Siromaštvo u folklornoj tradiciji Srba od XIII do XIX veka: Prilog proučavanju narodne kulture, Albatros plus, Beograd, 2014 / Poverty in Serbian Folklore Tradition from the 13th

7Историјски и антропосоциолошки оквири сиромаштва

Poverty in Serbian Folklore Tradition from the 13th to 19th Century

A Contribution to the Study of Folk Culture

Contents

1. Introduction 11

2. Poverty: the historical and social-anthropological context 23 2.1. A brief review of the sociological explanations of poverty 23 2.2. The idea of poverty through history 25

3. Poverty among the Serbs – historical and cultural context 45 3.1. Introduction 45 3.2. Categories of the poor in Serbian medieval society 47 3.3. The poor in the light of medieval charity 51 3.4. Some aspects of poverty and the poor from the 15th to the 58 18th century 3.5. Hunger, fasting and food in hardship 75

4. Poverty and the poor in folklore tradition 123 4.1. Poverty in beliefs and customs 125 4.2. The discernible paupers – beggars and Vlach paupers 136 4.3. Poverty in folk poetry 187 4.4. Poverty in folk prose 208

5. Poverty and the family 235 5.1. Widows and poor single women 238 5.2. Widowers 266 5.3. Divorced women and men 272 5.4. Orphans 282

6. Companions of poverty 315 6.1. Servants and day-labourers 315 6.2. Coachmen and wagoners 334 6.3. Migrant workers 344 6.4. Poor soldiers 352

8 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

7. Poverty and laughter 371

8. Conclusion 403

9. Appendix: Poverty and the poor in proverbs and sayings 409

Summary 429

Bibliography 445

Motif and tale type indices 473

Index of names 479

Author’s note and Acknowledgments 489

About the author 491

429Summary

Sum mary

The­fi­rst­part­of­our­rese­arch­covers­the­cul­tu­ral,­histo­ri­cal­and­con­cep­tual­con­text­of­poverty­among­the­Serbs­from­the­13th­to­the­19th­cen­tury­(ch.­1‒3),­whi­le­part­two­directly­exa­mi­nes­poverty­and­the­poor­in­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion­(ch.­4‒7).

Taking­poverty­as­a­social­pro­cess­which­in­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion­mani­fe­sted­itself­thro-ugh­ the­cul­tu­ral­prac­ti­ce­and­com­mu­ni­ca­tion­of­vari­o­us­ social­gro­ups,­we­can­distin­gu­ish­seve­ral­ key­moments­ in­ the­deve­lop­ment­of­ the­ idea­of­poverty­ thro­ug­ho­ut­ the­ cour­se­of­history­(ch.­2).

In­ the­oldest­com­mu­ni­ti­es,­poverty­ is­assu­med­to­have­been­rela­ti­ve,­sin­ce­ the­eco-no­mic­con­di­ti­ons­did­not­per­mit­the­amas­sing­of­wealth,­being­regu­la­ted­thro­ugh­the­mutual­exchan­ge­of­gifts­in­an­ethos­of­reci­pro­city­and­redi­stri­bu­tion.­The­fi­rst­appe­a­ran­ces­of­poverty­occur­when­bar­ter­and­the­exchan­ge­of­goods­for­money­repla­ce­the­eco­nomy­of­gifts,­and­sla-very­and­unpaid­labo­ur­make­the­ir­appe­a­ran­ce.­With­the­emer­gen­ce­of­penury,­come­the­fi­rst­attempts­at­pro­tec­ting­the­soci­ally­vul­ne­ra­ble,­and­the­insti­tu­tion­of­cha­rity­appe­ars.

Anci­ent­reli­gi­o­us­and­lite­rary­texts­bear­wit­ness­to­the­fact­that­pro­tec­tion­of­the­poor­and­soli­da­rity­with­the­soci­ally­endan­ge­red­was­the­obli­ga­tion­of­the­gods,­rulers­and­jud­ges­and­repre­sen­ted­a­divi­ne­vir­tue.­Pro­tec­ting­the­poor­gua­ran­teed­the­sta­bi­lity­of­a­soci­ety,­and­any­vio­la­tion­of­ it­by­abu­se­of­ the­poor­was­ subject­ to­ san­ction.­With­Chri­sti­a­nity­came­a­gra­dual­growth­of­the­idea­of­an­eco­nomy­of­sal­va­tion­thro­ugh­cha­ri­ta­ble­deeds,­the­giving­of­alms­to­the­poor­and­vul­ne­ra­ble.­In­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion­the­se­beli­efs­are­mixed:­the­poor­are­under­divi­ne­pro­tec­tion­and­must­not­be­put­at­risk,­sin­ce­they­are­clo­sest­to­God­and­the­ance-stors;­thus­cha­rity­can­help­in­this­life.­

Early­noti­ons­of­poverty­exclu­ded­the­idea­of­social­justi­ce.­It­was­beli­e­ved­that­penury­was­a­mat­ter­of­fate,­that­it­occur­red­thro­ugh­the­will­of­a­deity­or­by­acci­dent,­and­that­man­could­only­resign­him­self­to­it.­The­idea­that­poverty­was­pre­de­ter­mi­ned­by­fate­is­also­rela­ted­to­the­link­bet­we­en­poverty­and­work.­In­anci­ent­mytho­logy,­work­was­seen­as­being­both­the­fru­it­of­adver­sity­and­fore­or­da­i­ned;­later­it­was­to­beco­me­a­cri­te­rion­for­gro­u­ping­the­poor­into­cate­go­ri­es­and­allo­ca­ting­cha­rity.

Along­si­de­the­beli­ef­that­poverty­was­deter­mi­ned­by­fate,­in­reli­gi­o­us­and­phi­lo­sop­hi-cal­tra­di­ti­ons­we­also­enco­un­ter­the­view­that­it­is­a­spi­ri­tual­value,­a­form­of­self-actu­a­li­sa­tion­and­a­way­to­achi­e­ve­vir­tue.­Reno­un­cing­mate­rial­things­for­the­sake­of­spi­ri­tual­growth­led­to­a­dif­fe­ren­ti­a­tion­bet­we­en­volun­tary­and­invo­lun­tary­poverty.­

The­ide­as­of­cha­rity­and­work­were­lin­ked­and­played­a­deci­si­ve­role­in­tran­sfor­ming­the­con­cept­of­poverty.­Alms­were­an­exam­ple­of­com­pas­sion­and­cha­rity,­but­ thro­ugh­ the­pur­cha­se­of­indul­gen­ces,­they­were­also­a­cal­cu­la­ted­way­of­ensu­ring­sal­va­tion­of­one’s­soul­whi­le­at­the­same­time­dra­wing­atten­tion­to­one’s­own­wealth­in­line­with­Chri­stian­prin­ci­ples.­The­rela­tion­bet­we­en­poverty­and­work­is­ambi­gu­o­us:­work­was­at­fi­rst­per­ce­i­ved­as­a­cur­se­and­a­punis­hment,­but­also­as­a­vir­tue,­sin­ce­thro­ugh­work,­man­con­qu­ers­natu­re,­subju­ga­tes­it­to­him­self­and­tames­it.­Sla­very­was­con­si­de­red­neces­sary­sin­ce­it­ena­bled­the­lei­su­re­requ-i­si­te­for­the­deve­lop­ment­of­sci­en­ce­and­art,­thro­ugh­which­free­men,­reli­e­ved­of­the­bur­den­of­daily­cho­res,­achi­e­ved­pro­spe­rity.­A­chan­ge­in­the­per­cep­tion­of­work­takes­pla­ce­in­the­Mid­dle­Ages:­work­is­no­lon­ger­a­punis­hment­but­rat­her­a­daily­task­which­brings­peo­ple­nea-rer­to­God,­whi­le­idlers,­in­the­spi­rit­of­the­ser­mons­of­St.­Paul,­for­fe­i­ted­the­right­to­eat.­As­atti­tu­des­towards­work­chan­ged,­so­also­did­poli­ci­es­of­social­care.­Only­the­deser­ving­poor­

430 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

meri­ted­cha­rity,­whi­le­the­unde­ser­ving­–­tho­se­who­would­not­work­alt­ho­ugh­capa­ble­of­doing­so­–­were­con­si­de­red­dis­re­pu­ta­ble­and­exclu­ded­from­the­system­of­social­aid.­

Cha­rac­te­ri­stic­of­the­history­of­poverty­in­pre-modern­times­were­gro­wing­num­bers­of­the­poor­with­a­cor­re­spon­ding­incre­a­se­in­poor­laws,­unem­ployment,­upri­sing,­social­tur­moil­and­attempts­ at­ a­poverty­ cen­sus­ that­would­help­ to­ syste­ma­ti­ze­ them­accor­ding­ to­ abi­lity­for­use­in­the­work­for­ce.­Laws­were­pas­sed­to­struc­tu­re­assi­stan­ce­to­the­poor,­joint­funds­were­cre­a­ted,­aid­was­col­lec­ted­at­dis­trict­or­parish­level­and­poor­pupils­were­awar­ded­scho-lar­ships;­the­church,­secu­lar­aut­ho­ri­ti­es­and­phi­lan­thro­pic­indi­vi­du­als­joi­ned­for­ces­in­the­se­efforts.­The­incre­a­se­in­the­num­ber­of­beg­gars­and­tramps­con­tri­bu­ted­to­a­nega­ti­ve­opi­nion­among­the­public,­whe­re­a­Pro­te­stant­ethic­deplo­red­lazi­ness­as­a­sin­whi­le­con­si­de­ring­work­a­reli­gi­o­us­duty.­Whi­le­the­deser­ving­poor­had­the­right­to­aid,­beg­gars­and­the­home­less­were­per­se­cu­ted,­punis­hed,­sen­ten­ced­to­for­ced­labo­ur­or­depor­ted­to­colo­ni­es­over­se­as.­Invo­lun­tary­poverty­beca­me­pro­of­of­sin­ful­ness­and­volun­tary­poverty­lost­its­cac­he­of­spi­ri­tual­vir­tue,­in­some­pla­ces­acqu­i­ring­nega­ti­ve­con­no­ta­ti­ons.

In­the­modern­period­furt­her­chan­ges­took­pla­ce­in­the­per­cep­tion­of­poverty,­alt­ho-ugh­the­old­pola­ri­sa­tion­lin­ge­red­on­under­cer­tain­forms,­distin­gu­is­hing­bet­we­en­the­vir­tu­o­us­(God’s­or­wor­king)­poor,­who­deser­ved­good­from­soci­ety­sin­ce­soci­ety­had­not­done­well­by­them,­and­non-vir­tu­o­us­(devil’s,­non­wor­king,­able-bodied)­poor,­who­nee­ded­to­be­refor­med­sin­ce­the­ir­ incom­pe­ten­ce­had­bro­ught­ them­whe­re­ they­were.­On­the­one­hand,­dif­fe­ren­ces­bet­we­en­rich­and­poor­beca­me­more­acu­te,­the­rela­tion­bet­we­en­work­and­lei­su­re­time­chan-ged­and­the­abo­li­tion­of­sla­very­pro­ce­e­ded­at­a­vari­a­ble­pace.­On­the­other­hand,­soci­ety­was­swiftly­beco­ming­indu­stri­a­li­sed,­the­rela­tion­bet­we­en­the­rural­and­urban­mili­eu­chan­ged­and­a­wor­king­class­and­pro­le­ta­ri­at­began­to­form.­Social­wel­fa­re­was­gra­du­ally­tran­sfer­red­into­the­hands­of­the­secu­lar­aut­ho­ri­ti­es,­laws­were­pas­sed­defi­ning­the­vul­ne­ra­ble­and­tho­se­on­the­mar­gins,­whi­le­phi­lo­sophy­and­eco­no­mics­pro­po­sed­vari­o­us­con­cepts­of­how­to­dimi­nish­poverty­and­pro­mo­te­the­gene­ral­pro­gress.

Chap­ter­ 2­ revi­ews­ the­ deve­lop­ment­ of­ the­ idea­ of­ poverty­ con­nec­ted­ to­ noti­ons­ of­work,­cha­rity,­wealth­and­insti­tu­ti­ons­of­social­wel­fa­re­that­sho­uld­shed­light­on­the­histo­ri­cal­and­ide­o­lo­gi­cal­bac­kgro­und­of­the­per­cep­tion­of­poverty­in­high­cul­tu­re.­Some­of­the­se­have­con­tri­bu­ted­to­sha­ping­cer­tain­ide­as­found­in­folk­cul­tu­re­and­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion.

