Selected Proceedings Arab 2007

UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and Knowledge

The Impact of Globalization on Higher Education and Research in the Arab States

Selected Proceedings

Regional Research Seminar, Rabat, Morocco, 25-26 May 2007

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The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP France Regional Research Seminar coordinated by The Secretariat of the UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and Knowledge and Faculty of Sciences Mohammed V Agdal Rabat Morocco © UNESCO 2007 Printed in France

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Table of Contents

List of Abbreviations 5 Foreword 7 Mary-Louise Kearney Summery Report English 11 Munir Bashshur

Summery Report Arabic 35 Munir Bashshur Funding and financial performance of private higher education institutions in Kuwait 51 Imad M. Al-Atiqi Mohamed El-Azma Globalization and education 75 Darim Albassam Knowledge-based economies: globalization and the business of science 87 Wail Benjelloun WTO/GATS: Possible implications for higher education and research in the Arab States 95 Abdalla R. Bubtana Funding higher education in the Arab States: thoughts and reflections on the topic 115 Ali El-Hawat Research and development in the Arab States: the impact of globalization, facts and perspectives 135 Albert Sasson Higher education, R&D, economic development 147 regional and global interface Antoine B. Zahlan Appendix PowerPoint Presentation on New Roles for Arab Schools and Universities in a Knowledge-Based Society 165 Professor Abdullateef H. Haidar Al Hakimi

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List of Abbreviations ABEL Association BioEuroLatina. ACE Advisory Centre for Education. ACK Australian College of Kuwait. ADFC Abu Dubai Future Energy Company. AGFUND Gulf Programme for Support of United Nations

Developmental Agencies. AIHR Arab Institute for Human Rights. ALECSO Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization. AOU Arab Open University. API Arab Planning Institute. ASTF Arab Science and Technology Foundation. ATF Arab Thought Forum. AUCC Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. AUK American University of Kuwait. BWTC Bahrain World Trade Centre. CAUS Centre for Arab Unity Studies. CAUT Centre for the Advancement of University Teaching. CEDOs Consulting Engineering Design Organisations. CEH Centre of Excellence in Healthcare. CHEA Council for Higher Education Accreditation. COMSTECH Science/Technology Committee of the Organization of the Islamic Conference. CROs Clinical Research Organizations. CVCP Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals. DAD Dar Al Dawa . DADVet Veterinary and Agricultural Industrial Co. Ltd. DUBIOTECH Dubai Biotechnology Park. EAD Euro-Arab Dialogue. EI European Institute. EU European Union. EUA European University Association. FDA Food and Drug Administration, US. FMHS Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. FTA Free-Trade Agreement. GASB Governmental Accounting Standards Board. GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services. GATT General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs. GCC Gulf Cooperation Council. GDP Gross Domestic Product. GERD Gross Expenditure on R&D. GFCF Gross Fixed Capital Formation.

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GMP Good Manufacturing Practices. GNP Gross National Product. GUST Gulf University for Science & Technology. HC Human Capital (educated persons). HE Higher Education. HLM High Level Manpower. HR Human Resources. HRCC Human Rights Consultative Council. HSP Highly Skilled Personnel (university graduates). IAS International Auditing Standards. IAU International Association of Universities. ICARDIA International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas. ICTs Information and Communications Technologies. ILO International Labour Organization. IPRs Intellectual Property Rights. ISESCO Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. ISI Institute of Scientific Information. JORAS Pharmaceutical Spa, Algeria. KMBS Kuwait-Maastricht Business School. LDCs Less-developed countries. MAD Moroccan Dirhams MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology. MOH Ministry of Health. NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations. OIC Organization of Islamic Countries. OTC Over-the-counter. PBL Problem-Based Learning. PECDAR Palestine Economic Council for Development and Reconstruction. Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy. PMI Peat Marwick International. PUC Private Universities Council. R&D Research and Development. S&T-System Science and Technology System. SAIDAL Pharmaceutical Production, Algeria. SAIPH Société Arabe des industries pharmaceutiques. TRALAC Trade Law Centre for Southern Africa. TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. TT Translation Technology. UAE United Arab Emirates. UB University of Beirut. UNDP United Nations Development Programme. UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. UNIDO UN Industrial Development Organization. UNU-IAS United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies. WCHE World Conference on Higher Education. WTO World Trade Organization. WTO/GATS World Health Organization/General Agreement on

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Foreword The UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Knowledge and Research is pleased to present the

publication, entitled The Impact of Globalization on Higher Education and Research in the

Arab States. This volume emanates from the second regional research seminar of the

Forum’s Scientific Committee for Arab States which was held in Rabat in May 2007 and

hosted by the University of Mohammed V-Agdal, in cooperation with the Moroccan

National Commission for UNESCO and the UNESCO Office in Morocco .

At the outset, it is appropriate to situate this publication in relation to the aims of UNESCO

Forum and, thus, to contextualize the specific issues related to the higher education in the

Arab States region today. The UNESCO Forum focuses on the role and status of national

research systems and international trends in this domain in relation to the challenges posed by

the Knowledge Society of the 21st century. Located at UNESCO and supported by the

Swedish International Development Agency (Sida), the UNESCO Forum provides a platform

for researchers, policymakers and relevant stakeholders to engage critically with the key

elements unpinning research systems: policy trends, infrastructure, human capacity, and

investment. This project has assured follow up action for two major UNESCO conferences,

the 1998 World Conference on Higher Education and the 1999 World Conference on

Science , and links closely to the intergovernmental programme for the Management of

Social Transformation ( MOST), located in the Sector of Social and Human Sciences.

Since 2001, the UNESCO Forum has consolidated its efforts to bridge research and policy in

a number of ways through facilitating and broadening the space for critical debate and

through revisiting the established and dominant views so as to reconceptualize future

directions. To date, its various components for attaining these goals - mobilizing experts,

stimulating global and regional debate, producing and disseminating research, promoting

strategic partnerships, facilitating communication and strengthening the systemic approach -

have yielded creditable results. The UNESCO Forum believes that it is central to reaffirm

the importance of research at the current moment given the rapid developments since 2000 in

knowledge production and management and their ramifications for social change and progress.

Research on research has become, therefore, even more crucial and is now well recognized as

a major field of enquiry for international organizations, charged with advising their member

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states about the questions involved. In this regard, the World Bank and the OECD are key

partners of the UNESCO Forum.

The UNESCO Forum pursues a systemic approach to the analysis of research so as to address

strengths and weakness, as well as specific issues and concerns, in a critical manner. This

work will embrace research and in both industrialized and emerging contexts, as well as

researchers whether reputed or at the start of their careers. The central objective is to promote

ongoing research and to place significant results in the public eye. Consequently, research

may be more original, innovative and effective, thus leading towards more sustainable human

development.

Today, unprecedented emphasis is being placed on research as key motor for advancing the

Knowledge Society and its offspring, the Knowledge Economy. Consequently, “research on

the state of research” has moved high on the priority agendas for governments, for their

specialized agencies and bodies devoted to this area, and for higher education institutions.

Thus, it becomes essential to map and analyse systems to acquire an understanding of their

functioning and of their future requirements

This systemic approach necessitates the study of specific issues arising from the various areas

involved. In this regard, key challenges facing education systems in the Arab States, and the

contribution of higher education in addressing these, merit serious actual and forward-looking

analysis. The present publication focuses on the major areas of the research seminar:

globalization and education, higher education, R and D and economic development with

reference to regional and global interfaces, and the funding of higher education and scientific

research. The experts writing in this volume present a strong case for renewing higher

education and science systems to meet the challenges of the Knowledge Society, as well as

the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. The MDGs now orient the efforts of

member states to overcome the most pressing problems resulting from poverty and exclusion

so as to promote more equitable social progress. Against this background, higher education

and science systems today must seek flexibility and innovation, while still maintaining their

traditional commitments to quality and relevance. As this research seminar reiterated, higher

education, though its mission to promote research generating advanced knowledge has a

unique and invaluable contribution to make to this systemic renewal.

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The UNESCO Forum expresses its gratitude to the Arab States’ Regional Scientific

Committee for their dedicated efforts to conceptualize and organize the seminar and to ensure

a very rich and thoughtful report. In this regard, special thanks are due to Professor Nouria

Lakhdar-Ghazal, Chair of the Organizing Committee, and to Professors Nouria Benghabrit-

Remaoun, Zakia Bouaziz, Munir Bashur, Mustafa O.Attir, and Mohamed Najib Abdul Wahed.

The outcomes of this research seminar are intended to provide fresh insights for policy makers,

the higher education community and scientific researchers alike as they address the main

issues facing the Arab States in the Knowledge Society of the 21st century.

Mary-Louise Kearney,

Secretariat

The UNESCO Forum

for Higher Education, Research and Knowledge

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Munir Bashshur

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The Impact of Globalization on Higher Education and Research in the Arab States

SUMMARY REPORT1 Munir Bashshur (General Rapporteur)

Preface

1. Terms of Reference

The main idea underlying the Seminar was that globalization has ushered a new stage in the

history of world civilization, and that people, wherever they are, are affected by its dynamics

whether they are willing or hesitant partners. Along with this, it is recognized that while

education, as an activity, has been significantly affected by globalization everywhere, but, as

a discipline or a field of study, it has fallen short of giving globalization the attention it

deserves compared with what is given to it by other disciplines such as economics or

political sciences. This faltering in attention or concern is particularly evidenced in the Arab

region, where globalization is frequently mentioned as a target, but rarely dealt with as a

phenomenon that requires serious examination. Hence this Seminar, focusing on

globalization and its impact on higher education.

2. Scope and Organization

The Seminar was organized around four themes:

Session l gave a general introduction to the topic; it included three keynote addresses and

one keynote presentation. Questions of definitions of education, culture, knowledge,

knowledge society, and globalization were raised and answers given to them emphasizing a

new turning point for the world, and an opportunity/challenge for the Arab states.

1 This Report made use of notes and observations that appeared in individual reports submitted by the Rapporteurs of Session 2 of the Seminar, Prof. Zakia Bouaziz, and Session 4, Prof. Nouria Lakhdar Ghazal, and in notes submitted by the Rapporteur of session 3, Prof. Mohamed Najib Abdul Wahed. The contents of the presented papers however, and ideas expounded on them by their authors during presentations, constituted the main source of ideas in this report.

Munir Bashshur

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Session 2 took for its theme the WTO/GATS Agreement and its implication for the Arab

states. Four presentations were made in this session, a mixture of theoretical and case study

reports.

Session 3 explored the implications of globalization for research in higher education and also

included theoretical as well as case study reports.

Session 4 took up the question of funding of higher education and scientific research in four

presentations, one covering the Arab world as a whole, and the remaining three covering

cases in individual countries.

Session 5 was the closing session; had a general discussion, reports on previous sessions and

an “end note” presentation delivered by the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences at Mohammed V

University where the Seminar was hosted.

SESSION 1- KEYNOTE ADDRESSES

1. Globalization and Education (Darim Albassam)

1.1 Globalization: definitions and Challenges

1.1.1 Globalization is evidenced in the structural changes in the global economy

where knowledge, education and learning have become crucial factors of

production.

1.1.2 This structural change may be expressed in a shift from the Fordist-

Taylorist model of development to one based on innovation-mediated

production. The first rested on 3 pillars: the factory system, scientific

management and the assembly line. The second is based on the blurring of

distinctions between mental and physical labor and on the increasing

application of knowledge to the processes of production.

1.1.3 Another component of globalization is the increase in the connectedness of

the world and the growing interdependence of people and countries.

1.1.4 A major manifestation of globalization is in the area of information revolution.

Previous generations were faced with scarcity of information; the present

generation is challenged by abundance of information.

1.2 Educational implications of globalization

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1.2.1 “New habits of the mind” are required, expressed in terms of tolerance for

and understanding of ambiguity, complexity and uncertainty.

1.2.2 Problem-based learning (PBL) becomes central; it requires inquiry,

information gathering and reflection (information management) and

processing of knowledge.

1.2.3 A shift from education for conformity to education for creativity; from

individual to partnership and group work.

1.2.4 For the Arab world globalization highlights the need for “strategic

imagination” which will render alternative scenarios of reform that deal

1.2.5 with two of the conditions that most affect decision making in a globalized

world: uncertainty and complexity.

2. Higher Education, R & D, Regional and Global Interface ( A.B. Zahlan)

2.1 Nature and extent of knowledge gap in Arab societies

2.1.1 Arabs have more university students studying at home and many more

studying abroad per million population than China or India. Some 12,000

Arabs earn Ph.D’s abroad annually.

2.1.2 The problem is not in the amount (stock) of human capital available or

produced but in their employment and contribution to development at home:

85% of Arabs who obtain Ph.D’s abroad brain drain. On a per capita basis

the Arab brain drain is 4 times greater than that of China and 5 times that of

India.

2.1.3 Investments made through “turnkey” contracts make little provision for

technology transfer, hence they do not generate local employment. They

result in a low multiplier factor.

2.2 Research activity in the Arab region is abnormally low in terms of allocated funds,

publication output and cooperation among researchers.

2.3 Measures to overcome current difficulties:

2.3.1 “Independence”, i.e., give the opportunity to Arab companies to compete with

outsiders.

2.3.2 Scientific cooperation and collaboration.

Munir Bashshur

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2.3.3 Insure technology transfer through participation.

3. Funding of Higher Education and Scientific Research (Iman El-Kaffass)

This presentation was in the form of a slide show, highlighting the following:

3.1 Where do funds come from? Are they enough?

3.1.1 97% of research funds in Arab states come from government compared to

30% in Canada, Sweden and Singapore, and 18% in Japan.

3.1.2 1.5% of GDP in Arab states goes to research ( 0.9% in Egypt), compared to

2.5% in Europe.

3.2 What is to be done?

3.2.1 Link education to development, and research to social needs (this was

illustrated by a slide show on students training for leadership in development

at the American University in Cairo, Egypt).

4. Remarks and comments from the floor on Session 1

4.1 Globalization is here to stay; need to deconstruct the concept and then reconstruct it

to make it more meaningful and relevant to Arab needs.

4.2 Forces of globalization started long time ago. Science in its very nature is universal

(global).

4.3 There are huge investment outlays in the Arab region in various fields; something is

wrong in a region where there is so much to do and yet so many qualified people

leave.

4.4 We have been addicted to foreigners to solve our problems; since Moh. Ali in Egypt

200 years ago, the approach was to import experts rather than depend on our own.

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5. Keynote Presentation: Research and Development in the Arab States: the Impact of

Globalization: Facts and Perspectives (Albert Sasson)

The position of the Arab states in terms of research and development is clearly low

compared to most other regions of the world, but this should not hide some success stories.

Examples of success are given in three areas: biotechnology, pharmaceutical industry and

renewable energy.

5.1 Biotechnology: achievements in this field are noted in Egypt and Tunisia. In the

later, the Pasteur Institut of Tunis employs 370 persons 60 of them are scientists; the

Institut acts as an R & D center as well as a training ground for some 100 graduate

students per year; its output in terms of publications and patents is considerable. The

activities and programs of the Institute however are closely associated with overseas

teams, particularly in France, where there is “an important diaspora of Tunisian

scientists, physicians and engineers…”

Also in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) University- Faculty of Medicine and

Health Sciences where significant research is taking place in clinical and molecular

immunology in cooperation with Italian teams, and with institutes in the UK and the

USA. “…the UAEU office of research is very active in engaging industrial and

private support for research funding…the pro-business approach of the government

and its forward looking mindset [has led] to the setting up of Dubai Biotechnology

Park and the Arab Science and Science Technology Foundation which are good steps

in the right direction.

5.2 Pharmaceutical industry in Jordan occupied the second rank in the country’s

economy; the value of its exports was $280 million in 2003. There were about 230

producers, private or public companies, working in association with foreign partners.

Eight pharmaceutical colleges in the country graduate about 800 pharmacists a year,

55% of them are Jordanians.

Morocco’s pharmaceutical industry is another example of a thriving sector. In

2006 it included 22 industrial sites where national laboratories were manufacturing

their products under certification of French regulatory bodies and Canadian and

British bodies in several cases. The sector plays an important socio-economic role:

35,000 persons were employed in it directly or indirectly, including 20% managers

Munir Bashshur

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and executives; 10% of the whole production is exported, mainly to French-speaking

African countries.

5.3 Renewable energy: Abu Dhabi is seeking to become a centre for the development

and implementation of clean energy technology. In 2006 it launched an initiative

called Masdar, with a $250 million Clean Technology Fund and began construction

of a special economic zone for the advanced energy industry. In 2007 Abu Dhabi

announced plans to build a 500 megawatt solar power plant—one of the most

ambitious of its kind in the world. Furthermore, it announced an even more

ambitious project to develop a graduate level research centre in association with

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), to be focused on technology of

renewable energy. In a decade it is predicted that Abu Dhabi will have expertise in

solar energy, photovoltaics, energy storage, carbon sequestration and hydrogen fuel.

Other countries are moving forward in similar areas. Bahrain is experimenting

with wind turbines, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States began research programs in

nuclear energy.

5.4 Conclusion: There is an increasing awareness in the Arab region of the need to invest

in R&D, in higher education, and in the training and retraining of personnel and of

skilled labor. Globalization plays a key role in this awareness, because it can offer

opportunities and benefits to those who would like to penetrate markets and seek to

build alliances and make joint ventures. In this context, research, development and

innovation are key factors.

SESSION 2- WTO/GATS NEGOTIATIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION AND

RESEARCH

This session included four presentations, the first, an invited one, looked into the possible

advantages and disadvantages of the GATS for Arab countries. The remaining three were

more in the form of case studies: two of them on Saudi Arabia, and the third in the form of a

proposal for setting up networking arrangements to speed up exchange and cooperation

among Arab educators.

Munir Bashshur

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1. WTO/GATS: Possible Implications for Arab Higher Education and Research: An

Invited presentation (Abdallah Bubtana)

1.1 Definitions and Trends.

1.1.1 GATS stands for General Agreement on Trade in Services. The services in

question include education at all levels, but concern has focused on higher

education in particular. Joining the Agreement means lifting the barriers that

stand in the way of importing or exporting educational services (as

commercial products) across state borders. Individual states may negotiate

specific terms or provisions that may apply to them alone when signing the

Agreement.

1.1.2 As of February 2007, over 47 countries have made commitments to include

education in the Agreement; 38% of those included higher education. Among

the 47 countries there is so far only one Arab country (Bahrain) which

pledged commitments under GATS. It is not clear, however, whether

education and higher education have been included in the protocols signed by

Bahrain.

1.1.3 Liberalization of trade in (higher) education has received fierce resistance

from many quarters; it has also received endorsement and support from others

for various reasons. The opponents and proponents do not correspond exactly

to lines of division between the rich (developed) and the poor

(underdeveloped) countries, but the pattern generally points in this direction.

1.2 Proponents

1.2.1 Diversifying the providers and delivery modes thereby increasing the

likelihood of innovation.

1.2.2 Broadening access to help meet increasing demand for places in higher

education.

1.2.3 Increasing the mobility of students, academic staff and researchers and

promoting competitiveness which should lead to improved quality.

1.2.4 Increasing financial and economic aid.

Munir Bashshur

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1.3 Opponents

1.3.1 Losing government (state) control over education and consequent threat to

national systems that cannot compete with foreign providers.

