness is known
to facilitate a global processing style (Steidle et al., 2011).
Importantly for the underlying study, Steidle et al. (2011) investigated the influence of dim
illumination on cognitive and perceptual level. More precisely, it has been shown that
darkness elicits a global processing style. This can be explained by perception of visual
details. In dark atmospheres, our visual perception is compared to brightness blurry and lacks
detailed information, leading to an abstract representation of the environment. Therefore, in
dark environments, people tend to adapt a global processing style, which can be explained by
the low visibility of their surroundings. Bright environments, in contrast, facilitate paying
attention to details. Noteworthy, darkness elicits a global processing style independently of
how illumination has been manipulated - either physically or with a priming method (Steidle
et al., 2011).
Coming back to the question from the previous chapter: “How can managers induce a global
processing style to their customers?” studies by Steidle et al. (2011) might answer this
quandary. Dimming illumination facilitates a global processing style. A global processing
style in turn might improve perceived cue congruency.
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6 Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses
The question remains of how perceived cue congruency can be improved other than
predetermining the semantic fit. In this thesis, it has been proposed that darkness increases
perceived cue congruency because prior research has shown that darkness facilitates global
processing (Steidle et al., 2011). A global processing style, in turn, increases a similarity
focus; whereas, a local processing style increases a focus on dissimilarities (Förster, 2009). As
the concept of congruency likely overlaps with perceived similarities between two or more
perceived entities, we can expect that inducing darkness should ultimately increase perceived
multisensory congruency. As high cue congruency typically improves consumer behaviour
(e.g. Krishna et al., 2010), we expect that inducing darkness rather than brightness increases
product evaluations such as WTP. It is thus hypothesised:
H1: Inducing darkness rather than brightness increases WTP.
H2: Inducing darkness rather than brightness increases perceived cue congruency.
H3: The positive relationship between darkness and WTP is mediated by perceived cue
congruency: the higher the perceived cue congruency the higher the WTP.
Furthermore, as already mentioned in chapter 3, global processing style and creativity are said
to correlate (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010; Friedman et al., 2003). Similarly, FI could also
correlate with global processing style (Epstein et al., 1996). Hence, we expect the following:
H4: The positive effect of darkness on WTP is moderated by creativity: higher self-rated
creativity strengthens the effect of darkness on WTP.
H5: The positive effect of darkness on WTP is moderated by FI: higher self-rated FI
strengthens the effect of darkness on WTP.
ILLUMINATION
ILLUMINATION
CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR (WTP)
CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR (WTP)
CUE CONGRUENCY
CUE CONGRUENCY
Figure 1: conceptual model
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7 Study – Illumination and Multisensory Integration
The present study tested H1 - H5. Before participants entered the experimental room, they
filled out the first part of the questionnaire. After that, participants entered the room in which
either dim or bright illumination was present. Moreover, the room was fragrant with vanilla-
scented candles. In the room, participants were instructed to pick a white towel up and to feel
the texture. Afterwards, participants answered the questions from the second part of the
questionnaire.
7.1 Design
The study had a one factorial between design, with the two levels of illumination (dark vs.
bright), with congruency ratings, and WTP as the main dependent variables.
7.2 Participants
One hundred seventy students at the University of Innsbruck (M = 24 years; 52.4% female)
were randomly assigned to conditions. After the experiment, participants were debriefed for
hypothesis guessing and rewarded with some sweets. Fifteen participants who guessed the
true purpose of the study were excluded from analysis (final N = 155).
7.3 Stimuli
As stimuli, one white towel (haptic sensory cue) and a vanilla-scented candle (olfactory
sensory cue) from Ikea were selected. We decided to use a towel as a haptic stimulus, as
haptic is an important aspect when purchasing towels (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003). To limit the
risk of gender-effects, we used a unisex, white towel. Furthermore, we chose a towel without
a logo on it, to ensure that haptic is in the foreground. As olfactory sensory stimulus, we
selected the scent of vanilla as it is generally well-known among Austrian students.