Chap­ter­3­gives­ the­histo­ri­cal­ and­cul­tu­ral­ fra­me­work­of­poverty­ among­ the­Serbs.­Histo­ri­cal­mate­rial­from­the­13th­to­the­19th­cen­tury­is­somew­hat­limi­ted,­but­it­is­pos­si­ble­to­gain­a­gene­ral­pic­tu­re­of­cate­go­ri­es­of­the­poor­and­the­admi­ni­stra­tion­of­social­wel­fa­re.­In­order­to­defi­ne­the­cate­go­ri­es­of­ the­poor­in­medi­e­val­Ser­bia­(ch.­3.2)­we­began­with­legal­docu­ments.­All­the­poor­had­cer­tain­rights­and­obli­ga­ti­ons­and­a­pla­ce­in­soci­ety.­Alt­ho­ugh­the­sta­tus­of­some­of­them­is­insuf­fi­ci­ently­cle­ar­to­us­today,­we­may­still­dedu­ce­the­exi­sten­ce­of­many­sha­des­of­vari­a­tion­among­social­clas­ses.­Cer­tain­mar­gi­nal­gro­ups,­howe­ver,­rema­i­ned­vir­tu­ally­invi­si­ble,­and­so­the­re­is­very­lit­tle­men­tion­of­beg­gars­and­blind­tra­vel­ling­sin­gers.­The­degree­of­poverty­was­deter­mi­ned,­as­in­Byzan­ti­um,­accor­ding­to­pro­perty,­which­was­a­rela­ti­ve­mat­ter.­Thro­ugh­laws­(The Nomo ca non of Saint Sava, Dušan’s Code, The Code on the Mine Novo Brdo)­and­char­ters,­rulers­and­eccle­si­a­sti­cal­aut­ho­ri­ti­es­ende­a­vo­u­red­to­secu-re­wel­fa­re­and­a­cer­tain­ legal­pro­tec­tion­ for­ the­soci­ally­vul­ne­ra­ble­and­ the­sick.­Atten­tion­was­direc­ted­toward­the­depen­dant­popu­la­tion,­free­pea­sants­and­deb­tors­in­mining­are­as­and­par­ti­cu­larly­to­the­care­of­the­poor­and­tho­se­at­risk­(ch.­3.3),­as­both­the­lite­ra­tu­re­and­legal­docu­ments,­wills­and­other­sour­ces­elo­qu­ently­testify.­

Bet­we­en­ the­15th­ and­ the­18th­ cen­tury­ (ch.­3.4)­we­enco­un­ter­new­cate­go­ri­es­of­ the­poor­and­impo­ve­ris­hed,­the­result­of­a­gene­ral­pro­cess­of­stra­ti­fi­ca­tion­of­soci­ety,­the­rava­ges­

431Summary

of­war­and­fre­qu­ent­move­ments­of­peo­ple.­With­the­Otto­man­con­qu­ests,­a­dif­fe­rent­legal­and­eco­no­mic­system­was­gra­du­ally­intro­du­ced­and­with­it­new­gro­ups­of­poor:­reaya ‒­“flock”,­the­non-Otto­man­ordi­nary­pea­sants­and­tax-paying­subjects;­Haymanes –­nomads­who­were­not­regi­ste­red­in­the­def ters;­Yörüks ‒­Tur­ko­man­nomads;­mili­tary­auxi­li­a­ri­es,­the­urban­poor,­ser­vants­in­the­hou­ses­of­wealthy­citi­zens­and­in­public­ser­vi­ces,­sla­ves­and­pri­ests.­The­dec-li­ne­of­the­Otto­man­Empi­re­and­fre­qu­ent­wars­bet­we­en­Tur­key­and­Austria­led­to­eco­no­mic­inse­cu­rity­and­social­unrest;­the­re­were­incre­a­sing­cases­of­oppres­sion­of­the­poor,­ille­gal­taxa-ti­on,­impo­si­tion­of­the­obli­ga­tion­on­com­mon­peo­ple­to­pro­vi­de­food,­shel­ter,­hor­ses­and­other­neces­si­ti­es­to­repre­sen­ta­ti­ves­of­the­aut­ho­ri­ti­es­and­tra­vel­lers,­which­at­times­could­dege­ne­ra­te­into­rob­bery.­Finally,­some­forms­of­indi­gen­ce­were­cau­sed­by­folk­customs­and­men­ta­lity,­such­as­a­ten­dency­towards­rec­kless­spen­ding­at­wed­dings,­wakes­and­feasts.

Hun­ger,­fasting­and­food­in­times­of­adver­sity­(ch.­3.5)­are­exa­mi­ned­in­detail.­On­the­one­hand,­hun­ger­was­cau­sed­by­desti­tu­tion,­bar­ren­years,­natu­ral­disa­sters,­whi­le­on­the­other­it­could­be­a­wil­ling­deci­sion­and­reli­gi­o­us­obli­ga­tion.­Vari­o­us­folk­beli­efs­and­fol­klo­re­motifs­are­lin­ked­to­hun­ger.­Fasting­and­food­in­adver­sity­natu­rally­impo­sed­them­sel­ves­as­two­poles­of­the­same­occur­ren­ce.­We­have­analysed­the­histo­ri­cal,­ethno­grap­hic­and­lite­rary­sour­ces­and­com­pa­red­them­with­fol­klo­re­mate­rial.

Chap­ters­ 4‒7­ go­ stra­ight­ to­ inter­pre­ting­ the­ subject­ at­ the­ heart­ of­ our­ rese­arch­ –­poverty­ in­ fol­klo­re­ tra­di­tion.­The­ exten­si­ve­Chap­ter­ 4­ encom­pas­ses­ stu­di­es­ on­ beli­efs­ and­customs­con­nec­ted­to­poverty­in­Ser­bian­and­South-Slav­mate­rial­(ch.­4.1),­stu­di­es­on­beg­gars­and­Vlach­pau­pers­in­folk­cul­tu­re­and­fol­klo­re­(ch.­4.2),­and­an­analysis­of­poverty­as­a­subject­in­poe­tic­and­pro­se­fol­klo­re­gen­res­(ch.­4.3‒4.4).

In­the­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion­of­the­South­Slavs­the­re­are­con­tra­dic­tory­beli­efs­con­cer­ning­the­poor.­Whe­re­poverty­ is­expla­i­ned­by­rea­sons­of­fate­or­ is­under­stood­as­a­con­se­qu­en­ce­of­punis­hment­for­some­offen­ce­or­sin,­ the­atti­tu­de­towards­the­poor­ is­a­nega­ti­ve­one­and­they­are­per­ce­i­ved­as­idlers­and­swin­dlers.­On­the­other­hand,­indi­gen­ce­is­also­per­ce­i­ved­as­a­mis­for­tu­ne­beca­u­se­of­which­peo­ple­suf­fer­ in­ this­world,­and­for­ this­ they­are­somew­hat­com­pen­sa­ted­by­divi­ne­sup­port­and­pro­tec­tion.­The­poor­and­wretched­beco­me­inter­me­di­a-ri­es­bet­we­en­this­world­and­the­next,­can­repre­sent­the­peo­ple­befo­re­God­and­the­ance­stors,­and­hea­ling­and­mira­cu­lo­us­powers­are­ascri­bed­to­them.­Peo­ple­ende­a­vo­u­red­to­get­bles­sings­from­the­poor­and­fea­red­the­ir­cur­ses,­then­ce­also­the­impor­tan­ce­of­cha­rity­on­vari­o­us­holi-days­and­customs­of­the­life­cycle.­

The­mea­nings­ascri­bed­to­the­poor­and­to­beg­gars­affec­ted­the­ir­ritual­role.­Sin­ce­it­was­beli­e­ved­that­the­poor­pas­sed­on­the­ir­indi­gen­ce­and­mis­for­tu­ne­to­others,­they­were­exclu­ded­from­ritu­als­and­customs­enac­ted­to­ensu­re­good­luck,­pro­gress­and­fer­ti­lity­such­as­wed­ding­customs,­the­love­charms­of­young­girls,­some­calen­dar­ritu­als,­customs­con­nec­ted­to­cer­tain­hou­se­hold­tasks­and­first­ritu­als.­In­con­trast,­the­poor­were­inclu­ded­in­post­hu­mo­us­ritu­als­and­other­rites­and­customs­whe­re­they­were­nee­ded­to­repre­sent­the­peo­ple­befo­re­the­ance­stors­and­the­deity.­In­some­cases,­for­instan­ce­when­poor­and­orp­han­girls­take­part­in­the­Laza­ri­ca­ritu­als,­it­is­a­pro­fa­na­tion­of­the­ritual­and­imper­so­na­tes­beg­ging.

Cha­rity­to­the­poor­had­mul­ti­ple­moti­ves.­In­the­reli­gi­o­us­sen­se,­donors­wis­hed­thro­ugh­the­ir­gifts­indi­rectly­to­influ­en­ce­the­ance­stors­and­the­deity,­and­at­the­same­time,­accor­ding­to­Chri­stian­beli­ef,­gain­sal­va­tion­of­the­ir­souls­and­for­gi­ve­ness­of­sins.­In­the­psycho­lo­gi­cal­and­social­sen­se,­cha­rity­was­promp­ted­by­empathy­for­the­misery­of­anot­her­and­the­desi­re­to­help.­Hope­in­the­help­of­ance­stors­or­a­hig­her­power­and­fear­of­punis­hment­repre­sent­the­obver­se­and­rever­se­of­the­same­pro­cess.­Again,­cha­rity­often­bro­ught­the­giver­public­recog-ni­tion­by­which­social­ties­among­donors­were­con­fir­med­and­the­ir­posi­tion­in­soci­ety­asser-

432 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

ted.­Alms­to­the­poor­were­obli­ga­tory­in­the­cult­of­the­dead,­at­wed­dings,­at­Christ­mas­time.­Anot­her­aspect­of­hel­ping­the­poor­was­soli­da­rity,­as­in­cha­ri­ta­ble­forms­of­com­mu­nal­work­(sevap na moba).­

In­its­spe­ci­fic­way,­poverty­distin­gu­is­hed­cate­go­ri­es­of­spa­ce­and­time­in­folk­cul­tu­re.­Besi­des­the­typical­dwel­lings­of­the­poor­on­the­out­skirts,­in­low­buil­dings­or­even­under­gro-und,­anot­her­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­was­the­ir­low­sta­tus­in­rela­tion­to­the­givers­of­cha­rity­and­the­ir­bor­der­li­ne­posi­tion­in­spa­ce;­iti­ne­rant­sin­ger-beg­gars­for­instan­ce,­sang­and­beg­ged­on­the­road­or­on­the­door­steps­of­hou­ses­or­chur­ches,­wit­ho­ut­cros­sing­over­the­bor­der­li­ne­divi­ding­them­from­the­spa­ce­of­the­hou­se­hol­der­from­whom­they­sought­cha­rity.­Whe­re­time­is­con­cer­ned,­poverty­is­demon­stra­ted­both­fun­cti­o­nally­and­seman­ti­cally.­The­bor­der­li­ne­posi­tion­of­beg-gars­cor­re­sponds­to­the­peri­ods­of­tran­si­tion­wit­hin­the­calen­dar­year,­and­cer­tain­time­peri­ods­acqu­i­red­the­mar­kings­of­poverty.­Fast­days­were­per­ce­i­ved­as­a­period­of­sca­r­city,­thus­figu-ra­ti­vely­of­penury,­as­oppo­sed­to­meat­days­which­symbo­li­sed­opu­len­ce.­In­the­symbo­lism­of­the­life­cycle,­the­period­of­old­age,­dec­li­ne­and­extin­cti­on­is­con­nec­ted­with­poverty.

Beg­gars­(ch.­4.2.1)­are­pre­sent­in­fol­klo­re­as­cre­a­tors­and­tran­smit­ters­of­oral­tra­di­tion­and­as­fol­klo­re­cha­rac­ters­them­sel­ves.­A­bri­ef­history­of­beg­gars­and­the­pro­vi­sion­of­social­wel­fa­re­for­them­shows­a­link­bet­we­en­the­noti­ons­of­the­vir­tu­o­us­and­non-vir­tu­o­us­poor­on­one­hand­and­the­idea­of­cha­ri­ta­ble­dona­tion­on­the­other.­Cha­rity­deve­lo­ped­from­making­gifts­to­the­gods­and­ance­stors,­whi­le­noti­ons­of­ethics­and­justi­ce­con­nec­ted­to­giving­emer­ged­later.­The­beg­gar­is­the­reci­pi­ent­of­cha­rity­and­thro­ugh­him­the­gift­is­offe­red­to­the­deity;­with­Chri­sti­a­nity,­the­idea­of­a­just­exchan­ge­appe­ars:­the­givers­will­be­awar­ded­for­the­ir­bene­vo-len­ce.­The­advent­of­indul­gen­ces­and­the­sub­se­qu­ent­con­struc­tion­of­a­system­of­social­wel­fa­re­and­cha­ri­ta­ble­insti­tu­ti­ons­led­to­the­divi­sion­of­the­poor­into­tho­se­who­deser­ved­com­pas­sion­and­tho­se­from­whom­aid­was­with­held,­from­whom­mar­gi­nal­and­cri­mi­nal­gro­ups­gra­du­ally­evol­ved.­Not­until­the­dawn­of­modern­times­were­the­noti­ons­of­poverty,­pri­va­te­cha­rity­and­work­sepa­ra­ted,­ena­bling­the­incep­tion­of­a­social­wel­fa­re­policy­and­the­distri­bu­tion­of­aid­even­to­tho­se­who­do­not­work.