1.3.2 Drastic decrease in state control of quality, relevance and adherence to

national priorities and agendas. Social principles, such as democratization

and equal access, will no longer be policy priority; education as “public good”

will be jeopardized. Likewise aspects such as cultural identity and national

citizenship will have to be compromised as they cannot be traded off by

foreign investors.

1.3.3 The absence or lack of sound mechanisms for accreditation or quality control

in the receiving countries may cause many of them to fall prey to foreign

programs of dubious quality.

1.3.4 Gradual erosion in the character of the university as an “autonomous”

institution depriving it from an essential prerequisite for delivering its

mission.

1.4 Implications for Arab states and recommendations:

1.4.1 There is fear that Arab negotiating teams may not be aware of the negative

consequences of GATS in a sensitive field such as education. These teams

are usually concerned with economic and financial benefits rather than with

social and cultural priorities.

1.4.2 If any Arab country decides to include higher education in its GATS

agreement it must either opt for gradual liberalization or lay down some

restrictions and limitations that preserve national interests and maximize the

benefits for itself.

1.4.3 Arab governments must explore the possibility of entering into negotiations

with GATS as a regional group, within the framework of the Arab League for

example such as the case with the European Union.

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2. The Effects and Influential Factors of Globalization on the Saudi Higher

Educational System (Hind T. Al-Sudairy)

The general aim of this presentation was to show the various ways in which Arab and Saudi

educational system in particular can benefit from joining the GATS, and at the same time be

aware of the risks involved.

2.1 Benefits

2.1.1 Access to knowledge across borders. A country that is not a member does not

have equal access to those markets that are open for members.

2.1.2 Particularly for a country like Saudi Arabia which has vast distances between

its cities, distance and e-learning programs are of a great value, particularly

for girls. Such programs are more likely to prosper and succeed under some

“partnership” arrangement with the outside. Globalization and the GATS are

positive factors in this case.

2.2 Risks

2.2.1 It is possible that GATS and globalization may foster a dual educational

system: expensive private (globalized) education, enjoyed by the better off

minority, and a poor quality government education for the majority.

2.2.2 Global education brings with it the potential of imperialistic attitudes, and the

suppression of native culture.

2.2.3 Braindrain: highly trained people can be attracted and, with the existence of

GATS, they can be more easily bought out, particularly with the ease in

mobility at present.

2.2.4 Conclusion: Arab countries are obliged to embrace globalization and open

their educational systems to international forces. Arab countries “should be

ready” to face the challenges brought to them by GATS.

Munir Bashshur

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3. Globalization and the Translation Industry in Saudi Arabia: Factors Inhibiting the

Use and Integration of Translation Technology into Mainstream Course work

(Afnan Hussein Fatani)

3.1 Translation and Globalization

3.1.1 Translation studies have witnessed vast growth over the course of the last ten

years. The world market in translation is thought to be in excess of £10

billion a year.

3.1.2 Global factors have affected not only the size of the market but the training

required of professional translators.

3.2 Translation Industry in Saudi Arabia

3.2.1 The recent entry of Saudi Arabia into the WTO, the irreversible globalization

of Saudi business, the large number of Saudi sectors that have recently

entered into partnership with Microsoft, and the internet revolution, have all

combined to make translation services a rapidly growing field with excellent

employment opportunities.

3.2.2 This case study presents the results of a market research aimed at

addressing the gap that exists between the training of translators at Saudi

universities and the requirement of professional life in the country

Conclusions of the research indicate that the majority of Saudi graduates

majoring in English are reluctant to venture into Translation Technology

(TT). Saudi translators are still using a dictionary-based strategy, i.e.,

translations are done in a roughly word-by-word manner with no attempt to

upgrade the technique.

3.2.3 One reason for this shortage is explained in terms of poor English language

preparation of students at the university as well as at the pre-university level.

A more stubborn reason may be found in the cultural attitude of many who

consider Arabic as the “chosen language” and resist opening themselves to

another language.

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4. Inter-university networks: experience and propositions (Fouad Badran)

This presentation is more in the form of an invitation to Arab educators to organize

themselves into working networks. It illustrates the advantages of this arrangement by

referring to a network which is already in operation under the name Med Link.

4.1 The Concept

4.1.1 Networking emphasizes cooperation among members, and horizontal

(transversal) rather than hierarchal relationships. It is project based and

memberships shift depending on the tasks to be accomplished.

4.1.2 A network is different from an organization or an institution, which has more

fixed goals or positions.

4.1.3 Universities are institutions or organizations; a network connecting university

members may be formed to undertake more immediate and specific tasks or

projects across university borders.

4.2 Some Illustrations

4.2.1 “Summertime Universities”: nine of these have been held since 1997, with 75

university participant in each, from Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and

Iraq.

4.2.2 Tempus-Finsi: The focus in this is on exploring the interdependence that

exists between industrial systems and establish linkages between them. Some

35 engineers and university professors from Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and

Syria have joined forces with others from Europe to exchange and

disseminate experiences.

4.2.3 Tempus-Rufo: This is a project designed for Palestinian universities, with a

focus on capacity building in the area of distance education in cooperation

with European networks.

4.3 Conclusion and recommendations

It is recommended that a special fund be set aside for stimulating and supporting

activities that relate to networking. These will complement the work of the universities in a

more concrete and more rewarding effects.

Munir Bashshur

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5. Remarks and comments from the floor on Session 2

5.1 There is a difference between internationalizing higher education and globalization.

The later carries with it the seeds of corporate control (business) and marketization.

5.2 There is a need to find out which Arab states have already signed up with GATS, and

which are in the process of doing so, and whether higher education is included and

under what conditions.

5.3 One major aspect not highlighted is related to the training that Arab students need so

that they may assume leadership positions. A shift in the leadership structures from

traditional factors to those based on qualifications and skills will constitute a big

jump towards joining the advanced world.

5.4 Some of the Arab states do have quality control mechanisms and regulations.

Experiences are building up. Barriers to joining GATS are more likely

administrative and procedural rather than ideological.

5.5 As a faculty member or member of a university institution, an individual is bound to

the values and expectations of that institution; he/she may be bundled with too many

regulations in which he/she has no interest. The same person working in a network is

freed from all these bundles; his/her energies become more focused on specific tasks.

Munir Bashshur

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SESSION 3- GLOBALIZATION, HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC

RESEARCH

This session included five presentations, two of them theoretical and the remaining three were

case studies dealing with specific countries or issues. Two of the three case studies were on

Palestine, and the third was on Sudan.

1. New Roles for Arab Schools and Universities in the Knowledge Society (Abdullateef

H. Haidar)

The term “knowledge society” refers to “…the dissemination and production of knowledge

and its efficient utilization in all societal activities…in a continuous quest to advance human

development.”

1.1 Characteristics of Knowledge Society

1.1.1 Specialized knowledge: knowledge in the context of and related to a

specialty. It has value only if it has practical application, described as

“knowledge in action”. People who lead in a knowledge society are

“knowledge workers”; they include surgeons, lawyers, accountants,

engineers, teachers..etc. “Knowledge workers” depend on their brains more

than on anything else to achieve their purposes.

1.1.2 Learning organizations: for knowledge workers to develop knowledge and

turn it into product, they need to belong to learning organizations.

1.1.2.1 A learning organization is a group of individuals who interact with

one another and with the world around them; they share a common

feeling and identify with the organization they belong to.

1.1.2.2 Organizations provide knowledge workers with opportunities to

work in teams to discover and produce new knowledge and to apply

it.

1.1.3 Team work: knowledge workers will face up to new challenges, hence they

need to work in teams. When people face a task that is beyond the ability of

any one individual, or when they are faced with a short and urgent deadline

working in teams is the surest way to success.

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1.1.4 Inquiry: inquiry is an essential ingredient for the discovery of new knowledge

as it requires reflection; reflection is the backbone of professional growth.

1.1.4.1 Inquiry helps professionals to identify best practices and

consequently develop standards for the profession.

1.1.4.2 Institutions which adopt the learning organization mode provide their

workers with ample opportunities to inquire, and find solutions to the

problems that face them.

1.1.5 Life long learning: the pace in which knowledge production has been taking

place is phenomenal. Knowledge workers have to keep up with this pace

making learning a process that never stops.

1.1.5.1 I.C.T. has become pervasive; distances among individuals and

nations have practically disappeared; business is a 24 hour a day

affair, so learning must be.

l. 1.5.2 Institutions need workers who are skillful in ICT so that they may

accomplish their tasks faster and better—anytime, anywhere.

1.1.6 Globalization: countries do not have the choice anymore to be or not to be a

part; people interact all overt the globe. Companies work internationally;

some chose to leave their home bases and establish headquarters abroad.

Multinational companies are a reality; business has become international.

1.2 Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and Universities

1.2.1 Revise mission: schools and universities need to provide specialized

knowledge and professional development to knowledge workers, as well as

opportunities for continuous upgrading; they need to function as learning

centers for all members of the community.

1.2.2 Convert schools and universities from teaching institutions into learning

organizations. The school/university as a “factory” model is obsolete;

learning organizations are places where problems are tackled and solutions

sought, where learning and pursuit of answers occurs collectively in a team

fashion.

1.2.3 Develop and renovate curricula, methods of teaching and assessment. In this

regard the new discoveries in learning psychology, brain research, and nature

of intelligence have to be taken into consideration. The emphasis on

reconstruction as the heart of learning put at present by one of the most

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advanced theories of modern psychology calls for serious attention.

Intelligence itself is not uni-dimensional anymore but varied in content and

direction. The implications of all this to assessment is huge, where judgment

on performance of the learner is never terminal but a step for better

performance (formative).

1.2.4 Utilization of ICT in teaching. Modern technology has opened new vistas for

learning; the challenge has become finding the best ways to utilize the huge

resources that ICT offers, and using these effectively. This requires technical

skills but more importantly it requires the active involvement of the learner in

the process of acquiring knowledge. Arab countries are urgently called upon

to make full use of this new technology in their educational systems,

particularly in the interest of the less advantaged groups of people who do not

have access to it in their homes, or elsewhere in the society.

1.2.5 Facing up to the demands of globalization. Globalization is a fact of the

present, and Arab states must face up to this reality and prepare their youth to

become active participants at the global level. This requires knowledge about

the rest of the world, and involvement in whatever issues or problems it faces.

1.2.6 Quality assurance measures. Arab learning institutions are required to adopt

systems of quality assurance so that their graduates may turn out to possess

the kind of knowledge and skills that qualify them to compete and succeed in

the global markets.

1.2.7 Reform of administration. Arab educational systems suffer from heavy-

handed centralization. New educational challenges require that this be broken

down, and decentralization become the guiding principle. Particularly at the

school level, the head of the school (chief executive officer) is to be given

freedom to make decisions, take initiative, and respond creatively to

challenges facing his institution.

2. Higher Education and Globalization in the Sudan (Tahani Mohammad) (an invited

presentation)

Sudan is a vast country with a very rich history; has a mixed character:

African/Arab/Moslem. Since independence in 1961, it had a very turbulent history which

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reflected itself in radical and sudden shifts in education. Two major features leave their

mark on its present educational terrain:

2.1 Massive increase in the number of higher education institutions. The number has

jumped from one or two in the early years of independence, to 6 or 7 in the 1990’s,

then to more than 40 at the turn of the century. The increase in the last 5 or 6 years is

accounted for by the government opening regional institutions, a situation different

from what happened in other Arab countries where the increase was due mostly to

opening of private institutions. With this great and sudden expansion there is serious

concern regarding the drop in quality of higher education in the country.

2.2 Negative interpretation of globalization. In the Sudan, globalization is recognized as

a force, but the interpretation given to it put it in the category of neo-colonialism of

the West, particularly the USA. To many Sudanese globalization is a one-way street,

carrying the influence of the powerful over the less powerful, where the rich get

richer and the poor get poorer. This attitude, however, is not generalized towards the

new technology, which is regarded as helpful and necessary for the development of

the country.

3. Respecting Globalization or Globalizing Respect: Palestinian University Students’

Perceptions of Globalization (Nabil Jondi)

This study aimed at investigating Palestinian university students’ views regarding

globalization, based on responses of 200 students enrolled in four Palestinian universities (50

students from each). In addition, focus groups were used to elaborate on those views.

Results of the study show that:

3.1 Palestinian students have high levels of readiness to engage in various forms of

globalization and to avail themselves of its products, while holding negative attitudes

towards it at the same time.

3.2 The negative attitudes are specifically directed at the political aspects associated with

globalization, which is viewed by most as “Americanization”; this is equated by them

to “McDonalization of markets”.

3.3 The positive attitudes students have are towards information technology,

internationalization of curricula, cultural exchange, and trade and immigration. They

also believe that revolution in communication and technology can enhance the

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competencies of Palestinian institutions and prepare them to engage more effectively

in globalization.

3.4 In terms of actual practice, results show that Palestinian students do make use of

internet provisions in conducting their research and carrying out assignments in their

daily work.

4. The Impact of Globalization on Palestinian Higher Education (Labib Arafah)

This is a general presentation of development and evolution of higher education in Palestine

under political/military occupation. The volume of the educational enterprise has grown

tremendously since 1971; at present it includes 12 universities and 32 community and

university colleges. This development has taken place under extremely adverse conditions

and stands out as an act of commitment to human resource development and faith in

education as a force against oppression. The majority of HEIs have started and remained

public non-profit.

4.1 Rationale for globalization: globalization has become a fact. It finds its rationale in

all spheres: economic, political and cultural factors.

4.2 International trends: manifestation of globalization are apparent in systems of higher

education everywhere; examples are given from the USA and Europe (Bolognia

declaration); the impact of IT and internet is highlighted as well as new emphasis on

quality assurance mechanisms.

4.3 Responses of Palestinian higher education students: these are described in terms of

opportunities/threats:

4.3.1 Opportunities lie in the field of international cooperation (mainly with

Europe), the exponential growth in IT and sharing in knowledge society, and

in quality assurance mechanisms.

4.3.2 Threats lie mainly in financial cuts and dependence on foreign support, and in

the possible drop in quality as a consequence of vast expansion in numbers.

6. Globalization, universality and academic transfer (Abdelhak Bellakhdar)

5.1 Definition of globalization: sharing a global space in all fields: the economic,

political and cultural. Means: deregulation, externalization and delocalization.

5.2 Constraints: globalization magnifies internal and external constraints in the Arab

countries, because these countries do not have the immunity that comes from

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“regional globalization”, such as that other countries have, like the Europeans.

5.3 Identity: Arab identity has served as a mythical reference that did not prepare

for modernity; identity is approached more as a content than as a process.

5.4 Scientific discourse: Arab scientific discourse does not negate, nor does it

reconcile traditional knowledge with the modern; in our universities priority is given

to information over method, and experimental method is reduced to ready-made

recipes.

5.5 Role of the State: the State in Arab countries can play a structuring role at four

levels: the universality of knowledge and methods, the coherence of the

educational system, community of common interests, and the assemblage in

supra structural entities.

6. Remarks and comments from the floor on Session 3:

6.1 Distinction should be made between knowledge transfer and knowledge generation:

the first is likely to make us followers; the second can make us partners.

6.2 Knowledge society and the emerging knowledge-based economy are the context in

which higher education is becoming globalized.

6.3 In proposing roles for Arab institutions to cope with globalization, it is not sufficient

or helpful to produce lists of items of what needs to be done. More important is to

prioritize these and explain steps and the order of implementation.

6.4 There is doubt as to whether “specialized knowledge” or specialization is one of the

attributes of the “knowledge society’. It is quite possible that a broad based

knowledge in the form of liberal education is more essential.

6.5 Thinking in terms of Arab conditions and Arab challenges, we should not ignore

important facts and realities on the ground, namely, that the Arabs belong to different

states, and that it is the state structure which needs to be examined and corrected.

6.6 In networking, consideration is to be given to the complexities involved, particularly

when moving horizontally from one Arab state to another, across private/public or

national/international groups, or across centers of influence.

6.7 It might be attractive to contemplate the advantages of investing in training of human

resources in education; teacher-trainers, for example, as versus training of engineers

or medical doctors, where the returns from the first can have a much higher value (or

profit) in view of the higher multiplier effect that applies to training of teachers or

educators as compared to training of others.

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6.8 There is a mood of opposition to globalization and aversion towards it as a concept or

a force that makes it close to “globalophobia”. This opposition, however, is much

lower towards the technical fruits of globalization, particularly among the younger

generations.

6.9 In our talk about knowledge and research, we tend to overlook the factor of

“language” in which the research is framed. Whether we like it or not, we in the

Arab world are very much affected by Western ideas because the language of

research, even when translated, is Western.

SESSION 4- FUNDING OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Four presentations were made in this session, the first used a wide angle taking in Arab states

as a whole; another was theoretical, and the remaining two were country case studies, the first

on Algeria and the second on Kuwait.

1. Funding Higher Education in Arab Countries: Thoughts and Reflections on the

Topic (Ali El-Hawat)

1.1 Patterns of finance

1.1.1 In the past half century or so emphasis was on expansion in numbers (of both

institutions and students), and a considerable amount of money was expanded

in this regard to support this expansion.

1.1.2 This past trend could not be sustained due to accelerated population growth

and massification of secondary education, coupled with inadequate financial

resources for education in view of competing and rising demands.

1.1.3 In the more recent past, new providers appeared on the scene in the form of

private institutions, many of them in partnership with American or European

institutions. These shared with the older government establishments the

burden of finance, but introduced a new factor in terms of supply and demand

as they were accessible only to those who could afford to pay tuition.

1.2 Changes and crises

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1.2.1 Many Arab states are caught in a dilemma of not being able to uphold their

long-standing goal of democratization and equality of opportunity for all, as a

consequence of increasing enrolments and heavier burdens of finance.

1.2.2 Some measures to cope with the difficulties included charging fees for certain

university services, establishing parallel or after the hour special fee charging

programs within the existing public institutions, or combining universities,

hence reducing their numbers (14 public universities in Libya were

recombined to become only 9), and, above all, encouraging and soliciting

private investment in education, a practice considered unacceptable only a

few years ago.

1.2.3 Many of the new private institutions are like fast food stands in crowded

streets of Western cities; many of them teach only low cost high return

subjects such as business administration, computer skills, foreign languages—

subjects that may be desired for immediate employment, but not always in

line with long range development needs of the country.

1.3 Plans and actions

To face up to the impending crises, three lines of actions (scenarios) are suggested:

1.3.1 Scenario No 1- maintain the present funding system but with redirection (or

modification) such as: imposing new taxes on luxury goods, using Zakat

funds, or allocating a certain proportion of the oil revenues for education.

1.3.2 Scenario No 2- create a higher education system that is owned jointly by the

public and private sectors. Higher education institutions under this

arrangement will become “corporations” funded in a partnership manner.

1.3.3 Scenario No 3- open the door to private universities that will be financed

either by local market or foreign capital. The universities will charge full

fees, except from the highly qualified (talented) students. The state will be

totally out of the market except as a “monitor”.

1.4 The author prefers the first scenario for the Arab states. Along with it, he

recommends the establishment of a series of junior or community colleges linked

directly to the market.