7.4 Field setting and equipment
The underlying study was conducted in a room at the University of Innsbruck for the duration
of four consecutive weekdays. The room was in front of the library, where a constant flow of
potential participants was given. The room was either bright or dark. We covered the whole
windows with black plastic sheets to ensure that no daylight influenced our conditions. In the
‘bright’ condition the lights from the ceiling were switched on and in addition to that we used
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a floor lamp (see Figure 2). In the ‘dark’ condition we turned off the ceiling lights and
dimmed the floor lamp. We avoided extreme levels of illumination to lessen the impacts on
the perceived pleasantness of lighting and mood. Besides the lighting, the room was equipped
with one table on which the product assortment was presented. As illustrated in Figure 3, the
product assortment consisted of several towels with four different colours and two different
sizes. Additionally, in front of the product assortment, a white Ikea towel was placed. A
vanilla-scented candle was hidden behind the table. Moreover, to provide participants with the
choice of sitting down, we placed a chair next to the table. Furthermore, we arranged for a
chair to be next to the entry where participants could leave their private belongings.
Questionnaires were printed to avoid another source of illumination.
7.5 Procedure
As already mentioned, participants had to fill out a questionnaire before they entered the room
in which the actual experiment took place. The first questionnaire included questions about
the current state of mood, FI, and creativity. Allen and Janiszewski`s (1989) four-item scale
was employed to measure mood. Mood was tested before and after the experiment.
Additionally, the German version of the FI scale was used to assess the level of self-rated FI
(Keller et al., 2000). Creativity was measured with a three-item measure taken from
Fitzsimons, Chartrand, and Fitzsimons (2008). All measures and items are listed in Table 2.
After participants filled out the first part of the questionnaire, the first experimenter guided
them into the room. In the room, participants were welcomed by the second experimenter and
asked to sit down for a minute. This enabled the participants to experience the atmosphere of
Figure 2: experimental setting
Figure 2: experimental setting
Figure 3: product assortment
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the room. After approximately one minute, participants were instructed to pick the towel up
and to feel the texture. The experimenter showed participants how they should hold the towel
and feel the texture to ensure a consistent procedure across participants. Afterwards,
participants filled out the second part of the questionnaire. Participants rated on a two-item
scale the perceived congruency between the scent and towel`s texture. Furthermore,
participants indicated their WTP. On a single-item scale, participants evaluated the visibility
of towel’s texture and pleasantness of lighting conditions. As a manipulation check,
participants evaluated the perceived brightness (single-item scale). Finally, participants
indicated their age and gender. Participants were debriefed for hypotheses guessing, thanked
and rewarded with some sweets.
Mood (Allen & Janiszewski, 1989; pre-measure α = .85, post-measure α = .87)
How do you feel at this moment?
1= very bad, 9 = very good; 1 = very negative, 9 = very positive; 1 = very unpleasant, 9 = very
pleasant; 1 = very sad, 9 = very happy;
FI (Keller et al., 2000; α = .86)
When forming an opinion, I fully rely on my intuition; For most of the decisions, it´s
reasonable to rely on ones feelings; I am a very intuitive person; I trust my initital
feelings about people; I trust my initial reactions towards other people; I think I can trust
my feelings; The first idea is often the best one; I listen to my gut feelings when trusting
other people; I can usually feel when a person is right or wrong even if I can´t explain
how I know; My initial impressions of people are almost always right; I am quick to
form impressions about people; When it comes to purchase decisions, I often rely on my
gut feelings; I can typically sense right away when a person is lying; If I got lost (by car/
bicycle), I decide most of the time spontaneously which direction to take; I believe I can
judge character pretty well from a person’s appareance.
1 = I do not agree at all, 9 = I fully agree;
Self-rated creativity (Fitzsimons et al., 2008; α = .82)
How much do you care about being a creative person?
1 = I do not care at all, 9 = I care very much;
How important is it that others consider you a creative person?
1 = not important at all, 9 = very important;
In your daily life, how often do you pursue the goal of being creative?