Chan­ges­ in­atti­tu­de­towards­beg­gars­and­the­dis­pen­sing­of­cha­rity­were­reflec­ted­in­the­ir­depic­tion­in­lite­ra­tu­re­and­fol­klo­re;­even­in­the­oldest­docu­ments­we­enco­un­ter­both­posi-ti­ve­and­nega­ti­ve­per­cep­ti­ons­of­beg­gars.­The­con­trast­bet­we­en­the­vir­tu­o­us­and­the­non-vir-tu­o­us­poor­springs­to­the­fore­with­the­que­sti­on­of­the­holy­fools­(iuro divyi,­fools­for­Christ’s­sake),­which­ inclu­des­ the­uncom­pro­mi­singly­cha­ri­ta­ble­as­well­as­cha­rac­ters­who,­by­ the­ir­myste­ri­o­us­and­pro­vo­ca­ti­ve­acti­ons,­bring­into­que­sti­on­the­exi­sting­order­of­the­world.­The­cha­rac­te­rs­of­good­and­evil­beg­gars­in­medi­e­val­lives­of­the­saints­are­lin­ked­to­the­topoi­of­giving­as­a­demon­stra­tion­of­the­vir­tue­of­cha­rity­incor­po­ra­ted­in­edifying­exam­ples­such­as­the­story­of­Job,­descrip­ti­ons­of­the­mirac­les­of­the­saints­or­in­por­tra­its­of­mer­ci­ful­rulers.­

Fol­lo­wing­the­ loss­of­ inde­pen­den­ce­ in­ the­wake­of­ the­Otto­man­con­qu­ests,­beg­gars­were­recog­ni­zed­as­a­cate­gory­wit­hin­gro­ups­of­Haymanes­–­nomads­and­vagrants­noted­in­the­kanuns­(Otto­man­secu­lar­laws)­–­and­among­the­urban­poor.­In­the­Hab­sburg­Empi­re­beg­gars­also­had­spe­cial­sta­tus.­Offi­cial­cen­su­ses­taken­in­Subo­ti­ca­illu­stra­te­the­ir­num­ber,­per­mit­ted­rights,­duti­es­and­the­kind­of­aid­they­rece­i­ved,­along­with­the­ir­inter­nal­orga­ni­sa­tion.­After­the­Ser­bian­upri­sings­1804–1815,­beg­ging­was­pla­ced­under­sta­te­con­trol­and­was­allo­wed­as­a­form­of­com­pas­si­o­na­te­assi­stan­ce­in­some­cri­sis­situ­a­ti­ons.­Fol­lo­wing­nume­ro­us­social­and­eco­no­mic­chan­ges­in­the­19th­cen­tury,­insti­tu­ti­ons­of­social­wel­fa­re­were­set­up­and­govern-ment­aid­ to­ the­poor­esta­blis­hed.­Along­with­com­mon­beg­gars,­vagrants­and­the­home­less,­the­re­were­also­ped­dlers,­char­la­tans­and­tra­vel­ling­craftsmen­as­a­slightly­more­modern­form­of­beg­ging,­adju­sted­to­the­eco­no­mic­situ­a­tion.

433Summary

Sin­ger-beg­gars­are­given­spe­cial­atten­tion­sin­ce­they­are­sig­ni­fi­cant­to­the­study­of­fol-klo­re,­the­aspects­directly­rela­ted­to­poverty­being­par­ti­cu­larly­under­li­ned.­Accor­ding­to­Bul-ga­rian­fol­klo­rist­Katya­Miha­i­lo­va,­the­seman­tics­of­com­mon­beg­gars­inclu­des­the­fol­lo­wing:­a­beg­gar­is­per­ce­i­ved­as­the­embo­di­ment­of­the­deity;­he­is­con­nec­ted­to­the­cult­of­the­dead;­his­prayers­have­magi­cal­powers;­his­cha­rac­te­ri­stics­are:­poverty,­disa­bi­lity­(of­crip­ples)­and,­not­withstan­ding­this,­mobi­lity­in­moving­aro­und­from­pla­ce­to­pla­ce.­The­se­fea­tu­res­were­ori-gi­nally­roo­ted­in­paga­nism­and­then­acqu­i­red­a­Chri­stian­inter­pre­ta­tion.­Most­may­also­apply­to­sin­ger-beg­gars­with­the­addi­tion­of­blind­ness­and­pro­fes­si­o­na­lism,­alt­ho­ugh­both­cha­rac­te-ri­stics­can­vary.­Blind­ness­is­not­a­con­di­tion­for­pro­fes­si­o­nal­sin­ging,­or­indeed­for­beg­ging,­but­it­is­tra­di­ti­o­nally­lin­ked­to­sin­ger-beg­gars.­Pro­fes­si­o­na­lism­and­mobi­lity­con­tri­bu­te­to­the­sin­ger-beg­gars­being­per­ce­i­ved­as­inde­pen­dent­of­the­cul­tu­ral­system­from­which­they­sprang;­they­beco­me­inter­me­di­a­ri­es­bet­we­en­the­dif­fe­rent­cul­tu­res,­and­also­bet­we­en­folk­and­non-folk­cul­tu­res.

Among­the­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­we­note­two­types­which­are­not­always­strictly­sepa-ra­ted:­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­and­blind­gusle-players.­The­first­type­is­repre­sen­ted­by­the­per­for-mers­of­‘low’­reli­gi­o­us­art,­whi­le­the­second­is­repre­sen­ted­by­respec­ted­pro­fes­si­o­nal­gusle-players­such­as­Filip­Viš­njić.­The­reper­to­i­re­of­the­first­type­con­sists­chi­efly­of­reli­gi­o­us,­moral­and­legen­dary­songs­and­sto­ri­es,­whi­le­the­second­cul­ti­va­tes­hero­ic­epics­and­humo­ro­us­songs­and­sto­ri­es.­The­lack­of­homo­ge­ne­ity­bet­we­en­the­two­cate­go­ri­es­is­also­noted­in­rela­tion­to­poverty,­sin­ce­cases­have­been­recor­ded­of­wealthy­sin­ger-beg­gars,­and­of­orga­ni­zed­beg­ging­by­impo­sters dis­gu­i­sed­as­beg­gars.­Anot­her­com­plex­issue­is­the­mat­ter­of­pro­fes­si­o­na­lism­and­remu­ne­ra­tion,­which­vary­depen­ding­on­the­envi­ron­ment­and­cir­cum­stan­ces.

With­refe­ren­ce­ to­ the­body­of­evi­den­ce­exi­sting­on­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­among­ the­South­Slavs,­we­have­poin­ted­to­stu­di­es­of­the­19th­and­20th­cen­tu­ri­es.­Vuk­Kara­džić­was­the­first­ to­draw­atten­tion­ to­ sin­gers­as­cre­a­ti­ve­figu­res,­among­ them­ the­blind­sin­gers­and­ the­famo­us­bard­of­the­First­Ser­bian­Upri­sing,­Filip­Viš­njić.­At­the­begin­ning­of­the­19th­cen­tury,­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­were­a­fami­li­ar­sight­in­the­Srem,­Bač­ka­and­Banat,­whi­le­hero­ic­sin­ging­was­lin­ked­to­the­hig­hland­regi­ons­of­Bosnia­and­Her­ze­go­vi­na,­Mon­te­ne­gro­and­Ser­bia.­Later­field­rese­arch­expan­ded­the­zone­of­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­to­Sla­vo­nia,­Cro­a­tia,­Kra­ji­na,­Lika­and­Dal­ma­tia.

Wit­hin­the­geo­grap­hi­cal­bor­ders­of­blind-beg­gar­sin­ging,­the­re­were­con­fes­si­o­nal­and­cul­tu­ral­dif­fe­ren­ces.­Muslim­pro­fes­si­o­nals­dif­fe­red­ from­Chri­sti­ans,­both­ typolo­gi­cally­and­soci­o­lo­gi­cally,­and­can­not­be­cha­rac­te­ri­zed­as­beg­gars.­They­had­a­spe­cial­sta­tus­(some­were­very­wealthy­and­ respec­ted)­and­a­ spe­ci­fic­kind­of­ semi-pro­fes­si­o­na­lism­which­meant­ that­they­sang­for­enter­ta­in­ment,­not­for­reward.­This­inclu­ded­even­very­poor­sin­gers.

The­re­were­ dif­fe­ren­ces­ too­ among­ pro­fes­si­o­nal­ blind­ sin­gers­who­were­Chri­sti­ans.­Beg­gars,­who­invo­ked­God’s­name­when­see­king­alms,­went­from­hou­se­to­hou­se­or­sang­out-si­de­chur­ches­and­mona­ste­ri­es­and­at­fairs,­were­held­to­be­infe­ri­or­to­the­gusle­players­who­nar­ra­ted­nati­o­nal­history,­alt­ho­ugh­they­too­could­sing­at­fairs,­but­also­at­patron­saint­days­and­wed­dings.­The­con­tra­sting­of­blind-beg­gar­and­hero­ic­sin­ging­is­con­nec­ted­to­com­plex­social­pro­ces­ses­and­ the­ role­of­ fol­klo­re­ in­cer­tain­ethnic­and­cul­tu­ral­zones.­The­high­este­em­ in­which­hero­ic­songs­were­held­is­con­nec­ted­to­the­roman­ti­cist­cult­of­folk­poe­try­and­gusles­and­the­recog­ni­tion­of­hero­ic­epic­as­the­nati­o­nal­poe­try.­Stu­di­es­of­epic­poe­try­in­the­first­half­of­the­20th­cen­tury­in­the­Dina­ric­region­have­shown­that­atti­tu­des­towards­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­varied­gre­atly­and­that­in­pla­ces­whe­re­the­gusle­cult­was­strong,­blind­beg­gars­were­not­recog-ni­zed­as­the­uphol­ders­of­the­hero­ic­epic.­With­the­dec­li­ne­of­epic­sin­ging,­howe­ver,­blind­sin-ger-beg­gars­were­accep­ted­as­per­for­mers­of­epic­songs­and­rewar­ded­for­the­ir­sin­ging.

434 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

Dif­fe­ren­ces­ bet­we­en­ blind­ sin­gers­ in­ pro­fes­si­o­na­lism,­ talent,­ moti­ve,­ per­for­man­ce,­remu­ne­ra­tion,­ran­ge­of­reper­to­i­re,­abi­lity­to­memo­ri­se­etc.­often­depen­ded­on­the­region­and/or­the­indi­vi­dual.­Some­were­due­to­the­way­in­which­sin­ger-beg­gars­were­per­ce­i­ved­by­tho­se­out­si­de­the­gro­up,­and­some­stem­med­from­per­cep­tion­wit­hin­the­gro­up.­Thus,­a­nega­ti­ve­per-cep­tion­of­com­mon­beg­gars­some­ti­mes­car­ried­over­to­sin­ger-beg­gars­but­not­to­pro­fes­si­o­nal­gusle-players.­Inter­nal­ran­king­among­blind­sin­gers­was­based­on­an­ethi­cal­code:­blind­sin-gers­main­ta­i­ned­soli­da­rity­wit­hin­the­gro­up­and­con­dem­ned­impo­sters­who­cre­a­ted­a­nega­ti­ve­ima­ge.­“Good”­gusle­players­were­tho­se­who­only­played­the­gusle,­had­an­excel­lent­memory,­were­poe­ti­cally­and­musi­cally­gif­ted,­who­se­reper­to­i­re­was­broad­and­varied,­tra­vel­led­aro­und­and­took­an­inte­rest­in­events­which­could­pro­vi­de­them­with­mate­rial­for­a­song,­and­who­rela­ted­to­the­ir­audi­en­ce­topics­and­events­from­other­regi­ons.­Other­things­taken­into­acco­unt­were­the­cho­i­ce­of­songs,­cen­sor­ship,­as­well­as­infor­mal­asso­ci­a­ti­ons­and­scho­ols­of­sin­ging­for­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars.