1.5 In all cases, quality should not be compromised.

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2. The research professor: between administration and prevailing culture: keys for

understanding (Laroussi Amri)

This presentation posed a number of questions on the state of affairs and the issues that face

higher education and scientific research in the Arab world in a globalized environment.

2.1 Main issues

2.1.1 Tribal or feudalistic.

2.1.2 Centralized political power.

2.1.3 The individuality of researchers affected by easy money and social prestige.

2.1.4 Uprooting of researchers from their social origins.

2.1.5 Enchanted culture as origin, communitarianism and patriarchy as dominant

value patterns.

2.2 Methodological framework for reform

2.2.1 Practical experience, some sort of engaged participation, similar to action

research

2.2.2 Anchored position (grounded theory)

2.3 The state of higher education and scientific research in the Arab world:

2.3.1 The Jacobin framework in administration: founded on a social order marked

by social segmentation, both at the individual and collective level.

2.3.2 Higher education organically joined with scientific research. As an ideal.

3. Scientific research in Algeria: between local necessities and international tendencies

( Hocine Khelfaoui)

This was an account of the Algerian experience in research, especially of measures Taken

during the last 10 years.

3.1 Revival of interest in research :

3.1.1 Scientific research has shown important transformation in Algeria caused

by interna land external influences.

3.1.2 By the end of the 1980’s, state structures were saturated with employees;

crisis in financing, and a call for reform became more pressing.

3.2 Institutional plan for research

3.2.1 Financial measures were taken to promote research and increase links

to social and economic development.

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3.2.2 Almost all research in universities and centers in the country is

sponsored by Government.

3.2.3 Research output is still below the norm quantitatively.

3.3 Characteristic of scientific research

3.3.1 Priority is given to engineering and technical fields.

3.3.2 Research trend is marked by by a growing influence of the global over the

local.

3.4 Measures for a better use of research results :

3.4.1 Increase exchange, cooperation, and communication between

different institutions and groups working in similar fields.

3.4.2 Emphasize connections between research, development and

application, and stress on forward-looking resource management.

4. Funding and Financial Performance of Private Higher Education Institutions in

Kuwait (Imad M. Al-Atiqi and Mohamed El-Azma)

In 2000 a law was passed in Kuwait (Law 34/2000) to regulate the work of private

universities, and a council was established to oversee the new policy under the name The

Private Universities Council (PUC). The following is a description of how this council

works:

4.1 Financial reporting for the purpose of financial monitoring—the model:

4.1.1 Sources of funding

4.1.1.1 Paid in capital. Kuwaiti law 34/2000 stipulates that founder’s equity

for private institutions must have a local (citizen) majority. Most

educational providers in Kuwait are owned by registered

corporations.

4.1.1.2 Loan facilities. Licensing procedures allow for loan facilities

typically not exceeding owner’s equity. Statements for operating

institutions reveal that total liabilities amount to 42% of total assets.

4.1.1.3 Enrolment fees. Tuition fees are agreed upon during license

application. These range between 130 and 170 KD per credit hour.

The fee structure is not allowed to increase before a lapse of five

years.

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4.1.1.4 The offset program. This relates to deviation of particular financial

commitments from foreign companies that provide imported goods

and services to the government of Kuwait. The commitment is equal

to 30% of the contract value to be executed within eight years of the

contract award, with a multiplier factor to encourage foreign

companies to invest in education.

4.1.1.5 Interstate funding programs. This is related to agreements with trust

foundations or the UN organization. The largest example of it is the

agreement with AGFUND which led to the establishment of the Arab

Open University in 2001.

4.1.1.6 Government facilities. The provision allows for private universities

to lease state lands for their campuses—an arrangement similar to

Land Grant laws in the USA; or government agencies granting

scholarships to students in private universities.

4.1.2 Tools of analysis

These refer to a number of ways (tools) employed by the PUC to ascertain the

financial viability of the university. These include

- Economic analysis of industry

- Competitive strategy analysis

- Accounting analysis

- Financial analysis, and

- Prospective analysis

4.2 Application of the model to private higher education

4.2.1 Five higher education institutions are licensed in Kuwait so far: 1) Gulf

University for Science and Technology, 2) The American University of

Kuwait (AUK), 3) Australian College of Kuwait (ACK), 4) Kuwait-

Maastricht Business School (KMBS), and 5) Arab Open University (AOP).

Every one of these institutions was checked out by the PUC for financial

viability. In the following are some of the interesting findings:

4.2.1.1 The gap between supply from existing institutions, public or private,

and demand by high school graduates justifies private ventures in

higher education.

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4.2.1.2 Programs offered by private institutions tend to concentrate in areas

of liberal arts, business administration, and computer sciences and

technology. This shows a tendency on the part of these institutions

to avoid investing in high cost programs in order to insure a higher

profit margin.

4.2.1.3 The PUC requires institutional accreditation within two years of the

starting date; association with a reputed university on an affiliation

basis through a joint degree program, or operating as a branch of

such a university.

4.2.1.4 Financial analysis shows that four of the five private licensed

institutions manage to achieve a higher return on their investment

than they expected in their early years of operation. So far, these

institutions are operating in temporary buildings, and the picture may

change in the future.

SESSION 5: REPORTING AND CONCLUSIONS

This last session included brief reports by the Rapporteurs of the four Sessions, and an end-

note delivered by Professor Wail Benjelloun, Dean of the Faculty of Science at Mohammad V

University, followed by a general discussion. The discussion was in the form of comments

and remarks made by various participants, but no final conclusions or recommendations were

made or attempted. There was a feeling that the issues and questions raised in the papers

presented, and the experience that participants went through during the previous sessions, and

the discussions that followed, provided a unique opportunity for a few Arab scholars and

officials in higher education to broach a subject very wide and far reaching in its scope and

implications for the Arab region. With a feeling like this, it was almost impossible to come

up with any final conclusions or recommendations other than those that may re-affirm the

obvious. It was hoped that the papers presented, and the conclusions made in them, and this

Summary Report, will be useful as a reference (when published), for any future deliberations

on the topic by Arab or other scholars and policy makers.

September 18, 2007

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تأثير العولمة على التعليم العاليم والبحوث في البلدان العربية

)السمنار اإلقليمي الثاني للبلدان العربية( 2007 مايو – أيار 26 – 25 المغرب –الرباط

)1(تقرير تلخيصي إعداد

منير بّشور )المقرر العام(

المقدمة

بنود مرجعية . 1آانت الفكرة الرئيسية الداعمة النعقاد السمنار أن العولمة افتتحت عهدًا جديدًا في تاريخ البشرية،

يضاف الى هذا شعور . ه سيئة أو حسنةوأن الناس، أينما آانوا، ينالون نصيبًا آبيرًا من آثارها، أآانت هذبأن هذه الظاهرة لم تنل من البحث والمناقشة ما يكفي في نطاق التعليم، بالرغم من أن التعليم هو أحد الميادين الرئيسية الذي تأثر بها، وبما انتجته من أفكار ووسائل جديدة، بخالف ما نالت من اهتمام في

لهذا تقرر عقد هذا السمنار لدراسة العولمة، والترآيز على . السياسيةميادين أخرى، آاالقتصاد والعلوم .تأثيراتها على التعليم العالي، وعلى البحوث في البلدان العربية

نطاق السمنار وتنظيمه. 2 :تمحورت أعمال السمنار حول مواضيع أربعة

ة، باإلضافة إلى محاضرة رابعة في الجلسة األولى، آان هناك تقديم عام تناولته أوراق ثالثة رئيس آانت األمور والقضايا المثارة في هذه األوراق، وفي المحاضرة الرئيسة، من النوع النظري، . رئيسة

بشكل عام، تناولت تحديد المفاهيم مثل التربية والثقافة والمعرفة ومجتمع المعرفة، والعولمة آظاهرة .معاصرة ى منظومة التجارة الدولية، واتفاق التجارة في الخدمات في الجلسة الثانية، آان الترآيز عل GATS/WTO وغطت األوراق والمناقشات في –هذه للبلدان العربية، والمؤثرات المتوقعة منها وأهمية

.هذه الجلسة مزيجًا من القضايا النظرية ودراسات حالة .ألنشطة المتعلقة بهافي الجلسة الثالثة، آان الترآيز على تأثير العولمة في البحوث وا وفي الجلسة الرابعة، آان الترآيز على قضايا تمويل التعليم العالي والبحوث وما يصيب هذه في

.البلدان العربية نتيجة للعولمةأما في الجلسة الخامسة واألخيرة، فكان هناك تقديم لتقارير حول الجلسات السابقة وآذلك نقاش

.عام واختتام

ة (1) سة الرابع ررة الجل وعزيز، ومق ة ب اعتمد هذا التقرير على تقارير فرعية وضعتها مقررة الجلسة الثانية البروفسور زآي

د الواحد د نجيب عب سور محم ة البروف لكن .البروفسور نورية األخضر غزال، وعلى مالحظات سجلها مقرر الجلسة الثاني . هو األوراق التي قّدمها المحاضرون، والمناقشات التي تلتها، هذا التقريرألفكار والمعلومات فيالمصدر الرئيسي لمجمل ا

Munir Bashshur

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الجلسة رقم (1) – أوراق رئيسة

)دارم البصام(العولمة والتربية . 1 تعريف وتحديات: العولمة-1. 1

تظهر العولمة في التغييرات البنيوية التي أصابت االقتصاد المعولم حيث أصبحت -1. 1. 1 .المعرفة والتربية والتعّلم عناصر أساسية في االنتاج

الى النقلة الحاصلة في نماذج النمو من االنموذج تمكن رؤية هذه التغييرات في النظر-2. 1. 1إستند . الى األنموذج الذي يعتمد االبتكار آأساس لالنتاج Fordist – Taylorist التايلري–الفوردي

األول الى نظام المصنع، واإلدارة العلمية، ونظام التجميع، بينما يستند الثاني الى زوال الحواجز بين العمل .الذهني، والى استثمار المعرفة في االنتاجالجسدي والعمل

وآذلك فإن ازدياد الترابط والتواصل بين الناس واعتمادهم بعضهم على بعض هو -3. 1. 1 .مكّون آخر من مكّونات العولمة األساسية

لقد آانت األجيال السابقة . بعض أهم إفرازات العولمة يقع في نطاق الثورة المعلوماتية-4. 1. 1 .ن نقص في المعلومات، بينما التحدي الذي يواجه األجيال الحاضرة يكمن في وفرتهاتشكو م

المتضّمنات التربوية للعولمة -2. 1، تتلخص في القدرة على التعايش مع الغموض "عادات جديدة تترسخ في األذهان" المطلوب هو -1. 2. 1

.والتعقيد والشك، إثارة التساؤل والقدرة على (PBL) "مشكلة آمحورالتعّلم الذي يتخذ حّل ال" يقتضي -2. 2. 1

.جمع المعلومات واستخالص النتائج منها، ومن "التربية من أجل االبداع"، الى "التربية من أجل االمتثال" المطلوب نقلة من -3. 2. 1

.العمل الفردي، الى العمل الجماعي الى مخياٍل استراتيجي، قادر على استنباط يعني ما سبق، بالنسبة للبلدان العربية، الحاجة-4. 2. 1

خيارات بدائل في االصالح، تتعلق بمسألتين لهما ارتباط قوي بعمليات اتخاذ القرارات في عالم معولم، .وهما الغموض والتعقيد

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2. التعليم العالي، البحوث والتطبيق، والتوفيق بين المحلي والعالمي (أ. ب. زحالن)

: طبيعتها ومداها–في البلدان العربية فجوة المعرفة -1. 2 تفوق نسبة الطالب الجامعيين في البلدان العربية، من يدرس منهم داخل هذه البلدان أو -1. 1. 2

هناك ما يقارب االثني عشر ألف . خارجها، النسبة المتوفرة في الصين أو الهند، بالمقابل لعدد السكان .بلدان العربيةعربي ينالون الدآتوراة آل عام خارج ال

ال تكمن المشكلة في حجم الثروة البشرية المتوفرة أو المنتجة في البلدان العربية، وإنما -2. 1. 2من هجرة األدمغة بين العرب الذين ينالون شهادة % 85هناك ما يربو على الـ : في حسن استخدامهاوخمسة أضعاف ما يحصل في يمثل هذا أربعة أضعاف ما يحصل في الصين، . الدآتوراه في الخارج

.الهند، مع األخذ في االعتبار القاعدة السكانية لكل من هذه البلدانال يؤدي الى نقل التكنولوجيا من " المفتاح في اليد" إن االستثمار القائم على أساس -3. 1. 2

يرة متدنية جدًا من إنه يتصف بوت– ولهذا فإنه ال يؤدي الى زيادة العمالة المحلية –المنتج الى المستهلك . Multiplier Factorعامل المضاعفة

إن المخصصات المالية واالنفاق على البحوث في البلدان العربية متدنية جدًا، وآذلك معدل التأليف -2. 2 .والنشر والتعاون بين الباحثين

. سبل التغلب على الصعوبات-3. 2محلية في البلدان العربية الفرصة لمزاحمة يعني ذلك إعطاء الشرآات ال: االستقالل-1. 3. 2

.الشرآات األجنبية .التعاون والتآزر في العمل العلمي -2. 3. 2

. التأآد من انتقال التكنولوجيا عن طريق المشارآة-3. 3. 2 )إيمان الخفاص (تمويل التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي . 3

:بصرية لعرض األمور التاليةتّم في هذه المحاضرة استخدام الشفافيات ال من أين يأتي التمويل في البلدان العربية، وهل هو آاٍف؟: مصدر التمويل-1. 3

في % 30من تمويل البحوث في البلدان العربية مصدره الحكومة، بالمقابل مع % 97 -1. 1. 3 .في اليابان% 18آندا والسويد والسنغافورة، و

في % 0.9(من الدخل القومي % 1.5 البلدان العربية تبلغ مخصصات البحوث في-2. 1. 3 .في أوروبا% 2.5بالمقابل لـِ ) مصر

ما العمل؟-2. 3قدمت ( ضرورة الربط بين التربية والنمو، وبين البحوث واالحتياجات االجتماعية -1. 2. 3

ة بالقاهرة يقومون المحاضرة نماذج عن هذه تتمثل بمجموعة من الطالب والطالبات في الجامعة األميرآي .)بأعمال ذات منفعة اجتماعية

:مالحظات وتعليقات المشارآين على أعمال الجلسة األولى . 4المطلوب تفكيك هذه الظاهرة، ثم إعادة ترآيبها بالشكل الذي يالئم أوضاع : العولمة هي هنا لتبقى-1. 4

.البلدان العربية .دة بالكامل، فالعلم بطبيعته هو شأن عالميليست عناصر العولمة وتأثيراتها جدي -2. 4 إنه ألمر غير طبيعي – هناك استثمارات ونفقات مالية هائلة في البلدان العربية في مختلف الميادين -3. 4

أن يغادر الكثيرون من العرب أصحاب الكفاءات ويهجرون بلدانهم في الوقت الذي أآثر ما تحتاجه هذه .هؤالء أنفسهمالبلدان هو أصحاب الكفاءات

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منذ أيام محمد -لقد أدمّنا على استخدام األجانب واالتكال عليهم لحّل مشكالتنا في البلدان العربية -4. 4علي في مصر، قبل مائتي سنة، تعّودنا على استيراد الخبرة، بدل االعتماد على أنفسنا واستخدام خبراتنا

.الذاتية

:محاضرة رئيسة. 5 )البرت ساسون( حقائق ووجهات نظر –تأثير العولمة : الدول العربيةالبحث والتطوير في

من الواضح أن مستوى البلدان العربية في نطاق البحوث والتطوير متدٍن، بالمقابل مع مناطق وفيما يلي أمثلة عن نجاح في . لكن هذا يجب أن ال يحجب عنا بعض أوجه النجاح. أخرى من العالم

:ميادين ثالثةففي . هناك انجازات هامة في هذا الميدان في آل من تونس ومصر. التكنولوجيا البيولوجية-1. 5

شخصًا، ستون منهم علماء، آما أن حوالي مائة من طالب 370تونس هناك معهد باستور حيث يعمل نشر وللمعهد انتاج ال بأس به في مجال ال. الدراسات العليا يحصلون على تدريباتهم في المعهد آل عام

في مجال هذه األنشطة، أن آلها تقريبًا مرتبطة بأشخاص وفرق من ومما يجدر ذآره،. وتسجيل البراءات ".حيث يعمل فريق آبير من المهندسين واألطباء التونسيين النازحين"العاملين الموجودين في فرنسا،

ات، حيث تجري وآذلك في االمارات العربية المتحدة، في آلية الطب هناك في جامعة اإلماربحوث مهمة في حقل المناعة الجزئية بالتعاون مع فرق ايطالية، ومع معاهد في الواليات المتحدة

لقد نتج عن نشاط األجهزة الداعمة للبحث وللعلوم في االمارات إنشاء المجّمع البيوتكنولوجي . وبريطانيا .ذه خطوات في االتجاه الصحيحفي دبي، وإنشاء المؤسسة العربية للعلوم والتكنولوجيا، وآل ه

احتلت صناعة األدوية في االردن المرآز الثاني في اقتصاديات المملكة، حيث بلغ حجم -2. 5هناك ثماني آليات صيدلة في المملكة تخّرج . مليون دوالر280 حوالي 2003الصادرات منها عام

.منهم أردنيون% 55 صيدالني في العام، حوالي 800حوالي الفًا من األشخاص 35ناعة أدوية مزدهرة في المغرب أيضاً، حيث آان ما يقارب الـ هناك ص موقعًا أو مختبرًا، باالتفاق مع جهات آندية وبريطانية، وحيث عشرة 22، في 2006يعملون في العام

.بالمائة من االنتاج آان يصّدر الى افريقيا، الى البلدان الناطقة بالفرنسية هناكتسعى إمارة أبوظبي ألن تصبح مرآزًا لتكنولوجيا الطاقة النظيفة، . ة المتجّددة الطاق-3. 5

للطاقة " مصدر" مليون دوالر لتأسيس مرآز لهذا الغرض سمي بـ 250 مبلغ 2006فرصدت عام – ميغا واط 500 أعلنت أبوظبي خططًا لبناء مرآز للطاقة الشمسية بقوة 2007وفي العام الحالي . النظيفةآبر المشاريع من هذا النوع في العالم آله، آما أعلنت نيتها تأسيس مرآز متقّدم للدراسات العليا في إحدى أ

).MIT(هذا الميدان، باالشتراك مع معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا مثل البحرين، حيث تجري تجارب على طاقة –وهناك دول أخرى تتحرك في هذا االتجاه أيضًا

.العربية السعودية، وغيرها، حيث هناك بوادر العمل على الطاقة النوويةالرياح، وفي المملكة هناك اهتمام متزايد في األوساط العربية بأهمية االستثمار في ميادين البحوث – الخالصة -4. 5

وال شك أن موجة العولمة تلعب . والتطوير، وفي التعليم العالي بشكل عام، وفي تدريب القوى الماهرةيضيًا في هذا المجال، إذ أنها تقدم فرصًا للمزاحمة إلولئك الذين يرغبون في دخول سوق دورًا تحر

والتعليم العالي، وميدان البحوث بشكل خاص، هو جزء . المزاحمة، إما فرادى أو باإلشتراك مع آخرين .هام من هذه الحرآة بكاملها بدون شك