1 = very rarely, 9 = very often;
Table 2: Measures and items used in study
Table 3: Measures and items used in study
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7.6 Results
Controls - We first analysed whether the two illumination groups (i.e., dark vs. bright)
differed in their self-reported mood before and after the study took place. There was only a
significant main effect of the two mood measures (i.e., across both illumination groups) with
participants reporting after their study slightly better mood compared to their self-reports
before entering the experimental setting (Mpre = 6.90 vs. Mpost = 7.10, F (1, 150) = 12.01, p <
.01). There was no other main or interaction effect (all p > .36). Furthermore, the two groups
did neither differ in terms of visibility of the towel’s texture (p > .63) nor did they differ in
terms of pleasantness of lighting conditions in the room (p > .76). We also assessed whether
the two groups were matched in terms of their chronic creativity and FI because any group
difference in these two measures could explain differences of our main dependent variable’s
congruency and WTP. However, the two groups did not differ on any of these two
personality traits (all p > .14). Lastly, we also checked whether our manipulation was
successful. Indeed, the bright group rated the room's illumination significantly brighter (M =
WTP estimates
Let´s assume you want to buy exactly this towel for you or someone else, how much
would you be willing to pay (indications in commas are allowed):
I would pay: €____________________
Visibility of towel’s texture
How good was the texture of the towel visible?
1 = very badly visible, 9 = exceedingly well visible;
Pleasantness of lighting conditions
How pleasant do you perceive the lighting conditions in this room?
1 = not pleasant at all, 9 = very pleasant;
Evaluation of level of illumination (perceived brightness)
How dark or bright is the room?
1 = very dark, 9 = very bright;
Figure 6: congruency and WTP ratings (Mean) in dark vs. bright conditionWTP estimates
Let´s assume you want to buy exactly this towel for you or someone else, how much
would you be willing to pay (indications in commas are allowed):
I would pay: €____________________
Visibility of towel’s texture
How good was the texture of the towel visible?
1 = very badly visible, 9 = exceedingly well visible;
Pleasantness of lighting conditions
How pleasant do you perceive the lighting conditions in this room?
1 = not pleasant at all, 9 = very pleasant;
Evaluation of level of illumination (perceived brightness)
How dark or bright is the room?
1 = very dark, 9 = very bright;
Congruency ratings (r = .94)
How well does the ambient scent fit to the product assortment?
1 = fits not at all, 9 = fits very well;
How well harmonises the ambient scent and product assortment?
1 = harmonises not at all, 9 = harmonises very well;
Congruency ratings (r = .94)
How well does the ambient scent fit to the product assortment?
1 = fits not at all, 9 = fits very well;
How well harmonises the ambient scent and product assortment?
1 = harmonises not at all, 9 = harmonises very well;
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7.09) as compared to the dark illumination group (M = 4.69; t (153) = 12.85, p < .01). The
groups were thus matched for important individual and situational factors and the light
manipulation was successful as indicated by the manipulation check.
Congruency ratings and WTP - We analysed the congruency index and the WTP estimates
using separate independent t-tests with the lighting conditions as independent factor. As
predicted, the dark illumination group rated the fit between the towel and ambient scent
significantly better (M = 6.85) as compared to the bright illumination group (M = 4.03; t (153)
= 10.35, p < .01). The dark illumination group also reported higher WTP estimates (M =
16.03) as compared to the bright illumination group (M = 10.57; t (153) = 6.01, p < .01):
Mediation - Next, we analysed whether the congruency ratings mediate the WTP estimates
using a bootstrap analysis (10k, Hayes, 2017) with the two illumination groups as
independent variable (bright = 1, dark = 2), the congruency ratings as mediator, and the WTP
estimates as dependent variable. As indicated by the prior analyses, the a-path was significant
(p < .01). The b-path from the mediator congruency to the outcome WTP estimates was also
significant, B = 3.07, se = .11, t (152) = 29.06, p < .01. Lastly, the indirect effect was also
significant as indicated by the absence of the value zero in the confidence interval [CI (6.95 –
10.31)]. Hence, the dark rather than bright illumination increased the perceived fit of the
towel texture with the ambient scent, which ultimately led to higher WTP estimates.
Figure 4: congruency and WTP ratings (Mean) in dark vs. bright condition
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Moderation - Next, we checked whether the two personality traits creativity and FI moderate
the effect from illumination on congruency scores using two separate spotlight analyses
(Hayes, 2017, Model 1, 10k) with the lighting conditions as independent factor and
congruency scores as dependent variable. However, no significant interaction was observed
(all p > .51), hence no moderation occurred.