The­penury­of­blind­sin­gers­is­taken­as­a­typical­fea­tu­re;­howe­ver,­some­blind­gusle­players­suc­ce­e­ded­in­acqu­i­ring­a­hou­se,­some­ti­mes­pro­perty,­cat­tle­and­hor­ses­and­main­ta­i­ned­them­sel­ves­in­this­way.­For­some­sin­gers,­sin­ging­was­sea­so­nal­work­and­during­the­win­ter­they­ took­up­other­occu­pa­ti­ons.­Popu­lar­ sin­gers­ in­demand­could­earn­money­by­char­ging­rese­ar­chers­of­fol­klo­re­for­the­time­they­spent­sin­ging­to­them.­Begin­ners­lived­very­modestly,­and­ the­re­are­exam­ples­of­ teac­he­rs­ taking­all­ the­pupils’­ear­nings­ for­ them­sel­ves.­ In­many­envi­ron­ments,­blind­sin­ger-beg­gars­were­on­the­mar­gins­of­soci­ety­and­were­given­a­bad­name­and­even­per­se­cu­ted.­Sour­ces­ sta­te­ that­peo­ple­ avo­i­ded­ them­beca­u­se­of­ the­ir­dis­re­pu­ta­ble­and­unclean­appe­a­ran­ce­and­the­ir­ten­dency­towards­drink.­Nega­ti­ve­occur­ren­ces­lin­ked­to­the­blind­meant­that­vari­o­us­fol­klo­re­the­mes­abo­ut­char­la­tans­and­moun­te­banks­refer­red­to­them,­appe­a­ring­in­paral­lel­to­reli­gi­o­us­and­moral­the­mes.

A­rich­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion­of­beg­gars­(ch.­4.2.1.3)­rests­on­the­beli­ef­that­they­repre­sen­ted­the­embo­di­ment­of­the­deity­and­dei­fied­ance­stors­and­were­con­nec­ted­to­the­cult­of­the­dead.­In­sup­port­of­this­beli­ef­are­sto­ri­es­of­the­tra­vels­of­the­gods,­angels,­saints­and­rulers­dis­gu­i­sed­as­beg­gars,­wide­spre­ad­in­fol­klo­re­and­the­lives­of­saints,­which­invol­ve­a­reward­for­the­giver­of­alms­and­hospi­ta­lity­and­punis­hment­for­refu­sal­to­do­so.­We­discuss­the­dif­fe­rent­folk­cha-rac­ters­of­beg­gars and­vari­o­us­topics­con­nec­ted­to­beg­ging­in­poe­tic­and­pro­se­gen­res,­ide­as­abo­ut­them­found­in­pro­verbs,­the­ir­role­in­ritual­prac­ti­ce.­The­ima­ge­of­beg­gars­in­fol­klo­re­is­often­a­con­tra­dic­tory­one,­fre­qu­ently­mer­ged­with­other­types­of­the­poor,­posi­ti­ve­and­nega-ti­ve,­seri­o­us­and­humo­ro­us,­which­all­enric­hes­the­sto­re­of­the­ma­tic­and­seman­tic­disco­very.­Depen­ding­on­the­gen­re,­a­cha­rac­ter-analysis­of­beg­gars­and­the­ir­moti­ves­for­beg­ging­shows­a­mix­tu­re­of­con­cepts,­fol­klo­re,­history,­reli­gion­and­mytho­logy­com­bi­ned­with­the­influ­en­ce­of­lite­ra­tu­re.

An­ analysis­ of­ the­mul­ti­form­Vlach Pau pers­ (ch.­ 4.2.2)­ in­ vari­o­us­ fol­klo­re­ gen­res­shows­its­com­plex­mea­nings.­The­terms­Vlach,­Vlachs,­mea­ning­an­ethnic,­pro­fes­si­o­nal,­social­or­eco­no­mic­gro­up,­are­con­tra­dic­to­rily­descri­bed­in­oral­tra­di­tion:­as­con­stant­and­incon­stant,­as­new­co­mers­and­fore­ig­ners,­as­poor­and­as­rich,­depen­ding­on­the­the­me,­per­spec­ti­ve­and­con­text.­The­entan­gling­of­ the­ethnic,­social­and­pro­fes­si­o­nal­mea­ning­of­ the­name­Vlachs­in­oral­tra­di­tion­reflects­histo­ri­cal­and­social­pro­ces­ses.­The­Vlachs­are­repre­sen­ted­as­being­poor­and­oppres­sed­pea­sants­and­labo­u­rers­who­se­cur­ses­have­enor­mo­us­power,­and­they­are­also­lin­ked­with­the­mytho­lo­gi­cal­cha­rac­ter­of­the­shep­herd­and­the­Ple­i­a­des­con­stel­la­tion­in­fol­klo­re.­On­the­other­hand,­we­see­from­charms­that­seman­tic­mea­ning­can­be­subject­to­a­pat­tern,­so­that­along­with­the­mul­ti­form­Vlach Pau pers (Vla si siro ma si)­we­enco­un­ter­other­mea­nin­gless­rhyming­con­struc­ti­ons­such­as:­vla si sre do ma si, lasi – vla si and­lasi – mala si.­It­

435Summary

fol­lows­that­each­fol­klo­re­gen­re­in­its­own­domain­remem­bers­some­older­histo­ri­cal­cir­cum-stan­ces­(e.­g.­men­tion­of­Vlach Pau pers­in­epic­poe­try),­whi­le­at­the­same­time­being­ela­stic­eno­ugh­to­adapt­them­to­typical­cha­rac­ters­and­subjects­(Vlach­types­in­jokes­and­anec­do­tes).­The­spe­cial­fun­cti­ons­of­a­gen­re,­e.g.­the­magi­cal­fun­ction­in­charms,­expand­the­seman­tic­ran-ge­of­the­mul­ti­form­and­cre­a­te­unu­sual­asso­ci­a­ti­ons­and­com­bi­na­ti­ons­of­mea­nings.­

In­the­chap­ters­on­poverty­in­folk­poe­try­(ch.­4.3)­and­pro­se­(ch.­4.4),­the­subject­is­con­si­de­red­wit­hin­the­system­of­fol­klo­re­gen­res.­In­folk­poe­try,­the­topic­of­poverty­usu­ally­occurs­in­a­social,­ethi­cal­or­reli­gi­o­us/moral­con­text.­The­sha­ping­of­the­motifs­and­the­vari­o­us­cha­rac­ters­lin­ked­to­poverty­is­deter­mi­ned­by­the­laws­of­gen­re­and­poe­try,­toget­her­with­the­arti­stic­talent­and­expe­ri­en­ce­of­the­folk­sin­gers.­In­some­cases,­sin­gers­enric­hed­the­poverty­the­me­with­deta­ils­of­daily­life­and­obser­va­ti­ons­from­the­ir­own­expe­ri­en­ce;­in­others,­it­was­pre­sen­ted­as­a­fan­ci­ful­arti­stic­con­struc­tion.­

Epic­poe­try,­a­gen­re­which­cele­bra­tes­hero­ic­explo­its,­pre­sents­poverty­from­the­hero­ic­per­spec­ti­ve,­and­so­the­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­moti­ves­are­pro­tec­tion­of­the­poor,­the­tears­and­cur­ses­of­the­poor­and­the­ir­oppres­sion­(ch.­4.3.1).­Noble­hero­es­and­rulers­of­all­epic­peri­ods­show­them­sel­ves­to­be­the­rig­hte­o­us­pro­tec­tors­of­the­poor­and­this­strug­gle­repre­sents­an­impor­tant­part­of­the­ir­achi­e­ve­ments­whi­le­pro­vi­ding­a­rea­son­for­the­ir­ide­a­li­sa­tion.­The­per­so­na­ge­of­the poor com mo ner­(siro ti nja raja,­the­poor­reaya)­embo­di­es­all­the­poor,­par­ti­cu­larly­in­epic­songs­of­the­First­Ser­bian­Upri­sing.­The­poor­are­taken­care­of­by­epic­rulers­and­hero­es­who­pro­tect­them­from­oppres­sors,­and­at­times­from­them­sel­ves,­whi­le­they­respond­with­tears,­cur­ses­and­bles­sings.­The­motif­of­the­cur­ses­and­tears­of­the­poor­is­based­on­the­beli­ef­and­reli­gi­o­us­rule­that­the­poor­must­not­be­har­med,­and­con­veys­an­ethi­cal,­reli­gi­o­us­and­moral­point­of­view.­The­tears­of­the­poor­are­a­strong­ethic­norm,­pro­vi­ding­moti­va­tion­for­the­con-duct­of­epic­rulers­and­hero­es;­they­may­be­lin­ked­to­gre­at­nati­o­nal­and­human­mis­for­tu­nes­or­the­vio­la­tion­of­custo­mary­law.­The­re­fo­re,­the­poor­are­a­social­regu­la­tor­which,­from­the­bot­tom­of­the­social­lad­der,­may­affect­chan­ge­in­the­beha­vi­o­ur­of­the­eli­te.­Acting­as­a­cor-rec­ti­ve,­the­tears­and­cur­ses­of­the­poor­are­sup­po­sed­to­con­tri­bu­te­to­the­for­ming­of­a­posi­ti­ve­model­of­beha­vi­o­ur­towards­them­and­to­stren­gthe­ning­the­huma­ni­stic­ideal­of­equ­a­lity­among­peo­ple.­

The­mes­lin­ked­to­vio­len­ce­aga­inst­the­poor­are­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­of­hero­es­from­all­epic­peri­ods.­The­ir­ histo­ri­cal­ bac­kgro­und­ is­ con­fir­med­ by­ nume­ro­us­ sour­ces,­ alt­ho­ugh­ it­ is­ not­always­visi­ble­beca­u­se­of­the­pat­terns­fol­lo­wed­in­pre­sen­ting­them.­The­tyrants­may­be­indi­vi-du­a­li­zed­and­bear­the­names­of­histo­ri­cal­figu­res,­or­pre­sen­ted­as­types­or­col­lec­ti­ve­cha­rac­ters (e.g.Turks­or­Arabs).

The­the­me­of­poverty­in­lyrical­songs­and­bal­lads­(ch.­4.3.2)­may­be­con­cre­te­or­abstract­in­the­way­it­is­pre­sen­ted.­Atten­tion­is­focu­sed­on­the­pri­va­te­life­of­the­per­son,­his­inter­nal­world,­ fee­lings­and­moods,­atti­tu­des­ towards­ family­and­natu­re,­ so­ the­motif­of­poverty­ is­intert­wi­ned­with­motifs­of­love,­family­or­legend.

In­lyrics­and­bal­lads,­figu­res­of­the­poor­may­over­lap­with­figu­res­who­are­orp­hans;­some­ti­mes,­indeed,­the­re­is­no­dif­fe­ren­ce­bet­we­en­them.­The­poor­are­usu­ally­oppo­sed­to­the­rich­and­may­be­depic­ted­from­an­ide­a­li­stic,­moral­or­rea­list­stand­po­int,­depen­ding­on­the­sin-ger­and­the­con­text.

Many­lyrical­songs­and­bal­lads­revol­ve­abo­ut­wed­dings­of­the­poor­and­orp­ha­ned,­as­this­rite­of­pas­sa­ge­can­chan­ge­the­ir­sta­tus­for­the­bet­ter­or­for­the­wor­se.­The­wed­ding­draws­in­per­so­nal,­family,­mate­rial,­social,­ethi­cal,­psycho­lo­gi­cal­and­other­issu­es­which­are­addres-sed­in­accor­dan­ce­with­the­poe­tics­of­the­par­ti­cu­lar­gen­re.­We­have­analysed­subjects­that­tell­of­the­mar­ri­a­ge­of­a­poor­boy­or­girl.­At­the­heart­of­the­motif­are­the­moral­qua­li­ti­es­appro­ved­

436 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

by­a­patri­ar­chal­soci­ety:­bea­uty,­cha­stity,­modesty­and­dili­gen­ce,­usu­ally­in­a­nega­ti­ve­com­pa-ri­son­with­the­rich­boy­or­girl.­Vari­ants­dif­fer­in­nuan­ces,­reve­a­ling­the­cul­tu­ral­envi­ron­ment,­the­system­of­valu­es­of­the­com­mu­nity­in­which­the­songs­are­sung­and­the­indi­vi­dual­pre­fe-ren­ces­of­the­sin­ger.