WTO /(ق تجارة الخـدمات منظومة التجارة العالمية واتفا–) 2(الجلسـة رقـم

GATS (في التعليم العالي والبحوث قّدمت أربع أوراق في هذه الجلسة، آانت األولى منها ورقة عامة تناولت المحاسن والمساوىء

وآانت األوراق الثالث األخرى دراسات . التي يمكن أن تنتج للبلدان العربية من جراء إتفاقية التجارةلمملكة العربية السعودية، والثالثة قّدمت بشكل اقتراح بإنشاء شبكة من التعاون حالة، إثنتان منها عن ا

.للبحوث والتطوير

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النتائج المحتملة ): GATS/WTO(منظومة التجارة العالمية وإتفاق تجارة الخدمات . 1 .للبلدان العربية في ميدان التعليم العالي والبحوث

).عبد اهللا بوبطانة (–) محاضرة مدعّوة(

تعريفات واتجاهات-1. 1

والخدمات المقصودة هنا تشمل . ، تعني اتفاقية التجارة في الخدمات)GATS(االتفاقية -1. 1. 1وتوقيع بلد على االتفاقية يعني . التعليم على آل المستويات، لكن الترآيز يحدث عمليًا على التعليم العالي

وتصبح هذه –تصدير خدمات التعليم عبر حدوده أنه يرفع الشروط والحواجز التي تمنع استيراد أو الخدمات آالصناعات التجارية، تعبر الحدود بدون شروط في ما خال تلك التي يتم االتفاق عليها عند

.التوقيع بلغ عدد البلدان التي قبلت أن يكون التعليم خدمة من بين الخدمات التجارية عابرة -2. 1. 1 هو عربي، وهو البحرين، 47، إال أن بلدًا واحدًا من هذه الـ 2007) برايرف( بلدًا حتى شباط 47الحدود،

وليس من الواضح أو المؤآد أن البحرين آانت من بين البلدان التي وافقت على اعتبار التعليم سلعة عابرة .للحدود

حظيت وقد ووجهت اتفاقية التجارة بالخدمات مقاومة عنيفة من بعض الجهات، آما أنها -3. 1. 1 :وفيما يلي تلخيص سريع لمواقف المؤيدين والمعارضين. بدعم قوي من جهات أخرى

المؤيدون-2. 1

من شأن االتفاقية أن تنّوع أشكال التعليم، وآذلك الهيئات التي تسانده، وبذلك ترتفع -1. 2. 1 .حظوظ االبتكار

. من شأنها أيضًا أن توسع من فرص اإللتحاق-2. 2. 1 .ن تساعد في انتقال الطالب واألساتذة والباحثين وأ-3. 2. 1 . وأيضًا أن تساعد في ضّخ مزيد من األموال خدمة للتعليم-4. 2. 1

المعارضون-3. 1

هناك احتمال أن تفقد الحكومات قدرتها على السيطرة، فتضيع األهداف واألولويات -1. 3. 1 .الوطنية

آما –ومية، آالديموقراطية والمساواة في الحظوظ وآذلك إضعاف األهداف واآلمال الق-2. 3. 1 ".الصالح العام"يمكن أن يفقد التعليم وزنه آنشاط في خدمة

آما أن غياب القدرة على ضبط الجودة في آثير من بلدان العالم الثالث، والميكانيزمات -3. 3. 1ة ألطماع اآلخرين الذين يمكن أن التي من شأنها أن تساعد في ذلك، قد يجعل من هذه البلدان فريسة محتمل

. يقدموا خدمات تربوية ال تتمكن بلدان العالم الثالث من التأآد من جودتها أو صالحها، إذ تصبح خاضعة لشروط خارجة عن "مستقلة" إحتمال أن تضعف الجامعة آمؤسسة -4. 3. 1

.نطاقها وعن سيطرتها .القتراحات ماذا يعني آل ذلك للبلدان العربية؟ بعض ا-4. 1 من المحتمل جدًا أن يكون آثير من المسؤولين العرب الذين يفاوضون لاللتحاق باتفاقية التجارة -1. 4. 1

العالمية، غير عارفين أومحيطين بالنتائج السلبية التي يمكن أن تصيب التعليم العالي إذا هم تسرعوا في . الضروري التروي والتبصر والتدقيقاألمر، باعتبار أن التعليم ليس من اختصاصهم، ولهذا من

إذا قررت إحدى البلدان العربية االلتحاق باالتفاقية، وأن تشمل هذه التعليم العالي، فقد -2. 4. 1يكون من المستحسن جدًا اشتراط التدّرج الزمني في التطبيق، وآذلك ادخال بعض الشروط الخاصة

.للمحافظة على مصلحة البلد المعنيما يستحسن بالبلدان العربية الدخول في مفاوضات لاللتحاق باالتفاقية آمجموعة بلدان آ-3. 4. 1

أو آجبهة واحدة من البلدان، في إطار جامعة الدول العربية مثًال بدل االلتحاق فرادى، وذلك مثلما فعلت . بلدان االتحاد األوروبي على سبيل المثال

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)هند السديري (الي في المملكة العربية السعوديةتأثير عوامل العولمة على التعليم الع. 2

آان الهدف من هذه المحاضرة إلقاء الضوء على المنافع التي يمكن أن تجنيها السعودية من .انضمامها التفاقية التجارة العالمية بالخدمات، مع تقديم تحذيرات

المنافع-1. 2 .انت توسيع فرص المشارآة في عالم المعرفة أينما آ-1. 1. 2وفي بالد واسعة، مترامية األطراف، آالسعودية، . توسيع فرص استخدام التكنولوجيا-2. 1. 2

.يمكن أن يكون في هذا فائدة آبيرة، خاصة لتعليم النساء بواسطة وسائط االتصال السريعة المحاذير-2. 2على المدى البعيد، واحد قد يؤدي توقيع االتفاقية الى خلق نظامين من التعليم في المملكة -1. 2. 2 .، وآخر للفقراء)معولم(لألغنياء

. يحمل التعليم المعولم احتماالت السيطرة الفكرية االمبريالية وإضعاف الثقافات الوطنية-2. 2. 2 آما أن العولمة تسهل انتقال المتعلمين وذوي المهارات العليا عبر الحدود، وبذلك ترفع -3. 2. 2

.مغةمن احتمال هجرة األد فعلى هذه البلدان أن تفتح حدودها –ال خيار للبلدان العربية إزاء موجات العولمة : الخالصة-3. 2

. للعولمة، ولكن عليها أن تكون حذرة

بعض العوامل التي تعيق إدخال : العولمة وصناعة الترجمة في المملكة العربية السعودية. 3 )أفنان حسين فاتاني (ةالوسائل التكنولوجية في مواد تدريس الترجم

الترجمة والعولمة-1. 3 توسعت حاجات الترجمة واألنشطة المتعلقة بها توسعًا آبيرًا في السنوات العشر -1. 1. 3

األخيرة، ويقّدر أن سوق الترجمة في العالم اليوم تبلغ حوالي العشرة مليارات من الجنيهات االسترلينية في .العام

ير العولمة في حجم السوق فحسب وإنما تعدى ذلك الى نوع التدريب ولم ينحصر تأث-2. 1. 3 .المطلوب من المترجمين

صناعة الترجمة في السعودية-2. 3 أدى التحاق المملكة العربية السعودية باتفاقية التجارة العالمية، وآذلك تطور االقتصاد -1. 2. 3

مع شرآات عالمية مثل المايكروسفت، وأنتشار السعودي على المستوى العالمي، واالتفاقيات المعقودة . أدى آل هذا الى اتساع سوق الترجمة آثيرًا في المملكة وارتفاع الطلب على المترجمين–االنترنت تهدف هذه المحاضرة الى عرض نتائج دراسة ميدانية تظهر الفجوة الكبيرة القائمة في -2. 2. 3

. هلين، وبين نوعية التدريب الذي يتلقاه المتدربون على الترجمةالمملكة بين احتياجاتها للمترجمين المؤإحدى نتائج هذه الدراسة تظهر أن الطلبة السعوديين الذين يتخرجون باختصاصات في اللغة االنكليزية يترددون في استعمال التكنولوجيا في الترجمة، وأن المترجمين منهم ينحون في الغالب الى استعمال

.دية التي تعتمد على القاموس المطبوعالوسائل التقلي أحد األسباب التي تكمن وراء هذا العجز يعود الى ضعف إعداد الطالب في اللغة -3. 2. 3

يضاف الى هذا سبب آخر هو تعلق الطالب باللغة . االنكليزية، في المستوى الجامعي وقبل الجامعي أيضًانفور الثقافي من اللغات األجنبية المنتشرة بينهم لما تحمل ، ومشاعر ال"اللغة المختارة"العربية على أنها

.هذه اللغات من تهديد للثقافة األصلية )فؤاد بدران (عرض لتجارب واقتراحات: الشبكات الجامعية-4

هذه المحاضرة أقرب الى أن تكون دعوة موجهة للمربين العرب لتنظيم أنفسهم بشكل شبكات . Med Linkم، بالحديث عن شبكة قائمة من هذا النوع، هي مدلنك عمل، فتشرح فوائد هذا التنظي

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الفكرة-1. 4 ال – التعاون باتجاه أفقي - من شأن التشبيك أن يقّوي أواصر التعاون بين األعضاء-1. 1. 4 .آما أن العمل فيه يتمحور حول إنجاز مهام معينة أو مشاريع محّددة. سلطوي

نظومة أو المؤسسة، فهاتان األخيرتان لهما أهداف ثابتة ومحددة تختلف الشبكة عن الم-2. 1. 4 . نابعة من هيكلياتها

الجامعات هي، بالطبع، مؤسسات أومنظمات لها أهدافها، بينما الشبكة يمكن أن تربط -3. 1. 4 .بين أفراد موزعين في جامعات أو مؤسسات مختلفة تربط الشبكة بينهم للعمل على انجاز مهام معينة

: بعض األمثلة-2. 4، اشترك فيها أفراد ينتمون الى 1997عقد من هذه تسع منذ العام ": الجامعات الصيفية "-1. 2. 4

. جامعة موزعة بين سوريا واالردن ولبنان وفلسطين والعراق75آان الهدف من هذه الشبكة آشف االحتياجات المتبادلة التي تربط بين : فينسى/ تامبوس -2. 2. 4

مهندسًا واستاذًا جامعيًا من االردن 35ساهم في هذه الشبكة . سات الصناعية وإقامة روابط بينهاالمؤس .ولبنان وفلسطين وسوريا، آانوا على اتصال مع زمالء لهم في أوروبا لتبادل الخبرات واألفكار

أختص هذا المشروع بالجامعات في فلسطين، وهدف الى الرفع من. روفو/ تامبوس -3. 2. 4 .قدرة العاملين فيها في ميدان التعّلم عن بعد، وذلك بواسطة مساهمة شبكات أخرى في أوروبا

خالصة واقتراحات-3. 4

مثل هذه األنشطة ال بد أنها تكّمل . تخصيص صندوق مستقّل لتشجيع األنشطة المتعلقة بالتشبيك .العمل الذي تؤدية الجامعات وتغنيه

5- مالحظات وتعليقات المشارآين على أعمال الجلسة الثانية

.العولمة تحمل في طياتها نوازع السوق والعمل التجاري. هناك فرق بين عالمية التعليم العالي وعولمته-1. 5

من منها بالتحديد التحق – من الضروري التحقق من المعلومات عن البلدان العربية -2. 5 الى ذلك، وفيما إذا آان التعليم العالي خاضعًا لمقتضياتها بمنظومة التجارة العالمية، ومن منها في طريقه

.وتحت أية شروط هناك أمر لم ينل ما يكفي من االهتمام، وهو ما يحتاجه الطالب العرب من تدريب ومهارة -3. 5

يادة فاالنتقال في المستقبل من أطر القيادة التقليدية الى تحديات الق. ليتسلموا في المستقبل مراتب القيادة .الحديثة، يستدعي امتالك الشبان العرب مهارات جديدة تجعل بلدانهم قادرة على اللحاق بالبلدان المتقدمة

هناك تراآم في الخبرات . بعض البلدان العربية يملك أجهزة وقوانين متعلقة بضمان الجودة-4. 5 حاقها بمنظومة التجارة العالمية أقرب فالعوائق التي تحول بين هذه البلدان والت. والتجارب في هذا الميدان

.الى العوائق اإلدارية واالجرائية منها الى العوائق المبدئية من الطبيعي أن يرتبط عضو المؤسسة أو الجامعة بمؤسسته أوجامعته ويخضع لقوانينها -5. 5

إذا . أو مؤهًال لهاوأهدافها، مما يعني التزامه شروطًا وأوضاعًا آثيرة قد ال يكون مهتمًا بها شخصيًا، .ارتبط هذا الشخص نفسه بشبكة، فاألغلب أن تتحرر قواه، وترتفع انتاجيته في المساهمة بتحقيق الهدف

العولمة، والتعليم العالي والبحوث العلمية– 3الجلسة رقم

ثنتان من دراسات القيت في هذه الجلسة خمس محاضرات، اثنتان منها عامتان والثالثة المتبقية دراسات حالة، ا .الحالة آانتا عن فلسطين، والثالثة آانت عن السودان

)عبد اللطيف حيدر (ادوار جديدة للمدارس والجامعات العربية في مجتمع المعرفة. 1

مواصفات مجتمع المعرفة-1. 1 المعرفة التخصصية، أي المعرفة المرتبطة باختصاص معين، والتي لها فائدة عملية -1. 1 .1

القيادون في مجتمع المعرفة، هم ". المعرفة الفاعلة"طبيقية، ويمكن وصف هذه بـ أو ت

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. الخ.. ، منهم الجراحون والمحامون والمحاسبون والمهندسون والمعلمون"عمال معرفة" .على عقولهم أآثر مما يعتمدون على أي شيء آخر" عمال المعرفة"يعتمد

من تطوير المعرفة وتحويلها الى منتج، " ال المعرفةعم"لكي يتمكن : منظومات التعّلم-2. 1. 1 .ينبغي عليهم االنتظام داخل منظومات تعّلم

انهم . تضم منظومة التعّلم أفرادًا يتفاعلون بعضهم مع بعض، ومع العالم حولهم- 1. 2. 1 .1 .يمتلكون مشاعر متماثلة، وانتماء مشترآًا للمنظومة التي هم أعضاء فيها

نظومات توفر العضائها فرصًا للعمل آفرق الآتشاف المعرفة وتطويرها الم-2. 2. 1. 1 .ووضعها موضع االستخدام

عندما يواجه . تحديات جديدة، ولذا عليهم العمل آفريق" عمال المعرفة"يواجه : العمل آفريق-3. 1. 1اون مع اآلخرين المرء أعماًال يصعب عليه أن يقوم بها لوحده فمن الطبيعي أن يسعى لمواجهتها بالتع

.والعمل معهم آفريقاالستعالم مكّون ضروري الآتشاف المعرفة الجديدة، ألن اآتشافها يتطلب التأمل : االستعالم-4. 1. 1

.الذي ال غنى عنه آأساس للتقدم العلمي يساعد التأمل العلماء للتعرف على أفضل السبل، واالستقرار على مناهج وأسس -1. 4. 1. 1

.ةعلمية واضح، توفر ألعضائها "منظومة التعّلم" إن المؤسسات التي تتبنى العمل وفق مفهوم -2. 4. 1. 1

.الفرص لالستعالم وإليجاد الحلول للمشكالت التي تواجههمإن الوتيرة التي يسير التقّدم العلمي على منوالها في الوقت الحاضر سريعة : التعّلم مدى الحياة-5. 1. 1

البقاء في رآاب هذه الحرآة المتسارعة، لهذا فإن تعلمهم " عمال المعرفة"وعلى . تصورالى حدود تفوق ال .ال يتوقف أصبحت تكنولوجيا المعلومات منتشرة في آل مكان، وقصرت المسافات بين االفراد -1. 5. 1. 1

التعّلم و– وأصبحت دوائر العمل تدور على مدى األربع والعشرين ساعة –والجماعات حتى االضمحالل . يجب أن يدور على المدى عينه

تحتاج المؤسسات الى عمال مهرة في استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات لكي ينجزوا -2. 5. 1. 1 . في آل زمان ومكان–أعمالهم بشكل أفضل وأسرع

الشرآات تعمل . لم يعد هناك خيار؛ يتواصل الناس ويتفاعلون في آل أصقاع العالم: العولمة-6. 1. 1الشرآات المتعددة الجنسية أصبحت حقيقة . بعضها يهاجر خارج موطنه ليرسي مراسيه هناك. عبر الحدود

.واقعة، وأصبح العمل عابرًا للحدود : اقتراحات حول أدوار جديدة للمدارس والجامعات العربية-2. 1

، "التخصصيةالمعرفة "على المدارس والجامعات أن توفر : إعادة النظر بالرسالة-1. 2. 1 وعليها أيضًا أن تعمل آمراآز . ، والفرص لهم للتقدم المستمر"عمال المعرفة"وآذلك التطوير المهني ل

.للتعّلم لجميع أعضاء البيئة المحيطة بهالقد انتهى نموذج ". منظومات تعّلم" تحويل المدارس والجامعات من مؤسسات تعليم الى -2. 2. 1

هي أمكنة حيث تجابه المشكالت وتحّل، " منظومات التعّلم. "تعمل آمصنعالجامعة التي / المدرسة .وحيث توجد األجوبة لألسئلة المطروحة بطريقة العمل آفريق

إن االآتشافات الراهنة في . تطوير المناهج وتجديدها، وآذلك طريق التدريس والتقويم-3. 2. 1 فالمبدأ الجديد في . تدعو الى إعادة النظر بكل شيءنظريات علم النفس، وبحوث الدماغ، وطبيعة الذآاء،

، والذي يقول بأن التعّلم في جوهره، عملية إعادة بناء يقوم بها المتعّلم، يجب "البنائية"التعّلم المعروف ب وآذلك الذآاء، فهو لم يعد من نوع واحد، أو في اتجاه واحد، وإنما أصبح متعدد . أن يحتل مكان الصادرة

وأهمية آل هذا بالنسبة لطريقة التقويم، أي الحكم على مدى نجاح الطالب في . االتجاهاتاألنواع و .التحصيل العلمي، أهمية قصوى، ال بّد من أخذها باالعتبار

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لقد فتحت التكنولوجيا أبوابًا جديدة لم تكن معروفة من . استخدام التكنولوجيا في التعّلم-4. 2. 1 مطلوب من البلدان العربية . عرفة آيفية استخدام ما تتم معرفته أو أآتشافهاصبح التحدي يكمن في م: قبل

أن تدخل هذا الباب بكل قوة، خاصة لمصلحة أولئك الطالب األقل حظًا، والذين ال يمتلكون، حتى اآلن، . وسائل تكنولوجية في بيوتهم، أو ال يقدرون على الوصول إليها في مكان آخر

فعلى البلدان العربية العمل بجّد على . ال مجال للتردد هنا. ات العولمة مواجهة متطلب-5. 2. 1 يتطلب هذا معرفة الناشئة . تجهيز ناشئتها بالمعارف والقدرات التي تمّكنها من المساهمة في شؤون العولمة