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8 General Discussion
In conclusion, the present study suggests a novel solution to how perceived cue congruency
can be improved, leading to an increase in WTP. In more detail, as shown in Figure 4, in dark
atmospheres participants perceive stimuli as more congruent and are willing to pay more for
the towel compared to the bright atmosphere, whereby the positive effect of darkness on WTP
is mediated by perceived cue congruency; hence, H1, H2 and H3 are supported. Against our
predictions that creativity and FI moderate the effect of darkness on WTP, the results of the
study have shown no impact. Therefore, we can preclude that the effect of darkness on WTP
is bounded by the two mentioned personality traits. Due to this, H4 and H5 can be rejected.
Taken together, findings of this study support our idea that darkness improves perceived cue
congruency, which ultimately leads to a higher WTP. In the following section, our findings
opposed to existing theory are discussed.
8.1 Theoretical Implications
The main objective of the present study was to add to theory development of the multisensory
consumption experience. We believe that the present study provides the following
contribution to theory:
Studies demonstrated that darkness facilitates creativity (Steidle & Werth, 2013). Results of
the present study have shown that the level of self-rated creativity does not differ among the
dark and bright atmosphere. Hence, we cannot support the statement of Steidle and Werth
(2013) that darkness promotes creativity. However, the present study measured self-rated
creativity compared to the mentioned research of Steidle and Werth (2013), which used
certain creativity tasks to measure an individual’s level of creativity (Steidle & Werth, 2013).
The different methods of measuring creativity might have influenced the results.
Coming back to the effect of illumination on consumer behaviour, research yielded
conflicting results about the optimal level of illumination in retail stores. While Summers and
Herbert (2001) have shown that bright illumination leads to more time spent at the store and
customers touch more items, Hultén (2012) has shown that dim illumination increases sales.
The present study contributes to these discrepancies by highlighting the positive effect of dim
illumination on WTP. A difference to the mentioned research is that the present study
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investigated how illumination affects perceived cue congruency, which in turn influences
consumer behaviour.
Until now, it has been widely researched how cue congruency affects consumer behaviour
(e.g. Krishna et al., 2010; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001; Spangenberg et al., 2005). The present study
has provided further empirical support for the positive effect of perceived cue congruency on
consumer behaviour. More precisely, the results have indicated that higher ratings of cue
congruency correlate with higher WTP estimates compared to lower ratings of cue
congruency. Apart from this, to the best of our knowledge, there so far exists no study that has
tested the impact of cue congruency on WTP. In addition to the support of existing literature
on consumer-behavioural outcomes of cue congruency, we have revealed a new mechanism
between sensory cues.
The present study advances our understanding of multisensory consumption experience by
showing that one sensory stimulus impacts the perception of multisensory stimuli. More
specifically, the underlying study shows that darkness (vision) compared to brightness
improves perceived cue congruency between scent (olfactory) and towel`s texture (haptic).
We assumed that the relation between illumination and perceived cue congruency depends on
how consumers perceive things.
We argue that darkness positively affects cue congruency, because darkness induces a global
processing style (Steidle et al., 2011). A global processing style is said to facilitate the look
for similarities (Förster, 2009); whereas, the concept of cue congruency possibly overlaps
with similarity judgments. Thus, our study potentially extends findings of Förster (2009) by
demonstrating that darkness, that is known to induce a global processing style (Steidle et al.,
2011), improves perceived cue congruency as customers tend to look for more similarities
rather than dissimilarities (Förster, 2009).
In conclusion, the present research is the first to demonstrate how a single sensory cue
(illumination) impacts the perception of multisensory cues (haptic and olfactory). This
relationship reveals a new mechanism of how to improve perceived cue congruency; thus,
increasing WTP. Hence, we have found an innovative solution to impact consumer behaviour,
which might be of practical importance.
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8.2 Practical Implications
We attempted to strengthen managerial relevance of cue congruency by showing a subtle
strategy to improve it. Strategically manipulating illumination might help retailers to enhance
customers’ perceived similarities among sensory cues such as scent and haptic. In turn, and of
managerial relevance, higher perceived cue congruency increases for instance store
evaluations (Spangenberg et al., 2005), customer satisfaction (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001), haptic
appraisal (Krishna et al., 2010), and, as the underlying study demonstrates, WTP.