The­subject­of­poverty­beco­mes­more­rea­li­stic­whe­re­the­re­is­a­mix­tu­re­of­social,­love­and­family­motifs:­songs­abo­ut­the­desti­tu­tion­and­depri­va­tion­of­the­poor,­abo­ut­the­proud­but­poor­girl­who­is­subjec­ted­to­ridi­cu­le­and­cri­ti­cism­beca­u­se­she­pre­tends­to­live­on­a­high­foo-ting­in­the­hopes­of­get­ting­mar­ried,­abo­ut­the­sel­ling­of­a­wife­or­daug­hter­beca­u­se­of­poverty,­the­desi­re­of­the­poor­mot­her­to­marry­her­daug­hter­off.­

The­ the­me­of­ poverty­may­be­moti­va­ted­ by­ reli­gion­ or­morals.­ Posi­ti­ve­ cha­rac­ters­among­the­poor­are­ide­a­li­sed­and­highly­moral,­they­respect­the­codex­of­custom,­per­so­nify­vir­tue­and­set­an­exam­ple­for­others.­The­the­me­of­cha­rity­towards­the­poor­may­be­inclu­ded­in­songs­abo­ut­the­punis­hment­of­sin­and­the­ago­ni­es­of­sin­ners­in­hell,­emer­ging­from­Chri­stian­apo­cryphal­lite­ra­tu­re.­Such­songs,­com­po­sed­under­the­influ­en­ce­of­the­church,­were­nor­ma­ti-ve­and­didac­tic­in­natu­re­and­ser­ved­as­an­exam­ple­in­terms­of­cata­lo­gu­ing­sins­and­pro­vi­ding­frig­hte­ning­sce­nes­of­the­suf­fe­rings­of­sin­ners­in­hell,­all­sup­po­sed­to­ensu­re­seemly­reli­gi­o­us­beha­vi­o­ur­and­enco­u­ra­ge­Chri­stian­cha­rity­and­vir­tue.­Motifs­of­cha­rity­to­the­poor­are­an­inte-gral­part­of­the­moral­teac­hings­of­saint­figu­res­in­songs­as,­for­exam­ple,­in­songs­abo­ut­the­mot­her­of­St.­Peter­or­abo­ut­the­Vir­gin­Mary­and­the­Prop­het­Eli­jah.­

Poverty­as­a­fact­of­daily­life­and,­qui­te­often,­of­the­lives­of­folk­sin­gers,­appe­ars­in­lyrical­sin­ging­ in­ the­gui­se­of­deta­ils­ from­real­ life.­Penury­ is­descri­bed­as­mis­for­tu­ne,­ the­con­se­qu­en­ce­of­a­life­of­vice,­devi­ant­beha­vi­o­ur­or­get­ting­into­debt,­or­is­shown­as­a­form­of­obser­ving­social­rela­ti­ons­and­cir­cum­stan­ces.­The­pre­sen­ce­of­rea­li­stic­deta­ils­makes­the­songs­par­ti­cu­larly­con­vin­cing,­vivid­and­sen­si­ti­ve,­and­the­cha­rac­ters­beco­me­clo­se­to­us­and­real.­Power­ful­emo­ti­ons­are­reve­a­led­as­they­cur­se­the­ir­desti­tu­tion­and­despi­se­it;­mis­for­tu­ne,­indeb­ted­ness,­spendthrifts­and­gam­blers­in­the­family­are­tre­a­ted­with­irony,­and­unex­pec­ted­situ­a­ti­ons­ari­se­in­which­poverty­makes­life­mise­ra­ble.

In­pro­se­gen­res,­poverty­is­vie­wed­from­the­aspect­of­an­arti­stic­work­(motifs,­cha-rac­ters,­moti­va­tion­etc.),­and­from­the­aspect­of­nar­ra­ti­ve­disco­ur­se,­whe­re­it­may­reflect­the­life­expe­ri­en­ce­of­the­nar­ra­tor­(ch.­4.4).­Stu­di­es­of­fol­klo­re­inter­pre­ted­the­rela­tion­bet­we­en­the­fic­ti­o­nal­nar­ra­ti­ve­world­and­rea­lity­in­vari­o­us­ways,­and­fairytales­attrac­ted­the­gre­a­test­inte­rest­as­a­gen­re.­From­the­stand­po­int­of­histo­ri­cal­poe­tics,­the­poor­and­soci­ally­vul­ne­ra­ble­cha­rac­ters­in­the­fairytales­reflect­the­posi­tion­of­desti­tu­te­family­mem­bers­when­the­ori­gi­nal­clan­orga­ni­za­tion­in­ indi­ge­no­us­soci­e­ti­es­was­bre­a­king­up­and­the­system­was­in­ tran­si­tion­from­clan­to­nuc­le­ar­family.­Alt­ho­ugh­the­poor,­orp­hans,­step­sons­and­daug­hters­and­the­ir­likes­are­the­vic­tims­of­this­pro­cess,­in­fairytales­they­are­ide­a­li­sed­and­shown­tri­ump­hing.­On­the­other­hand,­scho­lars­who­inter­pret­the­rela­tion­of­fairytales­towards­rea­lity,­reveal­the­social­gro­ups­and­cul­tu­ral­con­text­of­the­nar­ra­tor­and­the­audi­en­ce,­regi­o­nal­dif­fe­ren­ces­and­the­spe-ci­fic­deta­ils­of­the­vari­ants.­The­poor­are­morally­super­i­or­to­the­rich­and­this­oppo­si­tion­is­inter­pre­ted­as­the­norm­of­the­fairytale,­who­se­impor­tant­role­is­to­com­pen­sa­te­for­all­that­life­has­denied­them.

In­vari­o­us­tale­types,­the­hero­es­stri­ve­to­over­co­me­penury­and­beco­me­rich­or­at­least­impro­ve­the­ir­ori­gi­nal­posi­tion,­and­this­beco­mes­the­dri­ving­for­ce­of­the­story.­Most­stan­dard­situ­a­ti­ons­and­motifs­con­nec­ted­to­poverty­occur­in­the­ope­ning­seg­ments­and­are­part­of­the­plot.­In­the­intro­duc­tion,­the­motif­of­poverty­may­ser­ve­to­set­the­hero­apart,­mark­a­defect,­moti­va­te­the­action­of­vil­lain­who­harms­the­hero­in­some­way,­the­hero’s­depar­tu­re­from­home­or­his­banis­hment.­Models­in­which­the­poor­hero­beco­mes­rich­in­the­end­and­the­wealthy­

437Summary

man­beco­mes­poor­in­a­seri­es­of­adven­tu­res­or­beca­u­se­of­a­twist­of­fate,­are­based­on­a­paral-le­lism­of­plot­and­cha­rac­ters.­We­exa­mi­ne­the­vari­o­us­story­lines­which­illu­stra­te­this.

Poverty­as­fate­is­a­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­the­me­of­folk­legends.­Indi­gen­ce­is­depic­ted­as­per-pe­tu­a­ted­sin­ce­it­results­from­the­eter­nal­inju­sti­ce­that­the­rich­sho­uld­live­off­the­misery­of­the­poor.­Anot­her­story­line­shows­poverty­as­the­con­se­qu­en­ce­of­sin,­a­punis­hment.­Expla­na­ti-ons­vary,­but­for­the­most­part­they­fit­the­models­of­ori­gi­nal­sin­and­the­temp­ta­tion­of­vir­tue.­Poverty­is­a­con­se­qu­en­ce­of­the­fact­that­the­first­peo­ple­-­who­were­all­rich­-­beca­me­arro­gant,­or­beca­u­se­some­ban­was­bro­ken,­or­a­con­tract­with­the­bene­fac­tor­over­tur­ned,­or­the­peo­ple­sin­ned­on­a­holy­day.­Poverty­as­a­given­is­also­expla­i­ned­thro­ugh­myth,­such­as­the­slaying­of­the­dra­gon­and­other­simi­lar­cre­a­tu­res­who­pro­tec­ted­peo­ple­from­natu­ral­disa­sters.­This­kind­of­sin­can­be­inter­pre­ted­as­a­vio­la­tion­aga­inst­the­pro­tec­tor­of­the­clan­–­a­cul­tu­re­hero­or­mytho­lo­gi­cal­hero,­which­cau­ses­dam­na­tion­or­the­ruin­of­the­tri­be,­i.e.­peo­ple.­

Novel­les­and­anec­do­tes­also­ ring­ the­chan­ges­on­poverty­as­pre­de­ter­mi­ned­by­ fate.­Sto­ri­es­dea­ling­with­ the­unfor­tu­na­te­ for­whom­ the­re­ is­no­help­ are­ com­mon,­ and­ema­na­te­resig­na­tion­and­fata­lism.­The­power­of­fate­is­also­evi­dent­in­sto­ri­es­of­riva­lry­bet­we­en­For­tu-ne­(Bles­sing)­and­Mis­for­tu­ne­(Money),­whe­re­Mis­for­tu­ne,­no­mat­ter­how­it­tri­es,­can­not­make­man­happy.­As­oppo­sed­to­this,­the­Chri­stian­mora­li­stic­slant­insists­that­hap­pi­ness­really­lies­in­poverty­whi­le­wealth­is­what­makes­peo­ple­unhappy.­The­idea­of­happy­poverty­is­typically­medi­e­val­and­is­enco­un­te­red­in­Jac­qu­es­de­Vitry’s­Exem pla.­This­pro­bably­came­into­South­Slav­fol­klo­re­tra­di­tion­from­books­of­ser­mons­and­was­then­adap­ted­and­asso­ci­a­ted­with­St.­Sava­and­the­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­for­mu­la­of­reward­and­punis­hment.

The­rever­sal­from­poverty­to­ric­hes­is­enco­un­te­red­in­vari­o­us­gen­res­and­tale­types.­In­legends,­we­note­sto­ri­es­abo­ut­hap­pi­ness­in­poverty,­abo­ut­the­devil who­se­punis­hment­is­to­help­a­poor­man,­the­devil­who­flays­the­skin­from­a­dead­man,­or­abo­ut­mis­for­tu­ne­in­youth­and­hap­pi­ness­in­old­age,­whi­le­sto­ri­es­of­temp­ta­tion,­reward­and­punis­hment­are­par­ti­cu­larly­com­mon.­Folk­novel­les­or­rea­li­stic­tales,­anec­do­tes­and­jokes­tre­at­of­the­power­of­hap­pi­ness­and­the­Uni­bos,­whe­re­the­main­cha­rac­ter­is­a­poor­swin­dler­who­makes­his­for­tu­ne­fol­lo­wing­a­seri­es­of­fra­uds­and­com­pli­ca­ti­ons.­An­analysis­of­Ser­bian­and­South­Slav­vari­ants­shows­cases­of­gen­re­con­ta­mi­na­tion,­some­of­which­have­spe­ci­fic­fea­tu­res­when­com­pa­red­with­other­nar­ra­ti­ve­models­from­the­ATU­index.­Inver­si­ons­and­paral­lels­have­been­noted­in­the­cha­rac-ters­and­the­ir­attri­bu­tes:­for­instan­ce,­the­type­of­poor­swin­dler­enco­un­te­red­in­novel­les­has­a­coun­te­r­part­in­the­per­son­of­the­drun­kard­saint­who­reforms­in­legend,­and­the­poor­swin­dler­is­ethi­cally­oppo­sed­to­the­quick-wit­ted­poor­woman,­who­does­not­resort­to­tric­kery­but­uses­her­wits­to­out­fox­her­oppo­nents­and­sol­ve­rid­dles.

The­re­is­a­par­ti­cu­lar­focus­on­legends­that­turn­rags­to­ric­hes,­and­the­mira­cu­lo­us­achi-e­ve­ment­of­wealth­after­many­tri­als­and­tri­bu­la­ti­ons.­The­dynamic­and­vari­ety­of­this­model­lies­ in­ the­ sub­sti­tu­tion­of­ cha­rac­ters,­ set­ting­ and­ fun­cti­ons,­ the­ intro­duc­tion­of­mirac­les­ or­humo­ur.­Here­we­inclu­de­pro­se­and­ver­se­sto­ri­es­abo­ut­poor­peo­ple­who­give­away­all­the­ir­pos­ses­si­ons,­some­ti­mes­even­ the­ir­child,­ in­order­ to­cele­bra­te­ the­ir­patron­saint’s­day.­This­subject­is­intert­wi­ned­with­the­topic­of­ven­ge­ful­saints,­whe­re­humo­ur,­twists­and­turns­of­the­plot­and­the­nuan­ces­of­rela­ti­ons­bet­we­en­peo­ple,­God­and­the­saints­can­be­intro­du­ced.­We­also­tre­at­vital­and­wide­spre­ad­the­mes­on­the­Rich­Gavan,­vir­tue­put­to­the­test,­and­acqu­i­ring­a­wife­with­the­help­of­a­saint.­Gen­re­adap­ta­ti­ons,­con­ta­mi­na­ti­ons­and­stylistic­inver­si­ons­are­poin­ted­out.

Poor­peo­ple,­ some­clo­sely­ con­nec­ted­ to­ the­ family,­ others­ less­ so,­ are­widows­ and­poor­sin­gle­women,­wido­wers,­divor­ced­women­and­men,­orp­hans­(ch.­5).­Based­on­fol­klo­re,­ethno­grap­hic­and­histo­ri­cal­sour­ces,­we­exa­mi­ne­the­role­and­posi­tion­of­poor­mem­bers­wit­hin­

438 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

the­blen­ded­or­exten­ded­family­and­in­rela­tion­to­the­wider­com­mu­nity­at­a­time­of­dec­li­ning­rela­ti­ons­wit­hin­the­clan­and­the­disap­pe­a­ran­ce­of­the­exten­ded­hou­se­hold­‒­zadru ga.