س أو بأحوال الناس في بقية بلدان العالم، آما يتطلب انخراطهم واهتمامهم بكل ما يشغل بال اولئك النا . اهتماماتهم

على مؤسسات التعليم في البلدان العربية االلتزام بمعايير واضحة . سبل ضمان الجودة. 6. 2. 1 للجودة وتطبيقها، وذلك لكي يتمكن خريجو هذه المؤسسات من أن يتزودوا بالمعارف والمهارات التي

.تؤهلهم لمزاحمة اآلخرين، والنجاح في هذا العالمتشكو أنظمة اإلدارة التربوية في البلدان العربية من مرآزية مفرطة، . ح اإلدارة اصال-7. 2. 1

والتحديات التي تواجهها هذه البلدان تستدعي التخفيف من هذه المرآزية واستبدالها بالالمرآزية، خاصة ية ، الصالح)المسؤول األول عن تنفيذ سياستها(المطلوب إعطاء مدير المدرسة . على مستوى المدرسة

.التخاذ القرارات، والقدرة على المبادأة وإيجاد الحلول المناسبة دون تردد )تهاني محمد (التعليم العالي والعولمة في السودان. 2

مسلم، وقد مر / عربي / افريقي : السودان بلد شاسع المساحة جدًا ذو تاريخ غني وشخصية مرّآبة في الوقت الحاضر . آثيرة، انعكست على التعليم فيهمنذ حصوله على االستقالل، باضطرابات وتقلبات

:هناك سمتان رئيسيتان لنظامه التربويآان عدد هذه مؤسسة واحدة أو اثنتان في . إزدياد آبير في عدد مؤسساته للتعليم العالي-1. 2

طلع القرن في التسعينات، ثم الى ما يزيد عن األربعين في م7 أو 6مطلع االستقالل، وارتفع العدد الى ويعود االزدياد الكبير الى أن الحكومة افتتحت عددًا آبيرًا من هذه المؤسسات في األقاليم، وهو . الجديد

. أمر مختلف عما حدث في البلدان العربية األخرى حيث نتج االزدياد عن افتتاح جامعات ومعاهد خاصة .مستوياتومع هذا االزدياد الكبير في السودان هناك قلق حول انخفاض ال

لكن معظمهم يعتبرها نوعًا . يعترف السودانيون بواقع العولمة. توجه عدائي نحو العولمة-2. 2 آثيرون ينظرون إليها على أنها حرآة في اتجاه واحد . جديدًا من االستعمار، خاصة االستعمار األميرآي

، فمن المالحظ أن هذا الموقف بالرغم من هذا. من القوي الى الضعيف، بدل أن تكون حرآة في إتجاهين–العدائي ال يطال منتجات العولمة، خاصة في نطاق التكنولوجيا، وخاصة بين أوساط األجيال الجديدة من

.السودانيين

نبيل (توجهات طالب الجامعات الفلسطينية نحو العولمة: احترام العولمة أو عولمة االحترام-3 )جندي

ينة من مئتي طالب، اختيروا من اربع جامعات في فلسطين، الستجواب أعطي لهم شملت هذه الدراسة استجابات ع :وفيما يلي أهم النتائج. يستفتيهم عن العولمة، ويجمع آراءهم حولها

الطالب الفلسطينيون على استعداد لالنغماس في آل مظاهر العولمة واستخدام منتجاتها -1. 3 .ون في الوقت ذاته مواقف عدائية تجاهها على مختلف أنواعها بالرغم من أنهم يحمل

تتوجه المواقف العدائية نحو التبطينات السياسية للعولمة، والتي يعتبرها آثير من الطالب -2. 3 ".مكدونالدة"، توازي ما أصاب السوق من "مؤمرآة"

جيا، والتبادل أما المواقف االيجابية التي يمتلكها الكثيرون منهم، فتنحصر في نطاق التكنولو-3. 3 الثقافي، والتجارة، والهجرة، ويعتقدون بأن الثورة التكنولوجية من شأنها أن تساعدهم على اللحاق

.باآلخرين ومواجهتهم واالنخراط في العولمة بشكل إيجابي وفعال

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يبدو أن مواقف الطالب االيجابية نحو النكتولوجيا الجديدة تجد لها ترجمات عملية بينهم -4. 3 صعيد الممارسة، إذ أن الكثيرين منهم يستخدمون االنترنت في القيام بأبحاثهم أو الحصول على ما على

.يريدون من معلومات )لبيب عرفة (تأثير العولمة على التعليم العالي الفلسطيني. 4

استعرضت هذه المحاضرة أوضاع التعليم العالي في فلسطين وتطوره تحت ظروف قاسية جدًا 12هناك في الوقت الحاضر : حقق هذا التعليم قفزات آبرى1971فمنذ العام . الحتالل العسكريتتمثل با

هذا االزدياد الكبير جاء تعبيرًا صارخًا عن االيمان بالتعليم . آلية جامعية، أو آلية مجتمع32جامعة، وديدة اتخذت لنفسها صفة آقوة فاعلة تتحدى االحتالل واالضطهاد، علمًا أن معظم المؤسسات والمعاهد الج

.المؤسسات العامة التي ال تبغي الربح: أصبحت العولمة حقيقة راسخة تجد انعكاساتها في جميع الحقول: مبررات العولمة-1. 4

.االقتصادية والسياسية والثقافية، في تظهر هذه االتجاهات انتشار العولمة في آل انظمة التعليم العالي: االتجاهات الدولية-2. 4

، آما أن انتشار التكنولوجيا والسعي )إعالن بولونيا على سبيل المثال(الواليات المتحدة آما في أوروبا .لضمان الجودة في التعليم هي أمثلة واضحة على هذا االنتشار

/ الفرص : يمكن تلخيص موقف أجهزة التعليم العالي في فلسطين نحو العولمة باتجاهين-3. 4 :التهديدات

، وانتشار استخدام )خاصة مع بلدان أوروبا( الفرص تبدو في مجاالت التعاون -1. 3. 4 .التكنولوجيا، واستعمال وسائل ضبط الجودة

أما التهديدات فتبدو في احتمال انخفاض الموارد المالية، واالعتماد على -2. 3. 4 .السريعاألجانب، واالنخفاض في مستويات التعليم نتيجة للتوسع واالزدياد

)عبد الحق باألخضر( العولمة والعالمية واالنتقال األآاديمي -5

. المساهمة في مساحات عالمية في آل الحقول، اإلقتصادية والسياسية والثقافية: تعريف العولمة-1.5 .التخفيف من الضوابط والشروط المحلية: الوسائل

ت في ترآيبة البلدان العربية، ألن هذه البلدان لم تنجح حتى تزيد العولمة من التشققا: العواقب-2.5 اآلن، في إآتساب المناعة التي تتأّتى عن طريق التكاتف اإلقليمي، آما في اإلتحاد األوروبي، على سبيل

.المثاللعبت الهوية دور المرجعية األسطورية، وهكذا فهي ال تساعد آثيرًا في عمليات : الهوية-3.5 .يث، آما أنها ال تزال في األذهان تترجم آمسألة مضمون ثابت بدل ان تكون مسألة صيرورةالتحد ال يشمل حوارنا الفكري الرفض، وال العمل الجدي على التأليف بين المعرفة التقليدية والمعرفة -4.5

.الجديدة، ولهذا تحتل المعلومات في جامعاتنا مكانًا متقدمًا على المنهج والطريقةعالمية : بإمكان الدولة في البلدان العربية أن تساعد في إعادة الهيكلة على مستويات أربعة-5.5

.المعرفة، والمشارآة في الشأن العام، والتزامل في فرق عمل، وتقوية النظام التعليمي وتحصينه مالحظات وتعليقات المشارآين على أعمال الجلسة الثالثة -6

األولى تجعلنا تابعين للغير، بينما تجعلنا الثانية : لتمييز بين نقل المعرفة وبين توليدهايجب ا-1. 6 .مشارآين لهم

مجتمع المعرفة، واالقتصاد المرتكز الى المعرفة، هما االطار الذي دفع بالتعليم العالي الى -2. 6 .العولمة

دان العربية القيام به لمواجهة العولمة، ال يكفي عند الحديث عما يجب على التعليم العالي في البل-3. 6 تقديم اقتراحات بشكل لوائح أو مسلسالت بما يجب القيام به، فهذا ال ينفع، وال بّد من ذآر هذه بالتدّرج، أي

.ترتيبها حسب االولويات، وتبيان ما هو المهم منها، وما هو األهم، وآذلك تحديد نقاط االنطالق

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هي األمر المفقود الذي نحتاجه في مجتمع المعرفة " المعرفة التخصصية"ا إذا آانت هناك شك فيم-4. 6 من المعقول جدًا ان يكون العكس هو الصحيح، أي أن المطلوب هومعرفة واسعة، أو ثقافة عامة . الراهن

.حّرة ألجيالنا الصاعدةًا مهمًا وواضحًا جدًا وهو أن عند التفكير بما يواجه العرب من تحديات، يجب أن ال ننسى واقع-5. 6

العرب ينتمون الى دول متعددة، وواقع الدولة في ظهرانيهم، هو أحد أهم الوقائع التي على التعليم أن يتعامل معها في نطاق االصالح في البلدان العربية

المطلوب فاالهتمام يجب أن يعطى الى واقع أن العالقات الشبكية. آذلك عند الحديث على التشبيك-6. 6 إقامتها ال بد لها أن تعبر الحدود بين دولة عربية واخرى، فتكون في هذا خاضعة لمؤثرات وعوامل آثيرة

.ليست آلها إيجابية من المفيد المقارنة والتأمل بين الفائدة المستمدة من االستثمار في قطاع التعليم وتدريب القوى -7. 6

فاالستثمار في تدريب مهندس أومحام أو . في غيره من القطاعاتالعاملة، وتلك المستمدة في االستثمار طبيب، على سبيل المثال، مهّم وله عائد ايجابي بدون شك، لكن هذا العائد يتوقف عند حدود الشخص

بينما األمر يختلف في قطاع التعليم، إذ أن تدريب معّلم أو خبير تعليمي من شأنه أن يعود بفوائد –المدّرب إذ أن هذا المعّلم أو الخبير يدّرب سواه وهكذا بشكل متوال، بينما العائد يتوقف عند حدود مضاعفة،

، بينما هو في الحاالت )أّسي(إن العائد في حالة التعليم هو مرآب أو مضاعف . الطبيب أو المهندس .األخرى مبّسط

لعرب لدرجة أنها أصبحت هناك، بدون شك، موقف عدائي من العولمة في أوساط الكثيرين من ا-8. 6 لكن هذا العداء، أو الخوف، ال ينطبق على منتجاتها أو أدواتها التكنولوجية، خاصة ". الفّزاعة"عندهم ك

.في أوساط األجيال الجديدةإننا . ، أي الوعاء الذي ينقل العلوم والبحوث"اللغة" في حديثنا عن العولمة غالبًا ما نتناسى عامل -9. 6

العربية خاضعون لمؤثرات األفكار والثقافة الغربية، اردنا ذلك أم لم نرد، وذلك بسبب لغة العلوم في البالد . حتى في الحاالت عندما تكون هذه مترجمة–والبحوث الجديدة

تمويل التعليم والعالي والبحوث العلمية– 4الجلسة رقم

ن العربية آلها، وثانيها آانت نظرية قدمت في هذه الجلسة أربع أوراق، أوالها آانت عن البلدا

.أومبدئية، بينما الورقتان األخريان آانتا دراستي حالة، واحدة عن الجزائر والثانية عن الكويت

).الحوات علي ( أفكار وتأمالت في الموضوع: تمويل التعليم العالي في البلدان العربية. 1 نماذج التمويل-1. 1

أعداد الجامعات ( األخير آان التشديد على التوّسع في األعداد في نصف القرن-1. 1. 1 .، وقد بذل في سبيل ذلك آثير من األموال)والطالب لم يمكن االستمرار في التشديد على التوّسع، وذلك بسبب ازدياد السكان الكبير، والتوّسع -2. 1. 1

.تمويل متزايدالكبير في التعليم الثانوي، وظهور احتياجات أخرى بحاجة الى في األمد القريب دخلت ميدان التعليم جهات أخرى، وهي مؤسسات أو هيئات خاصة -3. 1. 1

لقد رفعت هذه . افتتحت المعاهد والجامعات، باالشتراك غالبًا مع مؤسسات أجنبية، في أميرآا أو أوروباامًال إضافيًا إلى الميدان وهو بعض أعباء التمويل عن آاهل الحكومات، لكنها، في الوقت نفسه، أدخلت ع

.تحميل الطالب التكاليف المالية أو معظمها تغّيرات وأزمات-2. 1

تجد آثير من البلدان العربية نفسها بين آّماشتين، فمن جهة ترغب هذه البلدان في الوفاء -1. 2. 1 أخرى، تنوء تحت تعاظم بتعهدها تأمين الديموقراطية والمساواة في الفرص لألجيال الصاعدة، ومن جهة

.األعباء المالية التي يقتضيها ذلك

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عمدت آثير من هذه البلدان الى إجراءات معينة من شأنها تخفيف األعباء المالية على -2. 2. 1 من هذه االجراءات فرض رسوم معينة على بعض الخدمات التعليمية، او السماح –آاهل الحكومات

د الدوام الرسمي، داخل المؤسسات الرسمية تتقاضى رسومًا مالية، أو الدمج بافتتاح برامج موازية، أو بعمثل هذا وآله فتح األبواب أمام ). 9 الى 14في ليبيا تم الدمج فانخفض عدد الجامعات من (بين الجامعات

الذي األمر –القطاع الخاص، وفي حاالت آثيرة، شّجعه على دخول ميدان التعليم العالي واالستثمار فيه .آان مستهجنًا قبل سنوات قليلة

مطاعم الوجبات " إن عددًا ليس بالقليل من الجامعات والمعاهد الجديدة هو أقرب الى -3. 2. 1 منه الى الجامعات الرصينة، حيث تقّدم المواد ذات المردود المالي السريع آإدارة األعمال، " السريعة

اهتمام أو حرص على المستويات، أو على االحتياجات التنموية والكومبيوتر، واللغات األجنبية، بدون .األساسية للبالد

الخطط واألفعال-3. 1يمكن تلخيص الخطط أو ردود الفعل على األزمات واألوضاع القائمة بحلول ثالثة ترد على شكل

:سيناريوهات مع بعض التعديالت، آمثل فرض اإلبقاء على النمط الحالي في التمويل: السيناريو األول-1. 3. 1

.ضرائب جديدة على الكماليات، أو استعمال أموال الزآاة، أو اقتطاع نسب معينة من عوائد البترول للتعليمالدمج في التعليم العالي بين القطاعين العام والخاص بحيث تصبح مؤسسات : السيناريو الثاني-2. 3. 1

.ق مشترآةتمول بطرائ" شرآات"التعليم العالي في هذه الحال تتقاضى الجامعات . فتح األبواب أمام الجامعات الخاصة وتمويلها محليًا أو أجنبيًا-3. 3. 1

، وتبقى الحكومات خارج الميدان بالكامل، في ما )إال في حاالت محدودة(رسومًا مالية آاملة من الطالب . عدا ممارسة صالحياتها في اإلشراف

مع التوصية بفتح معاهد أو آليات متوسطة الى –اريو األول أفضلها للبلدان العربية يبدو السين-4. 1 .جانب الجامعات القائمة، حيث يكون ارتباط هذه المعاهد أو الكليات بسوق العمالة أآثر وثوقًا وسهولة

)الروسي عمري (مفاتيح للفهم: ما بين اإلدارة والثقافة المحيطة: المعّلم الباحث-2

.حت هذه المحاضرة اسئلة متعددة عن أوضاع التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي في بيئة معولمةطر : القضايا األساسية-1. 2 قبلية أم إقطاعية-1. 1. 2 مرآزية السلطة السياسية-2. 1. 2 تأثير المال السهل والوجاهة االجتماعية في الباحثين-3. 1. 2 حثين من أصولهم اإلجتماعية إقتالع البا-4. 1. 2 . الحضارة الساحرة آمرجعية، الطائفية والبطرآية آمرجعيتان لقيم مسيطرة-5. 1. 2 إطار منهجي لالصالح-2. 2 . الخبرة العملية، االنخراط في الميدان واالعتماد على نتائجه في البحث-1. 2. 2 ).يةنظريات جذور( استخالص مواقف لها جذور -2. 2. 2 . وضع التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي في العالم العربي-3. 2 الهيكلية الجاآوبية مسيطرة في إدارة قائمة على نظام اجتماعي مقّسم، على الصعيدين -1. 3. 2

.الجماعي والفردي .ربط التعليم العالي بالبحوث العلمية: اللحمة المثالية-2. 3. 2 )حسين خلفاوي( بين الضرورات المحلية والمتطلبات الدولية : الجزائر البحوث العلمية في -3

. عرضت هذه المحاضرة تجارب الجزائر في ميدان البحوث، خاصة في السنوات العشر األخيرة إنتعاش اإلهتمام بالبحوث-1.3

جية مّر البحث التربوي بحالة إنتعاش في البالد مؤخرًا ألسباب داخلية وخار-1.1.3

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بلغت فرص التوظيف في دوائر الدولة حدود اإلشباع في نهاية الثمانينات، حين إزدادت، في 2.1.3 .الوقت نفسه، ضرورات اإلصالح

تشجيع البحوث-2.3

أتخذت إجراءات لتشجيع البحوث وتقوية الروابط بينها وبين التطوراإلقتصادي-1.2.3 لة من قبل الدولة الحّيز األآبر في ميدان البحوث في الجزائر تحتل البحوث الممو-2.2.3 لكن معدل أإلنتاجية في البحوث ما تزال متدنية-3.2.3 مواصفات البحوث العلمية-3.3

تعطى األولوية للبحوث في الهندسة والتكنولوجيا-1.3.3 ر العوامل المحلية يتزايد تأثير العولمة في ميادين البحوث على تأثي-2.3.3 وسائل لتحسين إستخدام نتائج البحوث-4.3

زيادة التبادل والتعاون والتواصل بين مختلف المؤسسات والعاملين في ميادين متشابهة من -1.4.3 البحوث

زيادة الترابط بين البحوث والتطوير والتطبيق، وتقوية األجهزة المسؤولة-2.4.3 .لبشريةعن إدارة الموارد ا

)عماد العتيقي ومحمد العظمة ( تمويل مؤسسات التعليم العالي الخاصة في الكويت وأداؤها المالي-4

يهدف الى تنظيم عمل الجامعات ) 34/2000برقم ( قانون 2000صدر في الكويت، في العام ذا ليشرف على تطبيق ه" مجلس الجامعات الخاصة"الخاصة في البالد، وانشىء مجلس خاص باسم

:فيما يلي وصف لكيفية عمل هذا المجلس، ولبعض النتائج لعمله. القانون .تقديم التقارير بقصد المراقبة المالية: االنموذج-1. 4 يفرض القانون على أن تكون غالبية المالكين من التابعية. رأسمال مدفوع-1. 1. 4

.الكويتيةزة بأن يكون جزء من التمويل بشكل قروض ميسرة تسمح شروط االجا. قروض ميسرة-2. 1. 1. 4