Under certain circumstances, sensory cues like the creation of store fragrance or composition
of special music are costly (Spence et al., 2014). Therefore, designing congruent store
atmospheres might involve high investments and the risk that investments do not pay off is
high (Turley & Chebat, 2002). Unlike other sensory cues, illumination is always part of the
store atmosphere, either physically or occurring naturally (Kotler, 1973). Due to this,
dimming illumination is compared to other sensory cues a simple and inexpensive method to
increase WTP. In turn, WTP detects potential to increase sales, thus making it of ecological
relevance (Le Gall-Ely, 2009).
Essentially, the present study suggests that retailers should dim the lights to improve
perceived cue congruency; thus, increasing WTP. We tested the effect of darkness on the
multisensory cues haptic and scent. Therefore, the findings might be especially relevant for
retailers purchasing products with material properties as the probability that the product is
picked up and physically examined (haptic perception) is increased. Examples might be
apparel, household furnishing or towels (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003).
The present research provides an important practical implication. Nevertheless, a number of
potential limitations need to be considered.
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8.3 Limitations and Future Directions
Firstly, the present study was neither specifically designed to a real purchase situation nor to a
retail setting. The experiment was conducted in a laboratory setting; however, consumer
behaviour might be different in a real-world retail setting (Spence et al., 2014). Thus,
additional experiments conducted in stores might further strengthen how the present study
may be generalised.
Another limitation is that the present study only used artificial lighting to decrease the risk of
biasing influences from changes in weather conditions. However, some retailers might not be
able to avoid the presence of natural light. Hence, findings of the present study might not be
applicable to daylight scenarios and thus difficult to implement for some retailers. In addition
to that, it could be argued that the effect of darkness on perceived cue congruency might
depend on the lux used. However, we did not measure the actual level of illumination used
during the experiment; thus, further research is necessary to provide recommendations. Cases
like the one of Hollister might provide a reference value. In a Hollister store in London, the
following lux levels were measured: On merchandise in average 106 lux were measured with
a low of 1 lux. Walkaways were lit with an average of 1.8 lux. Although a lot of customers
criticized the low illumination, Hollister noted an increase in revenue (Molony, 2018).
Though, more research is necessary to make recommendations about the optimal level of
illumination. Concerning lighting, another potential direction for future research on cue
congruency might be the impact of colour temperature. Warm light is associated to cosiness
and feelings of benignity (Boyce & Cuttle, 1990), which facilitates the adaption of a global
processing style (Friedman & Förster, 2010). Therefore, future research could investigate
whether warm compared to cold light improves perceived cue congruency.
In addition to this, besides mood, creativity, and FI there might be several factors that have
influenced the results. As already mentioned, different types of customers react differently to
stimuli (Kotler, 1973). Therefore, future research that tests the impact of individual
characteristics on the effect of illumination on WTP might further strengthen the underlying
findings. As a first attempt, we tested if the level of creativity and FI moderate the effect, but
we found no correlation. Nonetheless, it is possible that other personality traits, such as
anxiety, might restrict the effect.
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Importantly, as Steidle et al. (2011) suggest, we assumed that darkness induces a global
processing style. However, the present study failed to test whether participants indeed adapted
a global processing style or not. Findings thus needed to be interpreted with care. If a global
processing style was not induced, the question remains why darkness improves cue
congruency. Independent of whether we induced a global processing style or not, the
underlying study has shown that darkness increases perceived cue congruency, and thus WTP.
Our study clearly has some limitations. Despite this, our study provides several theoretical
and managerial contributions. Additionally, we believe our findings could add a fundamental
issue for future research on multisensory consumption experience. As illumination is
omnipresent (Cowen-Elstner, 2018), we suggest considering the influence of illumination in
future studies on perceived cue congruency. In other words, as illumination might influence
perceived cue congruency, we advise controlling the level of illumination on studies that test
the influence of certain stimuli on consumer behaviour.
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Affidavit
I hereby declare that this Master’s thesis has been written only by the undersigned and
without any assistance from third parties. I confirm that no sources have been used in the
preparation of this thesis other than those indicated in the thesis itself.
This Master’s thesis has heretofore not been submitted or published elsewhere, neither in its
present form, nor in a similar version.
Place, Date, Signature