Widows­and­poor­sin­gle­women­(ch.­5.1)­held­a­spe­ci­fic­posi­tion­in­the­com­mu­nity,­which­ is­ reflec­ted­ in­noti­ons­abo­ut­ them­ in­beli­efs,­ customs­and­oral­ tra­di­tion.­Widows­fit­into­the­cate­gory­of­the­poor­beca­u­se­until­the­emer­gen­ce­of­modern­soci­ety,­they­were­tre­a-ted­as­“fiscal­poor”,­were­soci­ally­vul­ne­ra­ble­and­in­some­cases­mar­gi­na­li­sed,­alt­ho­ugh­many­widows­enjoyed­gre­at­repu­ta­tion­and­power.

The­pro­tec­tion­and­care­of­widows­and­orp­hans­appe­ar­in­many­soci­e­ti­es­sin­ce­anti-qu­ity,­as­may­be­seen­from­the­Bible,­lite­rary­and­legal­docu­ments­and­custo­mary­law.­They­were­beli­e­ved­to­be­under­divi­ne­pro­tec­tion;­anyone­thre­a­te­ning­the­ir­safety­would­be­cur­sed­and­punis­hed,­so­care­of­them­was­under­stood­as­a­reli­gi­o­us­duty.

Ser­bian­medi­e­val­sour­ces­bear­wit­ness­to­ende­a­vo­urs­to­pro­tect­the­rights­of­widows­and­poor­sin­gle­women­and­regu­la­te­the­ir­sta­tus.­As­well­as­the­sta­te,­the­church­too­orga­ni-sed­aid­and­offe­red­san­ctu­ary­to­widows­in­mona­ste­ri­es,­sup­por­ting­cha­stity­in­widow­ho­od.­Ide­o­lo­gi­cally­and­peda­go­gi­cally,­the­church­was­acti­ve,­with­pri­ests­com­pi­ling­and­spre­a­ding­didac­tic­and­mira­cu­lo­us­sto­ri­es­inten­ded­to­emp­ha­si­se­the­impor­tan­ce­of­Chri­stian­vir­tue­and­cha­rity­towards­widows,­con­dem­ning­a­life­of­ric­hes­and­urging­the­renun­ci­a­tion­of­earthly­valu­es.

For­mal­and­infor­mal­forms­of­pro­tec­tion­of­poor­widows­may­be­noted­in­the­period­from­the­15th­to­the­18th­cen­tury.­In­the­Otto­man­Empi­re­and­the­Mili­tary­Fron­ti­er,­widows­paid­lower­taxes,­the­ir­right­to­wages­was­pro­tec­ted,­and­they­rece­i­ved­plots­of­land­as­usu­fruct.­In­con­trast,­widows­were­in­the­care­of­the­col­lec­ti­ve­in­cer­tain­pro­fes­si­o­nal­com­mu­ni­ti­es­with­inter­nal­auto­nomy­such­as­the­Senj­uskoks,­and­in­tri­bal­com­mu­ni­ti­es­in­Mon­te­ne­gro.­A­spe-cial­kind­of­soli­da­rity­in­vil­la­ge­com­mu­ni­ti­es­were­forms­of­com­mu­nal­work­and­mutual­aid­(moba),­which­are­descri­bed­in­seve­ral­fol­klo­re­gen­res.

Ethno­grap­hic­mate­rial­ from­vari­o­us­ regi­ons­on­ the­posi­tion­of­widows­ in­ zadru ga,­the­ir­rights­in­the­divi­sion­of­pro­perty,­to­custody­of­chil­dren­and­on­customs­rela­ting­to­rema-rrying­is­pre­sen­ted­in­detail­accor­ding­to­the­typolo­gi­cal­model,­not­geo­grap­hi­cally­or­chro­no-lo­gi­cally.­It­is­sig­ni­fi­cant­that­many­beli­efs­and­customs­were­built­into­fol­klo­re­story­models­and­motifs,­along­with­events­from­the­lives­of­widows,­par­ti­cu­larly­tho­se­rela­ting­to­chil­dren­and­family­tra­ge­di­es.­

An­ analysis­ of­ the­ fol­klo­re­mate­rial­ shows­ that­ the­ cha­rac­ter­ of­ the­widow­ in­ oral­tra­di­tion­ reflects­ the­ir­con­tra­dic­tory­ ritual­and­social­ roles­ in­ tra­di­ti­o­nal­cul­tu­re­ (ch.­5.1.2).­Accor­ding­to­folk­beli­ef,­widows­are­pro­tec­ted­by­divi­ne­for­ces,­whi­le­at­the­same­time­they­are­dog­ged­by­an­evil­fate.­Beca­u­se­of­the­ir­pro­xi­mity­to­death­and­the­cult­of­the­ance­stors,­they­are­ inclu­ded­ in­ fune­ral­ rites,­but­exclu­ded­ from­some­customs­con­nec­ted­ to­birth­and­wed­dings.­They­are­ascri­bed­magi­cal-ritual­attri­bu­tes,­which­recom­mend­them­for­some­roles­in­rites­con­nec­ted­to­fer­ti­lity­and­pro­tec­tion.­The­way­in­which­they­are­pre­sen­ted­in­fol­klo­re­is­synchro­ni­sed­both­with­the­se­beli­efs­and­the­poe­tic­and­gen­re­laws.­The­re­are­two­gene­ral­types­wit­hin­which­we­find­diver­se­cha­rac­ters:­the­widow­who­bre­aks­social­and­ethi­cal­norms­(inclu­ding­flir­ting­widows)­and­the­devo­ted,­hum­ble­mot­her.­The­first­gro­up­inclu­des­cha­rac-ters­whe­re­types­and­inter­na­ti­o­nal­motifs­over­lap­(e.g.,­the­widow­who­is­also­a­step­mot­her­or­wic­ked­mot­her).­The­ran­ge­of­the­mes­rela­ted­to­widows­is­unu­su­ally­wide,­and­most­appe­ar­in­both­seri­o­us­and­comic­ver­si­ons.

Akin­to­widows­are­poor­sin­gle­women­(ch.­5.1.3),­who­se­cha­rac­ters­are­fre­qu­ently­ide­a­li­sed­ in­ fol­klo­re,­ espe­ci­ally­con­cer­ning­ family­and­social­ the­mes,­but­ they­can­also­be­comi­cal­if­they­are­lin­ked­to­quacks­and­matchma­kers.

439Summary

The­ima­ge­of­the­wido­wer­in­folk­cul­tu­re­and­fol­klo­re­(ch.­5.2)­is­as­full­of­con­tra­dic-ti­ons­as­that­of­the­widow.­On­the­one­hand,­they­are­cha­rac­te­ri­sti­cally­bereft­of­mari­tal­sta­tus,­asso­ci­a­ted­with­death,­fre­qu­ently­with­old­age­(and­the­re­fo­re­wis­dom),­hum­ble­ness­and­the­absen­ce­of­desi­res­of­the­flesh,­and­on­the­other­hand,­vita­lity­and­a­weak­ness­towards­women.­Accor­ding­to­folk­beli­ef,­to­be­a­wido­wer­is­to­be­incom­ple­te,­wit­ho­ut­a­part­ner,­and­repre­sents­a­tran­si­ti­o­nal­sta­te.­In­fol­klo­re,­wido­wers­are­asso­ci­a­ted­with­motifs­of­mar­ri­a­ge­or­attempts­at­mar­ri­a­ge­and­comi­cal­lust,­or­inge­nu­ity­in­secu­ring­them­sel­ves­some­o­ne­to­care­for­them­in­old­age.­

Divor­ced­men­and­women­(ch.­5.3)­may­be­tem­po­ra­rily­or­per­ma­nently­poor,­and­sin­ce­divor­ce­-­a­ritual­of­tran­si­tion­mar­ked­in­a­symbo­li­cal­man­ner­in­folk­cul­tu­re­-­always­chan­ges­the­ir­sta­tus­in­soci­ety,­they­may­be­mar­gi­na­li­sed­to­a­cer­tain­extent,­par­ti­cu­larly­in­tra­di­ti­o­nal­cul­tu­re­whe­re­divor­ce­ is­ lin­ked­ to­ sha­me.­ In­ fol­klo­re,­divor­ce­and­ the­divor­ced­per­son­are­mainly­the­subject­of­lyrical­songs­and­bal­lads,­but­are­also­enco­un­te­red­in­pro­se­gen­res.­We­find­the­mes­of­taking­a­second­wife­beca­u­se­of­the­lack­of­offspring,­the­gri­ef­of­the­divor­ced­woman­for­her­first­hus­band,­of­the­brot­her­who­saves­his­sister­from­a­vio­lent­hus­band­and­mot­her-in-law­;­the­re­are­also­songs­abo­ut­the­vari­o­us­rea­sons­for­divor­ce­and­dri­ving­a­wife­away.­In­con­tem­po­rary­acco­unts,­the­re­is­a­bre­ak­with­the­patri­ar­chal­view­of­mar­ri­a­ge­and­the­faults­of­both­sides­are­openly­cri­ti­ci­sed.­

Orp­hans­(ch.­5.4)­repre­sent­a­lar­ge­and­inte­re­sting­field­of­rese­arch.­Care­for­the­orp-ha­ned­(ch.­5.4.1),­moti­va­ted­by­folk­beli­ef­in­the­duty­to­help­the­orp­ha­ned­and­vul­ne­ra­ble,­Chri­stian­teac­hing­on­the­sal­va­tion­of­the­soul­and­huma­nist­and­altru­i­stic­ide­as,­has­a­long­tra­di­tion­with­the­Serbs­and­has­lasted­in­con­ti­nu­ity­from­the­Mid­dle­Ages­to­modern­times.­

In­folk­cul­tu­re,­the­orp­ha­ned­are­mar­ked­as­being­dif­fe­rent­and­in­this­respect­are­clo­se­to­other­cate­go­ri­es­of­the­soci­ally­vul­ne­ra­ble.­Beli­efs­that­they­are­under­divi­ne­pro­tec­tion­are­deeply­woven­into­custo­mary­ritual­prac­ti­ce­and­fol­klo­re­(ch.­5.4.2).­The­ir­posi­tion­is­a­sub-or­di­na­te­one­and­repre­sents­a­kind­of­exi­sten­ti­al­misery,­mani­fest­chi­efly­in­moments­of­cri­ses­and­ritu­als­of­tran­si­tion.­Sin­ce­orp­hans­have­no­parents­and­are­the­reby­soci­ally­depri­ved,­it­is­beli­e­ved­that­they­are­repre­sen­ta­ti­ves­of­the­other­world­and­some­ti­mes­of­anot­her­clan,­that­they­can­not­bring­good­for­tu­ne,­and­they­are­exclu­ded­from­some­ritu­als.­On­the­other­hand,­beca­u­se­they­are­inter­me­di­a­ri­es­bet­we­en­God,­the­ance­stors­and­the­peo­ple­and­enjoy­divi­ne­help­in­some­tasks­impor­tant­for­the­com­mu­nity,­orp­hans­have­a­spe­cial­pla­ce­in­the­system­of­demo­no­lo­gi­cal­noti­ons­and­ritu­als,­in­beli­efs­and­legends­of­com­mu­ni­ca­ting­with­dece­a­sed­parents­and­in­fune­ral­rites.­

In­ fol­klo­re,­ the­orp­ha­ned­play­ impor­tant­ roles­ inhe­ri­ted­from­vari­o­us­mytho­lo­gi­cal-ritual­systems­and­are­asso­ci­a­ted­with­chan­ges­in­soci­ety­(ch.­5.4.3).­The­pre­sen­ce­of­orp­han­cha­rac­ters­reflects­the­the­ma­tic­and­struc­tu­ral­pre­oc­cu­pa­ti­ons­and­affi­ni­ti­es­of­cer­tain­gen­res,­and­also­of­the­sta­tus­of­the­orp­ha­ned­in­folk­cul­tu­re.­Motifs­usu­ally­con­nec­ted­to­the­orp­ha-ned­are­family­and­social­ones,­indi­vi­dual­iden­tity­and­family­cri­ses,­but­also­con­tact­with­the­other­world.­

In­pro­se­gen­res,­orp­hans­are­fre­qu­ently­ide­a­li­sed­and­are­clo­se­to­the­cha­rac­ters­of­the­poor.­They­are­usu­ally­pre­sen­ted­as­step­sons­and­have­the­role­of­the­per­se­cu­ted­vic­tim.­In­epic­poe­try,­they­are­mostly­pas­si­ve­cha­rac­ters­and­easily­mer­ge­with­the­com­mon­poor.­When­the­orp­ha­ned­are­acti­ve­cha­rac­ters,­the­fact­of­the­ir­being­orp­ha­ned­is­sub­or­di­na­ted­to­the­main­dra­ma­tic­plot­and­they­acqu­i­re­other­domi­nant­attri­bu­tes,­abo­ve­all­gre­at­strength,­super­na­tu­ral­powers­and­hel­pers.­The­most­famo­us­acti­ve­epic­orp­hans­are­hero­ic­chil­dren,­and­one­vari­ant­of­this­type­is­the­unborn­hero,­i.e.­the­post­hu­mo­us­child­who­aven­ges­his­fat­her,­some­ti­mes­his­family.