وتظهر الكشوفات المالية للمؤسسات العاملة أن معدل هذه . بشرط أن ال تزيد هذه عن الرأسمال المدفوع .من قيمة الموجودات% 42القروض يبلغ حوالي

في يتم االتفاق على حجم هذه الرسوم خالل طلب الترخيص، وهذه . رسوم دراسية-3. 1. 1. 4المادة عادة ثالثة ( دينارًا آويتيًا للرصيد الواحد من المواد 170 و130مجمل الحاالت تتراوح بين

.وال يسمح بزيادة المبلغ قبل خمس سنوات من إعالنه) أرصدة تمويل مقابل، يجري هذا وفق ترتيب خاص مرتبط بحجم الواردات األجنبية -4. 1. 1. 4

تشجيعًا لمساهمة المستوردين يقضي الترتيب بإعفاءات ضريبية شرط تحويل ف. والضرائب المستحقة عنهاالمبالغ المستحقة أو جزء منها لالستثمار في التعليم العالي، مع إغراءات إضافية تزيد من قيمة هذه

.االستثمارات على مدى ثماني سنوات والمشروع األآبر واألهم المقصود بهذا المؤسسات الدولية،. تمويل عبر الحدود-5. 1. 1. 4

على أساس اتفاق مع األغفند " الجامعة العربية المفتوحة"الذي جرى تمويله بهذه الطريقة أدى الى تأسيس )AGFUND.(

–يسمح هذا للجامعات بأن تستأجر من الدولة أرضًا للبناء عليها . تسهيالت حكومية-6. 1. 1. 4 Land( ت المتحدة األميرآية بقانون الجامعات في األرض الممنوحةإنه إجراء مماثل لما يعرف في الواليا

Grant Colleges( آما تشمل التسهيالت دفع الحكومة رسوم التسجيل عن طالب معينين يدرسون في ، . جامعة خاصة أو آلية

أدوات التحليل-2. 1. 4للتأآد من السالمة " مجلس الجامعات الخاصة"ه الوسائل واألدوات التي يلجأ إليها المقصود بهذ

:المالية للمؤسسة

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. تحليل اقتصادي للمؤسسة- . تحليل فرص المزاحمة- تحليل حسابي- . تحليل مالي- . تحليل توقعات المستقبل-

كويت تطبيق االنموذج على أوضاع التعليم العالي الخاص في ال-2. 4

جامعة : هناك خمس جامعات أو مؤسسات تعليم عاٍل خاصة في الكويت مرخصة حتى اآلن، وهيالخليج للعلوم والتكنولوجيا، الجامعة األميرآية في الكويت، آلية الكويت االسترالية، مدرسة ماسترخت

لى الفحص وقد خضعت آل هذه المؤسسات الخمس ا. لألعمال في الكويت، الجامعة العربية المفتوحة .وفيما يلي بعض النتائج الالفتة. للتأآد من جدارتها المالية" مجلس الجامعات الخاصة"المالي من قبل

تبرر الفجوة بين حجم الطلب على مقاعد في التعليم العالي وحجم العرض المتوفر، -1. 2. 4 .السماح للتعليم العالي الخاص بدخول السوق

سية المتوفرة على المواد ذات الطلب العالي والتكاليف المتدنية ترآز البرامج الدرا-2. 2. 4 آإدارة األعمال، والكومبيوتر، والتكنولوجيا، بحيث يكشف هذا ميل المؤسسات الخاصة الى االبتعاد عن

.المواد المكلفة ماليا توخيًا للربح وتجنبًا للخسارةالحصول على اعتماد مؤسسي على الجامعات " مجلس الجامعات الخاصة" يشترط -3. 2. 4

خالل سنتين بعد التأسيس، أو االتفاق مع مؤسسة خارجية مرموقة، وإصدار الشهادات العلمية باالتفاق .معها، أو العمل آفرع من جامعة أجنبية مرموقة

يظهر التحليل المالي الذي قام به المجلس أن أربعًا من المؤسسات الخمسة المرخصة -4. 2. 4 ولعل الوضع يتغير في . ردود مالي الستثماراتها يفوق ما آانت تتوقعه في سنواتها األولىحصلت على م

.المستقبل، إذ أن هذه المؤسسات ال تزال تعمل في مباٍن مؤقتة في الوقت الحاضر

تقارير إختتامية وخالصات-5الجلسة رقم الجلسات األربعة السابقة، آانت هذه الجلسة األخيرة، حيث قدمت فيها تقارير موجزة عن آل من

ثم تبع . بعد ذلك جرت مناقشة عامة اشترك فيها جميع الحاضرين. قدمها المقررون لهذه الجلسات تباعًاذلك آلمة أخيرة القاها البرفسور وائل بنجلون، عميد آلية العلوم في جامعة محمد الخامس، حيث عقد

ختتامية، وفي الوقت نفسه أثارت أسئلة جديدة عن طريقة وآانت آلمة العميد وائل ا. السمنار في رحابهاالربط بين ما تقوم به الجامعة في البلدان العربية وبين الصناعة فيها، وعن ضرورة تنمية روح

، واإلقدام، لكي تثمر أواصر الربط تقدمًا سريعًا بالمجتمعات العربية يجعلها في مصاف األمم )2(المقاولة .الراقية

عن هذه الجلسة األخيرة أية خالصات معينة، ولم يرغب المشارآون في التقدم ولم تنتج بالتوصيات، لشعورهم بأن األوراق التي قدمت، والمناقشات التي تبعتها، آانت خبرات متميزة لمجموعة

هذه من المفكرين العرب، رجاًال ونساًء، في التعليم العالي العربي، وأن أفضل ما يمكن عمله، أن يضعوا المحاضرات، والخالصات التي توصلت إليها، وآذلك هذا الملخص العام، في يدي القارىء العربي، لعل

.ذلك يكون إسهامًا ملموسًا يساعد في تقدم التعليم العالي وقضاياه في البلدان العربية

2007) سبتمبر( أيلول 18

ة (2) رادف آلم ة ت ة آلم ة العربي ة Entrepreneurshipلم نجد في اللغ ة " أفضل من آلم راق "مقاول ، وهي تفترض اخت

.الحواجز بين الجامعي والمجتمع، وجعل األول خميرة التحرك والفعل والتاثير في الثاني

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Funding and financial performance of private higher education

institutions in Kuwait

Imad M. Al-Atiqi Mohamed El-Azma Ministry of Higher Education Private Universities Council (PUC) Kuwait

I. Introduction Financial monitoring and accountability of higher education institutions has always been an

issue of concern in many countries. The voluminous research output on this issue testifies to

its importance to the public and regulatory authorities, as well as other stakeholders, to be

aware of: (i) what these institutions are doing; (ii) why they are doing it, and (iii) whether they

are doing it well (CAUT, 1993). In the United States, the Governmental Accounting

Standards Board (GASB, 1987) states accountability as the paramount objective from which

all other objectives must flow. In the UK, the publication of the Statement of Recommended

Practice for Accounting in UK Universities provides the bridge from decision-making to

accountability in these institutions (CVCP, 1989). Recent literature included several studies

on accountability of tertiary education institutions in different countries worldwide (Banks et.

al. 2004).

Notwithstanding, the issue of financial monitoring and accountability has been dealing, to a

large extent, with not-for-profit public or private institutions; however, the issue is also of

vital concern to other degree-granting, for-profit institutions. For-profit educational

institutions are relatively recent phenomena (Geiger, 1986). The University of Phoenix, the

biggest provider in the US commenced operations in 1998 and had enrolled over 150,000

students by 2004. These providers are the fastest growing academic institutions with their

parent companies often listed in the common stock market and are the most troublesome for

regulators. A lawsuit filed in 2004 accused the University of Phoenix of providing recruiters

with incentives to enrol unqualified students, a case that Phoenix University settled for US$

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9.8 million (Phillips, 2007). The mechanism and procedure for financial monitoring may not

be identical for diverse types of educational institutions, but the inherent need and objective

is essentially to assure the stakeholders of the well-being of the institution, and the degree of

economy, efficiency, and effectiveness by which it manages the resources available to achieve

its mission and objectives.

There are several groups of stakeholders which have interest in the financial well-being of

higher education institutions, whether public or private, for-profit or not-for-profit such as:

regulatory agencies, licensing officials, accreditation agencies, equity owners whether present

or potential – in the case of for-profit institutions – funding and other financial resource

providers (e.g. donors), recipients of institutions’ services (students and their parents), faculty

members and administrators, as well as the public at large.

Financial reporting represents an essential means of providing stakeholders with information

about higher education institutions’ activities, and provides a basis for informed judgment and

decision-making (Engstrom, 1988). In the next section, a general model for financial

monitoring and accountability of private higher education institutions is outlined, based on the

information generally available in periodic (annual) financial reports prepared and

communicated by each institution to interested parties, particularly regulatory agencies. The

model provides a detailed description of the components of financial reporting analysis for the

purpose of financial monitoring with respect to universities and other higher educational

institutions. This model will be used as a basis for assessing the financial performance of

private institutions of higher education in Kuwait which are subject to Law 34/2000 for

Private Universities. The result of assessment will be used as a basis for policy decisions

taken by the Private Universities Council (PUC) in Kuwait, which represents the regulatory

body for these entities (Al-Atiqi et al., 2004).

II. Sources of funding

1. Paid-in capital: most educational providers in Kuwait are owned by registered

corporations. Law 34/2000 stipulates that founder’s equity for private institutions must

have a local (citizens) majority. This equity is determined at the time of license

application within the feasibility and financial study. The ample availability of funds

within the local private sector enables most institutions to be founded without the need

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53

for foreign capital. Table 1 below lists the founder’s equity for the operating

institutions.

Table 1. Private higher education institutions in Kuwait, paid-in capital according to Licensing Decree

Private higher

education institutions

KWD’000

Year licensed Gulf University for Science & Technology (GUST) American University of Kuwait (AUK) Australian College of Kuwait (AKC) Kuwait-Maastricht Business School (KMBS) Arab Open University (AOU)

10,000

1,000

1,900

200

(not applicable)

2002

2003

2003

2003

2002

2. Loan facilities: Kuwait has an advanced banking system that can be tapped to

supplement owner’s capital. Current licensing procedures allow for loan facilities to a

limited extent, typically not exceeding owner’s equity. Inspection of common-size

financial statements for operating institutions reveal that total liabilities amount to 42

per cent of total assets, of which 30 per cent are current liabilities.

3. Enrolment fees: Most institutions charge students on a credit-hour basis. This would

range between KWD 130-170 per credit and students register in a semester-based

system with 12-18 credits per semester. The tuition fees are a major source of revenue

for institutions that allow for operating expenses coverage as well as future expansion.

Tuition fees are agreed upon during license application. The Private Universities

Council (PUC) allows for a reasonable fee structure that is compatible with the

standard of living. The enrolment data proves that society accepts the current fee

levels, alongside enrolments that match up with, to a reasonable degree, feasibility

study expectations. Further elaboration will be made later on in the paper. The fee

structure is not allowed to increase before a lapse of five years.

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54

4. The Offset Programme: This programme was established in 1992 by the Kuwaiti

Government. It is defined as the derivation of particular financial commitments from

foreign companies and agencies that provide imported goods and services to the

Government of Kuwait. Under the Offset Programme foreign companies which wish

to sign supply contracts of a value equal or greater than KWD 1 million with the

Government of Kuwait are required to invest, inside or outside of the state, in projects

adding value to the national economy. Under this programme, the offset obligation is

equal to 30 per cent of the contract value to be executed within eight years of the

contract award. As an incentive to invest in counter-trade offset obligations, the

Government sets a multiplier for certain developmental projects in order to lower the

offset burden. A three multiplier means that a contractor can invest KWD 1 million

and obtain credit for KWD 3 millions; the multiplier for educational projects being

typically 3.5. Certain academic institutions have benefited greatly from the Offset

Programme. One institution has obtained major engineering, aviation and marine

science equipments from offset obligations, valued at more than KWD 12 million. The

audited results of this provider shows that the offset grant constituted 24 per cent of its

total asset in 2006. With this programme, they were able to develop a major expansion

from a diploma programme to a Bachelor of Technology Programme. The Offset

Programme is also a major provider of student scholarships for students to pursue their

tertiary education. This activity is a result of an agreement with the Ministry of Higher

Education (MOHE).

5. Interstate funding programmes: There are numerous funding programmes of this type

whether related to trust foundations or to UN organizations. The programme that made

the largest impact in Kuwait and many Arab States is the Gulf Programme for Support

of United Nations Developmental Agencies (AGFUND). Chaired by Prince Talal bin

Abdul Aziz Al-Suood, this programme established the Arab Open University (AOU)

in 2001. The AOU was housed in Kuwait by an agreement with the Government and

has now branches in more than seven Arab countries. This agreement was ratified as

Law 31/2002 in the State of Kuwait. In Kuwait itself, more than 6,000 students are

currently enrolled in the AOU Kuwait branch with a tuition fee that is roughly KWD

500 per year. UNESCO has signed an agreement with the AOU Chairperson in

October 2001 to provide information and communication technologies (ICTs)

equipment and personnel training to the University. This will include video

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55

conferencing equipment and satellite linkages for distant education and electronic

library. The project value was US$ 1.55 million.

6. Government facilities: Several Government programmes are in place for direct and

indirect support of private universities. A crucial one is the land grant facility. An

agreement was reached with the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and the municipality to

allow private institutions to sign long-term leases on state lands for their campuses. In

a compact country like Kuwait, this facility proved very beneficial. Other programmes

of interest are the scholarships granted by several Government agencies for their

employees to study in private institutions. These programmes supplemented

institutions with additional sources of revenue following the self-paying students. The

biggest programme of this kind is the scholarships of fresh high school graduates

which started this year. The PUC secretariat negotiated with the Ministry of Finance a

budget of KWD 3.4 million for support of 1,068 students in 2006/07 which constituted

80 per cent of the tuition cost. The purpose of this programme is fair access to

otherwise limited tertiary education seats within the country. Not directed to

institutional funding, this programme is partially supported by the institutions

themselves in terms of subsidized tuition. It is to be noted in this context that all

institutions achieved profitable status before this programme commenced.

III. Tools of analysis

There exists a rich source of references on financial reporting analysis (Palepu, Healy and

Bernard, 2004; Wild, Suramanyam and Halsey, 2007), as well as its application to educational

institutions (KPMG, 1999; Lane et al., 1987; Moody’s Investors Service, 1999; Peat Marwick

International (PMI); Mitchell & Co., 1982; Fischer el al., 2003). A brief description of each

of the analysis tools referred to in the model is outlined as follows:

IV. Economic analysis of industry

Analyzing a private education institution’s viability and sustainability requires first to assess

the potential of the educational sector in which the institution is competing (i.e. its industry).

Analysis of the industry and its structure is influenced by the degree of actual and potential

competition among institutions operating in the industry, as well as the bargaining power of

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56

suppliers of services (universities and other higher education institutions) and buyers of

services (demand for higher education).

Factors affecting the degree of competition include population growth and demand for higher

education, the number of institutions offering educational services, their capacity and types of

degree programmes they are offering, the threat of new institutions entering the industry and

potential effect on market share.

Analysis of bargaining power of suppliers and recipients of educational services entails

assessing the quality of education offered, the cost of providing the service, the type of degree

programmes offered by the institutions and their viability in the job market for graduates.

V. Competitive strategy analysis

The economic viability of the education institution is influenced not only by its industry

structure but also by its vision and mission, the strategic choices it makes and its success at

establishing a competitive advantage as well as the sustainability of its competitive advantage.

Assuring quality of educational programmes offered by the institution through accreditation,

and ensuring continuous improvements in these programmes to meet the changing demand by

the job market. A strategy is undertaken by the education institution to differentiate its

products from those offered by its rival institutions. Another strategy which may be followed

by the institution is achieving cost-effectiveness in providing its services to students.

VI. Accounting analysis

Administrators of private higher education institutions are subject to accountability to the

governing body of each institution (Board of Trustees) as well as to the regulatory bodies

responsible for monitoring private educational services at the national level (e.g. the Private

Universities Council).

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57

• The institution should maintain an information system capable of providing the

required information in the most efficient and effective manner in order to discharge its

responsibility to stakeholders.

• Financial reports prepared annually by the institution are subject to scrutiny and

analysis by regulatory bodies.

• Analysis of financial reports is a process of evaluating the extent to which financial

data presented reflect economic reality.

• Auditing of financial statements prepared by the institution by an external independent

auditor ensures the verification of the integrity of the reported accounting figures and ensures

that management use the proper accounting methods and estimates in accordance with

generally accepted accounting principles.

• Accounting analysis includes evaluation of the quality of accounting numbers

appearing in the financial statements and its freedom from distortion of economic reality,

appropriate disclosure to ensure integrity, reliability and relevance of information. It also

includes evaluation of earning power and its sustainability.

• Assessing the financial viability and sustainability of the education institution may

require information beyond those normally disclosed in financial statements. Therefore,

accounting analysis may be extended to ensure that the necessary additional information for

this purpose is duly, and timely, provided for by the institution.

VII. Financial analysis

The goal of financial analysis is to assess the performance of the institution, and its

achievement of goals and strategies, through utilization of resources available at its disposal.

Ratio analysis and cash flow analysis represent the main tools for financial analysis.

Financial analysis consists of an assessment in two broad areas (i) Profitability (Return)

Analysis, and (ii) Risk Analysis. Financial analysis of past and present performances provides

a good foundation for making forecasts of future performances.

Ratios and cash flow analysis provide useful tools for assessing the institution’s achievements

as a result of its strategies, policies and decisions in the three broad areas of operating

activities, investing activities and financing activities. Profitability (Return) Analysis focuses

on identifying, measuring, and evaluating the impact of various profitability drivers, usually

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58

in terms of the institution’s return on investments and its components and its ability to

generate adequate return from operations. It also focuses on reasons for changes in

profitability and its sustainability. Risk analysis is the evaluation of the institution’s ability to

meet its commitments, whether in the short-term (Liquidity) or in the long-term (Solvency).

Risk analysis involves assessing earnings variability in face of change in the demand for the

institution’s services (Operating Risk) or as a result of its capital structure which determines

the sources of finance (Financial or Credit Risk).

The use of financial ratios to assess risk and return characteristics of the institution involves

comparison over time (time-series analysis), and with other institutions and benchmarking

(cross-sectional analysis).

VIII. Prospective analysis

Prospective analysis is the use of (i) strategy analysis; (ii) accounting analysis and (iii)

financial analysis in prediction of future performance. Regulatory agencies in the educational

sector emphasize accountability and financial stability of the education institution. Therefore,

they assess earnings sustainability and growth expectation in order to meet variability in

demand (number of students admitted). It is also of interest to regulatory agencies to forecast

the ability to self-finance growth in the institution’s services by relying on internal sources of

finance, i.e. earnings retention and growth in its net assets.

Owners of private, for-profit institutions focus on the ability to create value to owners in terms

of earnings and cash flows and their effect on the institution’s economic value (usually market

value). Forecasted figures for earnings and cash flows provide basis for estimating value.

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IX. Application of the Financial Performance Model to private higher

education institutions in Kuwait

A total of five higher education institutions were granted licenses to provide degree-

programme educational services in Kuwait in accordance with the Law of Private University

(Law 34/2000-Kuwait), the:

1. Gulf University for Science and Technology (GUST).

2. American University of Kuwait (AUK).

3. Australian College of Kuwait (ACK).

4. Kuwait-Maastricht Business School (KMBS).

5. Arab Open University (AOU).

The ownership structure of these private universities and net capital investments as of the end

of the Fiscal Year 2005/06 appears in Table 2.

a. Financial data for each of the private institution is taken into consideration and

extracted from the audited annual financial report prepared by the institution since inception

(income statement, balance sheet, and statement of cash flows).

b. A common size income statement and balance sheet for each year are prepared.

Operating Revenues being the deflator factor for all items in the income statement, and each

item of assets and liabilities and owners’ equity is presented as a percentage of Total Assets.

Table 2. Ownership structure of private higher education institutions in Kuwait as end of Financial Year 2006

Private higher education

institutions

Ownership structure

Owners’ equity

KWD.’000 A

Wholly owned by a listed corporation.

4,666

B

Wholly owned by a listed corporation.

1,292

C

A branch of a limited liability company which is a subsidiary of a Kuwaiti closed corporation.

754

D)

Wholly owned by a limited liability company.

793

E A branch of an independent, not-for-profit Arab institution for education.

(not applicable)

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c. Financial Ratio Analysis (see combined statistics in Table 3 below).

The following ratios were computed for the purpose of assessing annual performance

in the area of:

Activity Analysis:

(1) Total Asset Turnover = Operating Revenues/Total Assets;

It is a measure of the efficiency of using total resources available to generate revenues.

(2) Expenses coverage from owners’ equity = Owners’ equity/total expenses.

It is a measure of the extent of meeting annual expenses by reliance on funds provided

by owners.

Liquidity analysis:

(3) Current Ratio = Current Assets/Current Liabilities.

It is a measure of the ability to meet short-term obligations from current assets.

(4) Cash to average daily expense = Cash Balance/Total cash expenses/365.

It measures the number of days that available cash covers daily cash expenses.

(5) Cash to Total Cash Expenses = Cash Balance/Total Cash Expense.

Measures cash coverage of expenses.

(6) Operating Cash Flows to Current Liabilities = Operating Cash Flows/Current

Liabilities.

A measure of ability to meet short-term obligation using cash generated from

operating activities.

Solvency analysis:

(7) Debt to Total Assets = Total Liabilities/Total Assets.

Measures the extent of financing total assets from debt financing.

(8) Operating Cash Flows to Total Liabilities = Operating cash flows/total liabilities.

Measures the ability to settle total debts from cash generated from operating activities.

Profitability analysis:

(9) Net Profit Margin = Net Income/Operating Revenues.

A measure of profitability from common-size income statements.

(10) Return on Total Assets = Operating Income/Total Assets.

A measure of return on investment, irrespective of sources of finance.

(11) Return on Equity = Net Income/Total Owners’ Equity.

Measures return on investment by owners.

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(End of year value is used for balance sheet items instead of average when related to income

statement items or cash flow items in order to have, at least, financial ratios for consecutive

years).

Table 3. (a) Financial ratio analysis from combined financial data of all private higher education institutions

Financial ratio analysis

2004

2005

2006

2004-2006

Activity analysis: (1)Total Asset Turnover = Operating Revenues/Total Assets (2)Expense coverage from Owners’ Equity = Owners’ Equity/Total Expenses.

1,03

0,58

1,14

0,64

1,07

0,63

1,07

0,62

Liquidity analysis: (3)Current Ratio = Current Assets/ Current Liabilities (4)Cash to Average Daily Expense = Cash Balance/(Total Cash Expense /365) (5)Cash to Total Cash Expenses = Cash Balance/ Total Cash Expense (6) Operating Cash Flows to Current Liabilities = Operating Cash Flows /Current Liabilities

0,55

19,9

0,05

0,92

0,84

16,2

0,04

1,09

1,05

48,2

0,13

1,55

0,79

29,8

0,08

1,18 Solvency analysis: (7) Debt to Total Assets = Total Liabilities/Total Assets (8) Operating Cash Flows to Total Liabilities = Operating Cash Flows/Total Liabilities

0,5

0,73

0,27

0,93

0,45

0,88

0,42

0,83 Profitability analysis: (9) Net Profit Margin = Net Income/Operating Revenues. (10) Return on Total Assets = Operating Income/Total Assets. (11) Return on Equity = Net Income/Total Owners’ Equity

17,80%

16,60%

36,90%

0,10%

-0,20%

0,20%

18,30%

19,00%

35,30%

13,20%

13,30%

24,40%

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Table 3. (cont’d) (b) Common size financial statements from combined data of all institutions for the period 2004-05

Income statement: - Operating revenues - Operating expenses - Operating income - Net income

100 88 12 13

Balance sheet: - Current assets - Non-current assets TOTAL Assets

23 77 100

Current liabilities 30 Long-term liabilities 12 TOTAL Liabilities 42 Owners’ equity 58

d. Financial statement items for all institutions were combined and used as a basis of

computing combined common-size income statement and combined common-size balance

sheet for all institutions, averaged over the years 2004-06. Combined financial statements for

each year were used to compute financial ratios for the whole sector of private higher

education institution in Kuwait, for each of the Fiscal Years ending 31 August i.e. 2004, 2005,

2006 (With the exception of AOU which has a calendar year ending 31 December). The

combined statistics appear in the above Table 3(a-b)).

Analysis of strategy:

Each institution, for the purpose of applying for a license to the PUC, is required to

submit a detailed technical and economic feasibility study, in order to demonstrate the

economic and financial viability of the project. Economic feasibility entails preparation of a

detailed market study which projects the demand expected for each degree programme

proposed by founders. The proposed plan for the institution is subjected to a careful analysis

by the PUC through its standing committees before granting approval. The following

observations pertaining to strategy analysis of the five private institutions now operating in

Kuwait are presented below:

(a) Based on recent market studies for higher education in Kuwait, it is noticeable that the

gap between supply from existing institutions, public or private, and total demand by high

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school graduates justifies the founding of private institutions. The gap is widening over time

due to demographical factors.

(b) Programmes of study currently offered by private institutions tend to be concentrated

in areas of liberal arts, business administration, and computer science and technology.

(c) Quality Assurance (QA) of degree programmes offered by private institutions is

assured through the requirement imposed by the PUC for institutional accreditation within

two years of the starting date, and the requirement for licensing of having a plan for

programme accreditation by relevant internationally recognized agencies. Some institutions

plan additional institutional accreditation from international accrediting agencies.

(d) Association with a reputed university on an affiliation bases through a joint degree

agreement, or operating as a branch represents a strategy by private institutions for creating a

product differentiation, and is thus considered as a market strategy. Operating as a branch of a

foreign internationally recognized university gives private institutions the advantage of

granting their graduates internationally recognized qualifications, thus enhance the demand on

its educational services – notably the case of the Kuwait-Maastricht Business School (KMBS).

(e) Analysis of the fee structure of private institutions indicates that the variation in

pricing educational services is limited (tuition fees per credit hour is around KWD 130-160

for undergraduate degree programmes). This suggests that private institutions in Kuwait did

not consider so far pricing of services as a strategic tool for attracting students.

(f) It is noticeable that private institutions, by concentrating on liberal arts and business

studies programmes in degree offerings, to their students, may reflect the strategy by these

institutions to avoid the need for investing and providing finance for establishing degrees in

engineering and medical sciences and similar programmes which require relatively high costs.

Accounting analysis:

Private universities and colleges in Kuwait are required by Law 34/2000 and its Executive

by-laws to have its annual financial report audited by an external auditor, and approved for

release by the Board of Trustees of each institution. All financial reporting for Kuwaiti firms

should be prepared in accordance with international accounting standards. External auditing is

conducted according to international auditing standards by professionally- qualified auditors.

The following are observations regarding the financial reporting by private institutions:

(a) Financial statements for the institution, as an entity separate from its parent company

or headquarters are usually extracted from the financial records of the parent company or

headquarters, and in some cases without having a separate set of accounting records in

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accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. This phenomenon was diminished

in later years after intervention of the PUC towards more autonomy in the financial records.

(b) Inter-company transactions among the institution and its parent company or

headquarters tend to be priced on the basis of management estimates and internal transfer

pricing, without full disclosure of these bases, and usually without reference to the approval

by the Board of Trustees. The effect of these transactions on income statement and balance

are significant in most cases. This may be related to the fact that the parent company is the

one responsible on land grant management and contracting. The PUC took action to resolve

this situation in the near future.

(c) Although the by-laws and accountability rules set forth by the PUC clearly establish

the importance of the role of the Board of Trustees in planning and approving dividend policy

by the institution (or the management of fund transfer in the case of not-for-profit institutions

such as AOU), financial reporting by institutions gives little in the way of disclosing these

policies and the bases for transfer of funds among the institutions and their headquarters. This

reflects a light touch monitoring on the part of the PUC.

(d) The accruals (differences between cash flows and accrual basis) regarding expense and

revenue items play a limited role in the case of educational institutions in general (with the

exception of depreciation and amortization charges for institutions with relatively high

investments in plant assets and intangibles). This suggests that management manipulation of

earnings measures through accruals is at minimum in the case of these institutions, and thus a

higher quality of earnings.

(e) Disclosure of information in financial reports, though it follows international

accounting standards, does not cover areas of significant importance in analyzing financial

statements of educational institutions.

A notable example is lack of details on cost items necessary to assess performance of the

institutions in areas such as research and community services as well as detailed costs per

each educational programme. Average revenue generated per each faculty member is another

example which cannot be measured directly from financial reports. Most of data needed for

this purpose are available from the internal information system of the institution if it is

separately maintained, as well as from budgetary planning and control systems if properly

maintained. This suggests that the PUC, as the regulatory and governing agency may seek to

reinforce its accountability and governance rules through additional disclosure requirements

from private institutions.

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Financial analysis:

We may draw the following observations on the basis of financial statements of private

institutions during the period of 2004-06, and financial ratios as shown in the aforementioned

Table 3 (a-b):

(1) In Table 4 we compare average accounting returns actually achieved by each

institution by the relevant return figure expected at time of licensing in its financial feasibility

study. It is noticeable (with one exception) that private institutions manage to achieve a higher

return than they expected in early years of operations. Taking into consideration the typical

profitability profile for similar institutions in the first (introductory) stage of their product-life

cycle, which usually exhibits a negative return, private institutions managed to achieve better

than expected in terms of profitability (more noticeable in the case provider of the Arab Open

University (AOU) in its first few years of operation, due to the lower base of investment).

Profitability figures for the net income margin, return on assets and return on equity, shows an

increasing pattern which may shed light on expected profitability in future periods. The

noticeable drop in return measures in the second year of operation for most institutions may

be related to the need for compliance with several governance rules stipulated by the PUC,

particularly in the course of institution accreditation, which may have resulted in incurring

additional costs (e.g. hiring additional faculty members or adding more facilities). This

suggests that compliance and strengthened governance rules by the PUC have a direct effect

on the profitability profile of private institutions.

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Table 4. Assessment of financial performance of private higher education institutions in Kuwait, 2006-06

Expected versus Actual Profitability Average for the first three years of operations

[as measured by the Average Accounting Rate-of-Return (ARR)]

Private higher education

institutions

Expected ARR (percentages)

Actual ARR (percentages)

A

15%

26% B

-22%

-13.8% C

19%

-28% D

0.5%

5.3% E

20%

128%

(2) Analysis of liquidity for private institutions, individually and collectively, reflects a

weak liquidity position and an above-average liquidity risk. The liquidity measures, both on

accrual basis and cash basis, reflects the lack of enough cash and near cash assets to meet

short-term obligations. On the other hand the trend in liquidity is rising in general from one

year to another. This probably results from the monitoring process by the PUC through

reviewing annual financial performance, and the move on the part of institutions to comply

with requirements imposed through institutional accreditation process by the PUC.

(3) Asset structures, as reflected in the common-size balance sheets, show that on average

77 per cent of total assets are invested in non-current assets. Most private institutions so far

are operating in temporary buildings, until they move to permanent cites which are currently

under construction. Non-current asset figures include investment in constructions in progress.

It is noticeable also that most institutions elected to capitalize pre-operating costs and some

intangibles, the costs which are being amortized over a limited number of years (usually 3-5

years). This reflects a less conservative accounting policy which defers some items of costs

as intangible assets, which alternatively could have been treated as expenses during the year

of cash outflows.

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(4) Financial Structure as reflected in the common size balance sheets shows relatively

low figures for long-term liabilities (average of 12 per cent of total assets), and rely more on

equity financing than debt financing. Of the average of 42 per cent total liabilities for all

institutions, short-term financing plays a more significant role in debt financing than long-

term borrowing. This indicates the need for placing more emphasis on monitoring liquidity

rather than on solvency in credit analysis. (A noticeable exception is the Institution # C, the

balance sheet of which exhibits lower degrees of both liquidity and solvency). The trend in

liquidity and solvency for all institutions reflects an improving trend over time.

(5) Due to the existence of financial leverage as a result of debt, financing return on equity

is significantly higher than return on total assets. This should be interpreted with caution, as

private institutions tend to have higher credit risk in the short-term due to reliance on short-

term credit more than long-term, which may not be typical for institutions in the introductory

stage of development.

(6) Through decomposing return on total assets into its two main components: Return on

Assets = Total Asset Turnover x Profit Margin, it may be noted that private institutions rely

more on profit margin in achieving profitability due to the relatively low asset turnover (from

combined data, average annual return on total assets of 13.3 per cent was achieved through an

asset turnover of 1.07 and a profit margin of 13.2 per cent). As institutions will increase their

investment base in plant assets when moving to permanent sites and introduce more

engineering and science programmes which require adding more facilities, this may affect the

structure of assets and debts, and profitability of these institutions, and need to be looked at

from a strategic point of view.

(7) Capital adequacy and growth in equity as a result of earnings retention seems to need a

careful analysis. With the exception of the providers: numbered C and E , equity coverage of

total expenses exhibits a normal range for the activity level of institutions. However, the trend

of negative growth in equity requires a red flag. Investigation of this important issue points to

the need for considering dividend policy (or to be explicit fund transfer to parent companies),

and increasing owners investment to support a higher adequacy level of equity finance in

order to achieve better sustainability and financial stability of private institutions over the

long-term.

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X. Conclusions and comments

A brief account of funding strategies and financial analysis of private higher institutions in

Kuwait has been presented. Generally speaking, the strategy and economic analysis adopted

by the founders have proven valid and worthwhile vis-à-vis the investment that was allocated.

In many cases the turnover of students and enrolment as measured by gross revenue, was

better than expected. This should only be taken into account with caution since the leading

institutions have not yet been challenged by sufficient local competition, which is expected in

the near future.

• Accounting analysis shows that disclosure is still in an evolutionary phase with

improving transparency as governance activity is enforced.

• Financial analysis shows that while return on investment improves with time, most

institutions show a shortage of liquidity.

This is probably a deliberate strategy from headquarters to not supply more funds than

necessary, as financial decisions are still controlled by the parent companies. The governance

actions by the Private Universities Council (PUC) are still evolving, as mentioned in

Appendix I.

The PUC should be adamant and insist on a higher sense of security on the part of the

founders which should be obliged to provide more liquidity in the institutions’ accounts.

The study also showed considerable discrepancy in the ownership capital than what was

actually paid out.. This probably reflects lack of financial experience on the side of the

regulatory agency in the early licensing stage.

* * *

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Appendix I

Accountability and governance rules for private higher education institutions in Kuwait stipulated by the

Ministry of Higher Education, Private Universities Council (PUC), Kuwait

I. Ownership

Restrictions on changes in ownership during the first five years since licensing: • Founders must pay in full their capital shares, in an account controlled by the institution’s Board of Trustees, in accordance with the financial plan approved, and during the period determined, by the PUC. • Founders’ representation on the institution’s Board of Trustees is restricted to no more than half of all members of the board, plus one. • The corporation that owns a private institution is not allowed to be listed on the stock exchange before the period stipulated by the PUC, and that, pending its approval. II. Management Paid-in-capital of the institution should be made available and controlled by the Board of Trustees (BT) of the institution. The institution’s Board of Trustees has the upper hand in policies regarding dividend distribution and profit retention, and restrictions in form of reserves. The institution’s Board of Trustees should observe rules and regulations set forth by the PUC in carrying out its responsibilities and managing the institution’s funds, in accordance with the Executive bylaws of the Private Universities’ Law in Kuwait. III. Financial reporting An Annual Financial Report prepared by the institution should be audited by an independent auditor in accordance with International Auditing Standards (IAS). The Audit Report should include the auditor’s opinion as to the institution’s adherence to the Law of Private Universities in Kuwait and to its Executive by-laws. The institution should maintain regular financial and accounting records in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, which permit the preparation of its own financial statement as an entity separate from its owner or from its headquarters. An Annual Financial Report, externally audited by an independent auditor, should be approved for issue by the institution’s Board of Trustees, which determines the necessary rules for distribution of profits and use of surplus from activities; in keeping with its rule of managing the institution’s funds

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IV. Annual review of financial performance A four-member Standing Committee has been set up by the Private Universities Council (PUC) to monitor the financial performances of private institutions. The committee membership comprises independent professional and academic experts in accounting and finance. Each institution is required to submit its audited annual financial report to PUC, together with any data and explanations as requested. A Report is then prepared by the Standing Committee, for each institution, reviewing its financial performance, and gives opinion as to:

(a) The institution’s compliance with accountability and governance rules required

by PUC. (b) The implementation of any conditions imposed by PUC in the course of

institutional accreditation granted or resulting from previous annual review. (c) An assessment of the institution’s financial position, financial viability and

sustainability in terms of return achieved and expected risk. The Financial Committee’s Report is presented and reviewed by the Accreditation Committee of the PUC.

Observations and the result of assessment by the Committee are communicated to the institution, requesting explanation if need be. The Financial Committee studies the institution’s reply and reports to the Accreditation Committee, recommending any necessary actions to be taken. The outcome of the financial review process is periodically reported to the Private Universities Council (PUC).

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Bibliographical References Al-Atiqi, Imad, Lafi Alharbi and Faridah Ali. 2004. The Evolution of Private Higher

Education in Kuwait. Paper presented to INQAAHI Annual Conference, Toronto, Canada. March 2007.

Banks, W., Banks, J. and Thompson, P. 2004. Significant Improvement in Canadian

University Accountability Disclosures. Administrative Sciences of Canada Annual Conference, 2004.

Canadian Association of University Teachers (CAUT). 1993. Governance and Accountability.

The Report of the Independent Study Group on University Governance (Report Series). Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the UK (CVCP). 1985.

Report of the Steering Committee for Efficiency Studies in Universities (The Jarratt Report) London.

Engstrom, J. H. 1988. Information Needs of College and University Financial Decision-

Makers, Government Accounting Standards Board, USA, 1996. Fischer, M., Gordon, T. Greenlee, J. and Keating, E. 2003. Measuring Operations: An

Analysis of the Financial Statements of U.S. Private Colleges and Universities. Working Paper No. 17. The J.F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 2003.