440 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

Lyrical­songs­and­bal­lads­address­the­fami­lial­and­per­so­nal­cri­sis­of­the­orp­han­and­dwell­on­impor­tant­bor­der­li­ne­situ­a­ti­ons­in­his­life.­The­orp­ha­ned­being­depri­ved­of­a­family­repre­sents­the­core­of­the­dra­ma­tic­plot,­which­cre­a­tes­unu­su­ally­diver­se­situ­a­ti­ons­and­brings­in­family,­histo­ri­cal,­ legen­dary,­ love,­social­and­other­motifs.­The­orp­hans­were­aban­do­ned­in­early­child­hood­or­came­ into­con­flict­with­ the­ir­ secon­dary­ fami­li­es,­or­ the­ir­depri­va­tion­reac­hes­a­cri­ti­cal­point­at­the­moment­when­they­sho­uld­form­the­ir­own­fami­li­es.­Depen­ding­on­the­plot,­the­orp­hans­remain­hel­pless­in­the­face­of­the­obstac­les­befo­re­them­and­end­tra-gi­cally,­or­suc­ceed­in­tur­ning­the­ir­destiny­aro­und,­resto­ring­the­family­or­cre­a­ting­a­new­one­and­achi­e­ving­fre­e­dom­and­dig­nity.­The­emo­ti­o­nal­regi­ster­of­lyrical­songs­and­bal­lads­abo­ut­orp­hans­encom­pas­ses­diver­se­tones­and­moods,­ran­ging­from­laments,­con­fes­si­o­nal­songs­and­pro­jec­ting­wis­hes­to­the­happy­con­clu­sion­of­a­wed­ding.­

The­fel­low-tra­vel­lers­of­poverty­are­cho­sen­accor­ding­to­the­ir­peri­o­dic­indi­gen­ce­and­vul­ne­ra­bi­lity,­mobi­lity­and­in­some­cases­iso­la­tion.­Ser­vants­and­day-labo­u­rers­(ch.­6.1)­repre-sent­a­sig­ni­fi­cant­gro­up­wit­hin­folk­cul­tu­re,­also­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­fol­klo­re­cha­rac­ters.­The­cha­rac-ter­of­the­ser­vant,­depen­ding­on­gen­re­and­the­me,­repre­sents­a­fol­klo­re­type­to­a­cer­tain­degree­but­may­ have­ attri­bu­tes­which­ iden­tify­ him­ both­ histo­ri­cally­ and­ cul­tu­rally.­The­ cha­rac­ter­beco­mes­con­cre­te­by­tying­it­to­cer­tain­roles­in­the­plot­and­the­con­stant­attri­bu­tes­which­the­se­roles­requ­i­re­wit­hin­esta­blis­hed­inter­na­ti­o­nal­motifs.­In­poe­tic­and­pro­se­gen­res,­ser­vants­are­eit­her­sup­por­ting­cha­rac­ters­who­have­epi­so­dic­and­strictly­fun­cti­o­nal­roles,­or­dis­gu­i­sed­hero-es­who­under­go­a­mira­cu­lo­us­tran­sfor­ma­tion,­win­the­hand­of­the­king’s­daug­hter­and­achi­e­ve­gre­at­wealth.­

The­cha­rac­ters­of­ser­vants­and­the­rela­ti­on­ship­bet­we­en­ser­vant­and­master­are­also­finely­sha­ded­with­regard­to­the­rea­lity­depic­ted­in­the­par­ti­cu­lar­gen­re.­In­epic­songs­abo­ut­events­up­to­the­Otto­man­con­qu­ests,­ser­vants­are­depic­ted­wit­hin­the­rela­ti­on­ship­of­suze­rain­to­vas­sal,­in­the­ari­stoc­ra­tic­style;­in­songs­abo­ut­outlaws­and­rebels,­the­rela­ti­on­ship­beco-mes­somew­hat­more­democ­ra­tic,­and­ser­vants­are­pre­sen­ted­lar­gely­as­the­hel­pers­of­hero­es.­The­insig­ni­fi­cant­ser­vant­who­mar­ri­es­the­prin­cess­after­he­has­been­seen­to­have­mira­cu­lo-us­powers­or­hel­pers,­or­is­him­self­unu­su­ally­sharp-wit­ted,­is­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­of­fairytales­and­novel­les.­Roman­ces,­too,­fol­low­simi­lar­plots.­The­rela­ti­on­ship­bet­we­en­ser­vant­and­fema­le­per­so­na­ge­of­hig­her­rank­chan­ges:­the­ser­vant­climbs­the­social­lad­der­whi­le­the­fema­le­cha-rac­ter­aban­dons­her­eli­te­posi­tion­or­chan­ges­ the­envi­ron­ment­which­would­oppo­se­such­a­mar­ri­a­ge.­In­lyrical­songs,­a­fre­qu­ent­the­me­is­pro­vi­ded­by­the­rela­ti­on­ship­bet­we­en­ser­vant­and­mistress,­usu­ally­with­ero­tic­over­to­nes,­whe­re­a­rever­sal­of­power­and­sta­tus­occurs.­This­may­be­com­bi­ned­with­the­motif­of­“re-edu­ca­ting”­the­spo­ilt­and­idle­bel­le­or­king’s­daug­hter.­The­ser­vant­who­has­been­done­an­inju­sti­ce­by­his­master­acts­hono­u­rably­and­hero­i­cally­and­tri­umphs­ in­epic­poe­try,­but­ in­ lyrical­work­songs­ this­une­qu­al­ rela­ti­on­ship acqu­i­res­social­over­to­nes.­ In­ the­ tales,­ the­motif­of­ the­ lapot­ (the­ legen­dary­prac­ti­ce­of­kil­ling­old­parents­when­they­can­no­lon­ger­work)­is­tran­sfer­red­to­ser­vants,­which­reflects­the­ir­bor­der­li­ne­posi-tion.­In­novel­les­and­comic­sto­ri­es,­the­pre­va­i­ling­type­is­that­of­the­witty­ser­vant,­who­can­also­take­on­the­attri­bu­tes­of­dun­ce,­lout­and­noto­ri­o­us­mischi­ef-maker.

Day­labo­u­ring­and­sha­rec­rop­ping­(ch.­6.1.1),­as­sup­ple­men­tary­and­spo­ra­dic­occu­pa­ti-ons­of­the­poor,­were­com­mon­prac­ti­ce­up­to­World­War­II,­but­the­sta­tus­of­labo­u­rers­chan­ged­over­time.­The­diver­sity­of­labo­u­rer­occu­pa­ti­ons­depen­ded­on­the­local­mar­ket­and­eco­no­mic­con­di­ti­ons.­They­were­most­fre­qu­ently­to­be­found­in­agri­cul­tu­re­and­the­her­ding­of­live­stock,­or­in­the­acti­vi­ti­es­of­semi-pro­fes­si­o­nal­craftsmen­and­artists. As­fol­klo­re­cha­rac­ters,­labo­u­rers­reta­i­ned­the­pecu­li­a­ri­ti­es­of­the­social­and­cul­tu­ral­mili­eu.­The­motif­in­folk­tales­of­moving­away­to­do­labo­u­rer’s­work­pro­vi­des­the­occa­sion­for­the­hero­to­lea­ve­home,­which­is­whe-

441Summary

re­the­plot­begins,­or­the­pri­ce­of­the­ir­hire­insti­ga­tes­a­quar­rel­among­brot­hers.­The­motif­of­labo­u­rer’s­work­is­the­most­fre­qu­ent­one­in­lyric­songs­and­it­may­be­in­a­social,­legen­dary­or­love­con­text.­Lyrical­songs­depict­the­dif­fi­cult­con­di­ti­ons­then­obta­i­ning:­hard­physical­labo­ur­and­hun­ger.

The­tran­sport­of­goods­on­hor­ses­or­by­ox-drawn­cart­was­the­main­or­sup­ple­men­tary­work­of­peo­ple­of­varying­finan­cial­and­social­sta­tus.­Coac­hmen­and­wago­ners­(ch.­6.2)­sha­red­an­iti­ne­rant­way­of­life­with­the­poor­and­beg­gars,­a­life­full­of­dan­ger­and­chal­len­ge,­some­ti-mes­penury.­In­history,­they­for­med­a­recog­ni­sa­ble­pro­fes­si­o­nal­gro­up­and­played­an­impor­tant­role­as­eco­no­mic­and­cul­tu­ral­inter­me­di­a­ri­es­in­con­nec­ting­the­Bal­kan­pro­vin­ces;­the­ir­con-stant­road­jour­neys­and­con­tact­with­hig­hwaymen­­gave­them­a­cer­tain­dash­of­inde­pen­den­ce­in­rela­tion­to­other­gro­ups,­and­to­the­aut­ho­ri­ti­es.

In­coac­hman­and­wago­ner­fol­klo­re,­lyrical­songs­sung­whi­le­tra­vel­ling­the­roads­pre-do­mi­na­te,­with­the­ir­own­spe­ci­fic­words­and­per­for­man­ce.­Coac­hman­and­wago­ner­sin­ging­is­also­known­as­tra­vel­lers’­sin­ging,­and­impli­es­power­ful,­long-drawn-out­sin­ging­in­full­voi­ce.­The­most­fre­qu­ent­the­mes­are:­saying­fare­well­to­one’s­loved­one­and­family­upon­set­ting­out­on­a­jour­ney,­lon­ging­for­the­belo­ved,­rob­bers­who­hold­up­cara­vans,­the­death­and­dying­wish­of­the­coac­hman.­In­pro­se­folk­gen­res,­coac­hman/wago­ner­cha­rac­ters­are­often­humo­ro­usly­depic­ted.­In­jokes­and­rid­dles,­they­may­be­pre­sen­ted­rea­li­sti­cally,­with­irony­direc­ted­at­the­obso­le­scen­ce of­the­pro­fes­sion­and­its­minor­sta­tus­in­modern­times,­or­asso­ci­a­ted­with­a­roi-ste­ro­us­way­of­life.­

Migrant­wor­kers­(ch.­6.3),­dri­ven­by­pri­va­tion­into­tra­vel­ling­far­from­the­ir­homes­to­seek­sea­so­nal­work,­form­a­recog­ni­sa­ble­social­gro­up­which­has­left­tra­ces­in­the­lives­of­peo-ple­and­in­the­fol­klo­re,­thus­justifying­discus­sion­of­the­lore­of­migrant­wor­kers­in­the­con­text­of­poverty.

Migrant­work­was­reflec­ted­in­folk­customs,­beli­efs­and­fol­klo­re­gen­res,­abo­ve­all­in­lyrical­folk­poe­try,­folk­tales,­per­so­nal­nar­ra­ti­ves.­In­songs,­love­and­family­motifs­pre­do­mi-na­te,­and­the­mood­is­pen­si­ve­and­nostal­gic.­In­fairytales,­see­king­employment­as­a­migrant­wor­ker­is­the­moti­ve­for­the­hero’s­depar­tu­re­from­home,­which­is­a­way­of­con­tem­po­ri­zing­the­nar­ra­tion­by­intro­du­cing­facts­from­the­nar­ra­tor’s­life.­The­customs­and­beli­efs­sur­ro­un­ding­such­depar­tu­re­are­descri­bed­as­being­aimed­at­magi­cal­pro­tec­tion­and­wis­hing­the­pro­ta­go­nist­well­in­fin­ding­pro­per­work­and­rich­ear­nings.

The­fol­klo­re­con­cept­of­the­poor­sol­di­er­thro­ug­ho­ut­vari­o­us­peri­ods­is­the­subject­of­sepa-ra­te­rese­arch­(ch.­6.4).­From­the­histo­ri­cal­per­spec­ti­ve,­poverty­among­knights,­mer­ce­na­ri­es,­the­regu­lar­army,­outlaws­and­rebels­was­fre­qu­ent­and­com­mon.­Many­sol­di­ers­ear­ned­the­ir­living­not­only­as­mer­ce­na­ri­es­but­as­musi­ci­ans,­dan­cers­and­enter­ta­i­ners,­and­also­lived­off­cha­rity.

Some­ of­ the­ stan­dard­ noti­ons­ abo­ut­ poor­ sol­di­ers,­ the­ sta­te­ of­ soci­ety­ and­ cul­tu­ral­valu­es­from­ear­li­er­ages­are­pre­ser­ved­in­the­fol­klo­re.­Older­epic­songs­are­remi­ni­scent­of­the­uncer­ta­inty­of­ the­vas­sal’s­ear­nings­and­ the­poverty­of­knights­and­noble­men­to­whom­the­ruler­would­give­or­take­away­pro­perty­as­he­ple­a­sed.­Everyday­occur­ren­ces,­such­as­huge­delays­in­sol­di­ers’­pay,­have­beco­me­the­subject­of­anec­do­te.­Outlaws­are­shown­to­have­taken­to­the­woods­to­esca­pe­indi­gen­ce­and­oppres­sion;­as­they­lead­a­guer­ril­la­life,­they­go­hun­gry,­lack­equ­ip­ment­and­suf­fer­many­har­dships.­In­some­cases,­the­sin­gers­of­outlaw­songs­used­to­be­outlaws­them­sel­ves,­or­led­very­hum­ble­lives,­as­is­reflec­ted­in­the­level­of­bac­kgro­und­motifs­and­cul­tu­ral­rea­lia.­The­poverty­of­rebels­and­fig­hters­for­libe­ra­tion­from­the­Otto­mans­in­the­19th­cen­tury­is­con­fir­med­by­histo­ri­cal­sour­ces­and­fol­klo­re­tra­di­ti­ons.­In­the­strug­gle­for­fre­e­dom,­we­distin­gu­ish­a­cer­tain­type­of­extre­mely­poor­and­proud­war­ri­or,­who­se­poverty­and­spe­ci­fic­ethic­code­were­enti­tled­“hero­ic­poverty”.

442 Сиромаштво у фолклорној традицији Срба од XIII до XIX века

The­fairytale­type­of­the­poor­vete­ran­sol­di­er­is­one­who­has­been­dismis­sed­from­ser-vi­ce­wit­ho­ut­pay­and­is­in­immi­nent­dan­ger­of­dying­of­hun­ger,­but­suc­ce­eds­in­out­wit­ting­the­devil,­pas­sing­magi­cal­tri­als­or­che­a­ting­Death,­thus­secu­ring­pro­spe­rity­and­some­ti­mes­a­wife.­He­is­part­and­par­cel­of­seve­ral­inter­na­ti­o­nal­storylines,­but­assu­mes­the­fea­tu­res­of­the­local­cul­tu­re­and­the­social­and­ide­o­lo­gi­cal­invol­ve­ment­of­the­nar­ra­tor.­The­sol­di­er­is­an­uncon­ven-ti­o­nal,­lively­cha­rac­ter,­with­vir­tu­es­and­faults;­he­is­self-reli­ant­and­clo­se­to­the­lower­clas­ses,­beca­u­se­he­is­in­oppo­si­tion­to­the­offi­cers­and­sta­te­aut­ho­ri­ti­es­and­for­ced­to­fend­for­him­self.­This­kind­of­hero­was­a­con­ve­ni­ent­vehic­le­for­the­nar­ra­tor­to­launch­sharp­cri­ti­cism­of­a­soci-ety­which­fai­led­to­take­care­of­aged­or­inva­lid­sol­di­ers,­and­the­desi­re­for­pro­vi­sion­for­reti­red­and­sick­vete­rans­in­the­ir­old­age­was­pro­jec­ted­thro­ugh­him.

Tho­ugh­egre­gi­o­us,­poverty­also­has­its­funny­side­(ch.­7),­and­is­found­as­a­subject­of­the­usual­comic­gen­res:­humo­ro­us,­moc­king,­jocu­lar­and­paro­dic­songs,­jokes,­anec­do­tes­and­short­fol­klo­re­forms­(pro­verbs,­rid­dles­and­the­like).­The­gal­lery­of­comi­cal­cha­rac­ters­is­very­colo­ur­ful­and­varied.­Indi­gen­ce­is­also­enco­un­te­red­as­a­secon­dary­motif,­a­com­mon­fea­tu­re,­a­part­of­the­goings-on­that­mer­ges­with­other­favo­u­ri­te­humo­ro­us­topics.

Among­humo­ro­us­songs­abo­ut­poor­peo­ple­(ch.­7.1),­par­ti­cu­lar­atten­tion­is­drawn­by­jocu­lar­and­moc­king­songs­addres­sed­to­men,­women­and­enti­re­vil­la­ges.­In­ jocu­lar­songs,­che­er­ful­laug­hter­and­a­merry­mood­pre­do­mi­na­te,­and­in­moc­king­songs­it­is­irony­and­sati-re,­but­usu­ally­masked­by­a­humo­ro­us­tone.­The­indi­gen­ce­of­com­mon­peo­ple­is­expo­sed­to­ridi­cu­le,­and­mar­gi­nal­cha­rac­ters­–­ the­home­less,­drunks,­deb­tors,­ idlers­–­are­sar­ca­sti­cally­depic­ted.­The­wit­may­be­based­on­unex­pec­ted­twists­and­oxymorons.

In­moc­king­songs,­poverty­can­be­the­main­motif­or­one­among­others.­For­mu­la­ic­bla-me­and­cri­ti­cism­in­male/fema­le­moc­king­songs­rela­tes­pri­ma­rily­to­cha­rac­ter­flaws;­poverty­is­per­ce­i­ved­in­the­con­text­of­the­rec­kless­spen­ding­and­sel­fis­hness­of­fas­hi­o­na­ble­mai­dens­or,­with­boys,­as­a­con­se­qu­en­ce­of­the­ir­suc­cum­bing­to­vice­and­idle­ness.­Moc­king­songs­abo­ut­vil­la­ges­–­a­kind­of­ethnic­slan­der­–­ridi­cu­le­poverty,­bac­kward­ness­and­cer­tain­rea­lia­from­pro­vin­cial­daily­life.­They­were­com­po­sed­by­local­buf­fo­ons­as­a­kind­of­cri­ti­cal­social­chro-nic­le,­and­are­inte­re­sting­in­that­they­reveal­the­value­jud­gments­and­men­ta­lity­of­the­gro­ups­from­which­the­se­songs­emer­ged­and­were­tran­smit­ted.

Paro­dic­and­sati­ri­cal­songs­are­simi­lar­to­moc­king­songs­in­the­ir­ten­dency­to­ridi­cu-le,­but­the­cri­ti­cism­is­more­pro­no­un­ced.­In­a­humo­ro­us,­sar­ca­stic­man­ner,­they­cri­ti­ci­ze­the­cau­ses­of­social­ine­qu­a­lity,­local­poten­ta­tes­who­have­beco­me­arro­gant­and­despo­tic,­explo­it­the­poor­and­are­war­pro­fi­te­ers.­It­is­cha­rac­te­ri­stic­of­the­se­songs­that­they­adjust­tra­di­ti­o­nal­for­mu­lae,­motifs­and­lan­gu­a­ge­to­a­new­con­tent.­The­se­songs,­apart­from­the­ir­enter­ta­in­ment­value,­also­play­a­social­and­psycho­lo­gi­cal­role.

In­humo­ro­us­and­moc­king­sto­ri­es,­anec­do­tes­and­rid­dles­(ch.­7.2),­the­topic­of­poverty­is­pre­sen­ted­very­diver­sely.­When­it­is­the­cen­tral­motif,­it­is­usu­ally­con­tra­sted­with­anot­her­oppo­si­te­or­com­ple­men­tary­notion,­e.g.­poverty­and­wealth,­stu­pi­dity,­hap­pi­ness,­lazi­ness.­The­laug­hter­comes­from­an­unex­pec­ted­twist­or­point.­Poverty­may­also­be­a­secon­dary­fea­tu­re­of­a­comi­cal­type­aro­und­which­jokes­revol­ve,­e.g.­a­fool,­bloc­khead,­yokel,­thi­ef,­swin­dler,­blind­man,­pri­est­and­others.

The­ poverty­motif­ in­ com­bi­na­tion­with­ ethnic­ cha­rac­ter­ types­ is­ usu­ally­ lin­ked­ to­Gypsi­es.­Ethnic­ste­re­otypes­­and­views­of­cer­tain­social­and­pro­fes­si­o­nal­gro­ups­are­built­into­the­noti­ons­of­the­comi­cal­ type­of­the­fol­klo­re­Gypsy,­pen­ni­les­sness­being­one­of­the­most­recog­ni­sa­ble­fea­tu­res­of­this­com­plex­cha­rac­ter.­As­a­small,­mar­gi­nal­per­son,­the­Gypsy­type­is­at­the­bot­tom­of­the­social­lad­der,­but­beca­u­se­of­his­adap­ta­bi­lity­and­inde­pen­den­ce­from­

443Summary

the­system,­he­is­free­and­cri­ti­cal­in­rela­tion­to­offi­cial­insti­tu­ti­ons.­Motifs­con­nec­ted­to­him­in­the­con­text­of­poverty­are­tho­se­of­hun­ger,­fan­ta­si­zing­abo­ut­food,­beg­ging,­and­gre­e­di­ness.

Types­such­as­ the­wit,­ the­ thi­ef,­ the­swin­dler­and­the­ liar­are­ lin­ked­to­ the­motif­of­poverty,­inde­pen­dent­of­the­ir­ethnic­fea­tu­res.­They­take­on­ethi­cal­colo­ur­accor­ding­to­the­gra-vity­of­the­offen­ce,­the­ir­indi­vi­dual­pecu­li­a­ri­ti­es­and­the­moti­va­tion­for­the­ir­acti­ons.­Beg­gars­and­blind­man­ types­min­gle­with­ them.­Jokes­and­anec­do­tes­abo­ut­beg­gars­and­blind­men­reflect­rea­lia­from­the­cul­tu­ral­and­social­mili­e­ux­in­which­they­are­tran­smit­ted.­Sto­ri­es­rela-ting­the­dan­gers­of­the­poet’s­craft­are­espe­ci­ally­inte­re­sting.­Rid­dles­refer­ring­to­blind­men­and­beg­gars­are­also­tin­ged­by­bit­ter­humo­ur­and­irony,­at­times­by­the­absurd.

Humo­ur­in­what­con­cerns­poverty­and­the­poor­has­its­posi­ti­ve­and­nega­ti­ve­sides.­It­pro­vi­des­reli­ef,­con­tri­bu­tes­to­social­cri­ti­cism­and­con­trol,­helps­bring­toget­her­indi­vi­du­als­and­gro­ups­of­une­qu­al­social­and­finan­cial­sta­tus.­Howe­ver,­humo­ur­can­also­be­an­expres­si­on­of­con­flict,­or­may­aro­u­se­resi­stan­ce;­it­may­mask­insult,­ridi­cu­le­and­sati­re.­Cho­o­sing­a­posi­tion­vis­à­vis­some­comic­situ­a­ti­ons­and/or­cha­rac­ters­emer­ges­as­impor­tant,­regar­dless­of­the­cho-i­ce­of­fol­klo­re­gen­re.­In­adop­ting­a­nar­ra­ti­ve­posi­tion,­the­nar­ra­tor­also­cho­o­ses­an­ide­o­logy­of­nar­ra­tion:­pra­i­se­or­dis­pa­ra­ge­ment;­from­the­mate­rial­pro­vi­ded­by­humo­ro­us­fol­klo­re­on­poverty,­this­in­turn­ena­bles­us­to­re-exa­mi­ne­the­social­and­psycho­lo­gi­cal­boun­da­ri­es.

­ In­ con­clu­sion,­we­ are­ awa­re­ that­ our­ rese­arch­ could­ not­ answer­ all­ the­ que­sti­ons,­but­we­beli­e­ve­it­impor­tant­to­rai­se­them.­The­the­me­of­poverty­covers­a­very­wide­ran­ge­of­mea­nings,­many­of­which­are­con­tra­dic­tory.­At­one­pole­is­the­per­cep­tion­of­a­pri­vi­le­ged­and­pro­tec­ted­posi­tion­of­the­poor,­who­are­in­imme­di­a­te­touch­with­God­and­the­ance­stors­(“If­it­were­not­for­the­poor,­the­sun­would­not­shi­ne”),­and­at­the­other,­the­under­stan­ding­that­the­poor­are­mise­ra­ble­and­rejec­ted,­ that­ they­exci­te­ revul­sion­and­moc­kery,­and­also­per­so­nal­anxi­ety­(“You­poor,­you’re­a­bur­den­to­the­vil­la­ge,­let­alo­ne­the­hou­se­you­live­in”).­Bet­we-en­such­oppo­sing­noti­ons­lies­a­broad­spec­trum­of­mea­ning­that­emer­ges­from­an­analysis­of­the­motifs­and­cha­rac­ters­depic­ted­in­the­vari­o­us­gen­res.­This­makes­it­dif­fi­cult­to­sepa­ra­te­a­unifying­fea­tu­re­of­poverty­in­fol­klo­re.­Instead,­it­is­per­haps­more­appro­pri­a­te­to­use­anot­her­folk­saying:­“Live­on,­poor­man,­until­your­cap­is­made­to­mea­su­re”,­sin­ce­it­vividly­iden­ti­fi­es­one­sig­ni­fi­cant­fea­tu­re:­that­the­poor,­in­spi­te­of­everything,­live­on,­per­si­sting­in­living­the­ir­lives,­such­as­they­are.­