Geiger, R. 1986. Private Sectors in Higher Education: Structure, Function, and Changes in

Eight Countries. University of Michigan Press, USA, 1986. Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) 1987. Encyclopaedia of Business and

Finance, p. 56-58. Gray, R. and Haslam, J. 1990. External Reporting by UK Universities: An Exploratory Study

of Accounting Change, Financial Accountability and Management Journal, Spring 1990, pp. 51-72.

KPMG LLP, Prager, McCarthy and Sealy, LLB. 1999. Ratio Analysis in Higher Education:

Measuring Past Performance to Chart Future Direction for Independent Institutions, 4th edn, 1999, KPMG LLP.

Lane, F.S., Lawrence, J.S. and Mertins Jr, H. 1987. University Financial Analysis Using

Interinstitutional Data, New Directions for Institutional Research, Vol. 4 (Spring), pp. 83-101.

Moody’s Investors Service. Corporate Finance, Banking Managed Funds.

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Nelson, M., Banks, W. and Fisher, J. 2003. Improved Accountability Disclosures by

Canadian Universities, Canadian Accounting Perspectives, 2(1), 2003, pp. 77-107. Palepu, K.G., Healy, P.M. and Bernard, V.L. 2004. Business Analysis and Valuation, using

Financial Statements: Texts and Cases. 3rd edn, Southwestern Publishing Co. 2003. Peat Marwick International (PMI), Mitchell & Co., 1982. merger KPMG LLP. Pena, D.M. 2000. Higher Education Finance Variables: An Analysis. The National Education

Association Almanac of Higher Education, 2000. Phillips, S. 2007. The Times Higher Education Supplement, London, 20 April 2007. Wild, J., Subramanyam, K.R. and Halsey, R.F. 2007. Financial Statement Analysis. 9th edn,

McGraw-Hill, 2007.

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Keynote Address

Globalization and education

Darim Albassam Chief Adviser United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) New York, USA

Distinguished Forum Members and Guests,

It gives me great pleasure to join all of you in this highly important and timely meeting.

I am very grateful to the UNESCO Forum for inviting me to address this 2nd Regional

Research Seminar for Arab States.

Today we are united here to look at the impact of globalization on education systems in the

Arab Region and reflect on what reforms and adjustments need to be achieved in the future.

The momentum occasioned by the recent Resolution emanated from the Arab Summit in

Riyadh, which calls on Member States to have a fully-fledged review of their education

systems in order to face the realities of the new millennium, will help us in our stocktaking.

At its core, this Resolution established that education systems in Arab countries share

common concerns that should be addressed regionally. More importantly, it is unequivocal in

its assertion that reform should cover all aspects of the education system. This is a core

business Agenda of fundamental change covering all critical areas of concerns that we should

work upon seriously together.

On a personal note, I was privileged to participate in the preparatory research and dialogue

conducted within and among concerned regional organizations [the Arab League Educational,

Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO), the Arab League General Secretariat and the

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UNESCO Regional Office] ahead of the summit meeting, and to take the role as a lead author

for the document submitted by ALECSO to the Heads of Arab States.

In my opinion, your platform can play a critical role in moving this Agenda forward, and in

energizing the debates on all issues of reform. Equally significant are your roles in monitoring

commitments made by Arab governments.

Your Forum, I believe for a variety of reasons, can serve as a meeting point for research and

scholarly discussion, not only analytical and critical, but also as a means of providing

education leaders and policy-makers in the Region with insights, tools and strategies for

action that offer new directions and possibilities for Arab education in this twenty-first

century: the age of globalization, knowledge and information.

All of us agree I believe that education in our Region seems to lack vision policy and is in a

state of disarray at a time when global transition is at its utmost. Nowhere is it that evident

than in the slow response of our educationalists who are lagging way behind compared to

their counterparts in other regions of the world.

In fact, there is an urgent need from the Arab intellectual community – and especially those

who are majoring in social sciences – to address the dramatic changes inflicted on and

promised to our era: (i) philosophically; (ii) sociologically; (iii) culturally; (iv) politically; (v)

economically; (vi) physically; and (vii) aesthetically.

Above all, revitalization of our most important or central beliefs, values, morals, and ethical

heritage with a philosophical depth of our culture must be the core business that binds the

Arab World together at this epoch. The challenges we face in education in the new

millennium are indeed monumental endeavours for all of us. This world of a new mainstream

socio-economic and political order affects every community and region. It is a world that

seeks a new balance between global and local values, thoughts and ways of life amidst

existing national and cultural diversity.

Truly, the era of globalization has arrived with many implications on national and regional

stability. Only those countries and regions, which take pre-emptive measures but are

endowed with vision, strategic thinking, and determination to understand the globalization

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process and, nevertheless, its oncoming threats and opportunities, will be able to secure a

strong foothold and productive co-existence in the global pluralistic international community.

I firmly believe that the globalization we are experiencing today is not cyclical, as some might

argue. No, indeed it is here to stay, and we are obliged to adjust to and manage in a different

way.

By this, I mean that we should address the challenges of globalization to education in the

Arab Region, not only to chart the future of this field, but to study the relationship in as broad

a societal context possible, and to treat this in various perspectives, through different

disciplines and topics, within which the challenge of globalization is conceived as the most

profound dynamic of this historical moment.

Let me begin by exploring the term ‘Globalization’, or AWLAMA, as is translated into Arabic.

How will it be approached and tackled, when this meeting contemplates its impact on

education? While the term is nowadays the leitmotiv of almost every discourse within all

fields of social science, including that of education, there are confused and often conflicting

definitions and conceptions of the phenomenon. In order for this concept to maintain any

analytical usefulness, it must be unpacked, carefully defined and examined regarding its

impact on society, the economy, and the world system in general and, for our intentions, on

the education system in particular.

Let us agree on the following: At its most organic and fundamental level, globalization is

about the monumental structural change occurring in the process of production and

distribution in the global economy. One critical issue that emerges from all these restructuring

processes is the central role of knowledge, education and learning. These are becoming

increasingly crucial factors of production, more important, some analysts would argue, than

the traditional production function factors: (i) land; (ii) labour; and (iii) capital.

The global system of production and distribution is now progressing from the Fordist-

Taylorist development model to one based on Innovation-Mediated Production. Fordism-

Taylorism was the dominant paradigm of the twentieth century and rested upon three major

pillars. The first pillar was the factory system and mass production. The second pillar was the

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application of scientific management. And finally, the third pillar was the moving assembly

line.

These practices enabled by this model to more efficiently harness physical labour of huge

masses of relatively unskilled shop-floor workers. Although it was only fully implemented in

the advanced industrialized countries, the implications for the developing countries were

tremendous.

The newly emerging Innovation-Mediated Production model refutes those imperatives, and

rebels against them. This new model is based, instead, on the blurring of the distinctions

between mental and physical labour and the increase in the application of knowledge to the

production process itself. This change is so significant that it represents a fundamental shift,

for much of the world, in the underlying techno-economic paradigm of industrial organization.

As the economies of the world shift steadily away from the force of things into the powers of

the mind, from resource-based bulk processing into knowledge-based design and

reproduction, so it is shifting from a base of diminishing returns to one of increasing returns.

Knowledge in this emerging techno-economic paradigm is increasingly seen as both the raw

material and major products of organizations. The competitive advantage of an organization is

deeply affected by its capacity to learn.

The underlying assumption here is that, in the new context of intense competition, rapid

change, and increased interconnections between geographically different parts of the world,

organizations are living systems, and therefore, smart, creative, adaptive, self-organizing, and

value-seeking organisms. Accordingly, success does not come about through blueprints that

are perceived a priori correct. Exploration and experiments can only make way for new

opportunities and venues that are different and that give successful results. They are not

necessarily better or worse paths to take, but they work well at this moment in time.

Today, there are increasingly fewer things which have clear-cut boundaries and multiplicity of

connections, this makes for greater uncertainty and speed of change. This condition demands

adaptability, rather than dogged pursuit of efficiency. The simplest reason for the

obsolescence of the machine metaphor, as a guide to modern thinking, rests with intelligence.

In the ideal machine, the intelligence runs itself and there is no need for redesign. In

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intelligent systems, characteristic of human societies, everything can be redesigned and

everything is of a temporary nature. Each element in the system is capable of thinking, as well

as taking action. Societies function, as a result, more as a form of parallel, rather than serial,

processing.

The second critical component is the idea that we live in a relational world with increasing

connectedness and that symbiosis is strength. The increasing connectedness of the world also

brought to the fore the growing awareness of interdependence of existence. The modern world

is increasingly shaped, in its essence, as a dynamic system. In such a closely connected world,

many more things interact and shape each other and many more domains of activity take on

the properties of a complex system. Every organization struggles to find its niche.

Many of the concepts that one used in the schools’ curricula to understand such dynamically

changing societies and conditions, however, are pre-systematic and flow from an image of the

world as a self-contained static machine.

This leads us to the conviction that not only do living systems contain their own solution

within themselves, but also the solution always works to bring various parts of a system

together so that it can learn more about ‘itself from itself’. Again, in systems or organizations,

one works with webs of relationships. It matters not where the solution or change begins: it

will work its way to the rest of the system in the most innovative and remarkable of ways,

since healthy relationships within the system plus the spirit of teamwork are a source of great

energy. In sum, what matters the system should be provoked and/or stimulated rather than

ordered about.

The real transformation in life occurs when the nature of relationships has been revisited and

the members of any given system share new meanings. Hence, systems work best through

partnership as opposed to hierarchical structures: in partnership people create meanings and

set regulations together, instead of having others impose them. Change truly comes about

when old meanings are questioned and no longer work. Life is intent on finding what ‘works’,

not what is ‘right’.

It is a truism to say that we must learn new ways of living in the context of what are called

self-organizing systems: systems that are static and in motion simultaneously. These ‘new

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habits of mind’ require toleration for, and understanding of: (i) ambiguity; (ii) complexity; (iii)

interrelatedness; (iv) change; (v) uncertainty; and (vi) flow.

Traditional institutions and models of education, however, still prepare people for the world

of passing on recipes for ‘thinking, seeing and living’. This focus on recipes rests on an

assumption that learners seek reassurance and answers from their learning experience and

would somehow be troubled and anxious in the face of uncertainty and ambiguity.

These recipes or algorithmic ways of approaching problems and understanding the world,

however, are increasingly maladapted to a world characterized by rapid, never-ending,

pulsating and interconnected change. In fact, when recipes and recipe-learning no longer

provide a basis for making sense of the world – let alone assigning meaning – anxiety and fear

are the end result. It is for this reason that there is emerging a view, at all levels of education

systems, of the need to develop ‘new habits of the mind’ for a ‘new world’. Part of this

appreciation entails a moving away from recipes and algorithmic thinking toward

complexities and complex thinking.

An example is clearly evident of this movement towards non-algorithmic thinking and an

embracing of complexity in what has come to be called problem-based learning (PBL), and

the formation of students with problem-solving capabilities and critical minds.

PBL, an approach that is being applied to all levels of education and professional raining has,

at its organizing centre, an ill-structured problem which is messy and complex in nature;

requires inquiry, information gathering and reflection; changing and tentative; and has no

simple, fixed, formulaic or right solution.

Such an ill-structured problem becomes the focal point for all subsequent learning in this

method. Teachers assume the role of the cognitive and meta-cognitive coach, rather than

knowledge holders and disseminators. Students assume the role of active problem-solvers,

decision-makers, rather than passive learners. In the teaching and learning process,

information is shared, but knowledge is a personal construction of the learner. Thinking is

fully articulated and held to strict benchmarks.

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As it happens, this instructional approach is not necessarily interdisciplinary, but is always

interactive. In what is called ‘running the problem’ teachers constantly ensure that the

situation is problematic, ill-structured and that students approach different problems, with

different problem-solving and strategic-thinking strategies. In short, there is no single

problem-solving methodology that is utilized.

Recent evaluation research has empirically shown that problem-based learning promotes:

• Motivation: by engaging students in learning, resolving dissonance, and feeling that

they are empowered to have an impact on the outcome of the investigation.

• Relevance and Context: PBL provides students with an answer to the questions:

Why do we need to learn this information? And also: What does, what I am learning in

school or university, have to do with the real world?”

• Higher Order Thinking: The ill-structured problem scenario calls forth critical and

creative thinking by suspending the guessing game of: What is the right answer the

teacher wants me to find? Instead it orients students toward meaning-making over

fact-collecting.

• Learning to Learn: PBL promotes meta-cognition and self-regulated learning by

asking students to generate their own strategic definition, information gathering, data

analysis, and hypothesis building, and sharing them with other students, teachers and

mentors.

• Authenticity: PBL involves students in the types of problems faced in real-life settings.

Let me now shift to the second part of my speech where I intend to elaborate on another

feature of globalization and share with you the discussion of its possible impact on education.

By this I am referring to the ‘information revolution’ and the ‘information age’ that it

engenders.

We all know that formal systems of education came about largely through a context of

information scarcity. It is not surprising then, that one of the key functions of such systems

historically has been the storage, codification and transformation of information. Indeed, one

of the functions of credentials in education systems is to indicate the degree to which an

individual has closed the information gap between his/her bank of knowledge and the

knowledge resident within the institution of learning.

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The old assumption in this regard is the one that views the student’s mind as a container and

teachers as wise ‘sages on the stage’, delivering data, information, knowledge and wisdom, to

the eagerly awaiting students, whose minds were empty vessels waiting to be filled.

This approach is also a holdover from the Fordist-Tylorist industrial organization model,

when only a few people, that is, the heads were required to plan and innovate, while the rank

and file, that is, the hands, were expected to execute boring and repetitious tasks. Schools

were therefore the perfect selection and hierarchical mode of individual management.

As a result of this modality prescribed to education a number of assumptions continue to

survive, rendering many aspects of today’s schooling systems irrelevant to the world we

actually live in. It is worth mentioning in this regard that while other disciplines are relatively

adjusting their paradigms to the new demands and realities of globalization and making great

strides forward, education theory and practice continues to lag far behind.

Policy-makers in our region should wake up to the warning call that with increasing intensity

today, information scarcity is being replaced by information abundance, a process that

inevitably should force our educational planners and policy-makers to coin a new definition of

the role of formal-learning institutions. Accordingly, the school should alter its function from

being a primary provider of information and knowledge, to serving as a context in which one

can learn how to: (i) organize; (ii) manage; (iii) analyze; (iv) verify; (v) apply; (vi) interpret;

and (vii) give meaning to information. As we can see it, the actual learning paradigm will shift

from information acquisition to information management on the part of the learner.

This is indeed a profound shift in the core function of formal-learning institutions, the

implications of which extend to all dimensions of educational enterprise in the countries of the

Arab Region: curriculum, teaching, assessment, credentializing, organizational structure, as

well as their relationships to time and space.

Students usually are smarter than we think! They have a very clear, sometimes critical and

demanding but also stimulating opinion of what they regard as quality education and what

should be done to attain it. They like schools to teach them how to think, not only teaching

them facts. Young people are not interested in learning experiences that simply lead them to

reproduce information – which moreover, will soon be outdated – mainly because they are

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aware that they can find that information for themselves, provided that they have been taught

to do so. They want to shift away from ‘education for conformity’ to ‘education for creativity’.

It is the sheer evidence of recent research that tells us how schools were increasingly observed

to fail to produce self-motivated individuals who can live in the complexities and ambiguities

of today’s world. The new organizations of today need people with high cognitive and

affective skills, who are creative and adaptable. More specifically, today’s world requires

individuals who possess: (1) an inner appreciation of inter-connectedness; (2) a strong identity

of sense of being; (3) a sufficiently large vision and imagination to see how specifics relate to

each other; (4) the capacity to ‘go with the flow’ and to deal with paradox and uncertainty;

and (5) a capacity to build communities and live in relationship with others.

The stronger source of curriculum and instruction capable of harvesting those objectives is, in

my opinion, through involving students in projects. More specifically, student’s exploration

and experience can be the essence of any course of study. Everything in life is in constant

process of discovery and creation. Hence sources of the curriculum should be diversified and

not confined to textbooks. They could be national, communal and, thanks to the multi-media

and to the abundance and easy accessibility of information, they could also be international.

This normative outlook will help us reach the conclusion that in the information age, children

do not learn in boxes, thus the strict division of curriculum into subject matters does not lead

to effective learning. Thinking-based curricula, which encourage and allow children to think,

if handled in an integrated fashion, yield the best results. Bearing this in mind, the sources for

a relevant update curriculum in a fast-moving age will rely far less on standardized textbooks.

Moreover, with regard to learning objectives, considerable emphasis should be placed on

collaboration and teamwork in classroom interaction. Management experts worldwide have

noted that behind the Japanese technological, economic, and educational success story has

been the ability to work in groups and develop group loyalty. The ability to work in groups is

now being recognized as an educational objective, just as important as literacy and numeracy.

Also, important to group formation and on a par with literacy and numeracy are

communication skills that are not necessarily reducible to reading and writing, such as

planning, presentation, critical and logical thinking, and non-verbal communication.

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In knowledge-based societies and economies, another learning objective is not just clear

access to and use of knowledge, but the processing of that knowledge: verification, analysis

and interpretation, utilization and attaching deep meaning to it in the daily life activities of

learners.

To close, I would like to review a few lessons these conclusions teach us about what is

required for Arab countries to reform their education system in order to meet the sweeping

changes introduced by globalization and by radical shifts in the new systems of production

and distribution based on knowledge in the first place.

Let us agree that all societies evidence a learning architecture, that is through their conscious

intentions, they establish the boundaries and rules of who learns what, with whom, where,

when, how and for what purpose. The existence of a learning architecture is, thus, common

among societies and nations.

In the global and dynamic world of today, the pressures of such force and significance is to

cause us to examine carefully our learning architecture and engage in an equally serious

process of redesign.

One of our greatest needs, now, is for what can be described as ‘strategic imagination’: the

willingness and ability to envision new possibilities for the development of the new potential

and, in parallel, to conceive, explore, test and demonstrate innovative strategies that can

contribute toward making these possibilities a reality. In the document submitted to the Arab

Summit meetings, I proposed the establishment of a wide number of regional working groups

composed of Arab and international intellectuals, planners and experts to examine all

components of the educational process and render alternative scenarios of reform.

Planning in and for education as part of the development process today confronts the very

same context as that faced by other institutions and organizations in society: A dynamic

change process that interacts constantly producing a new stream of problems, issues and

opportunities.

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Conventional Static models of planning are not able to cope with such dynamic complexity,

and, for that reason, offer policy-makers only limited assistance in decision-making, crafting

strategies and priority setting. The world changes so rapidly that the static plan loses its value

as a guide to action and in many cases becomes a problem itself. Alternative conceptions and

models of learning, which treat education and learning processes as a complex adaptive

system, are desperately needed in the development process of our Region which is bombarded

by vague alternatives and by fluid and uncertain opportunities, and alarming threats.

One promising approach to this quandary is the use of strategic thinking and scenario

planning and learning techniques. Scenarios help policy-makers to organize what they know

and what they can imagine into a logical vision of the future and to discern and consider the

implications and develop planned out alternatives and prepare medium-term and long-term

agenda of reform to be adjusted periodically.

In sum, the strategic thinking and scenario learning and planning process for education system

reform helps policy-makers deal with two of the processes and conditions that most affect

their decision-making in a globalized world: uncertainty and complexity.

Some of you might argue, after listening to my speech, that most of the countries in the

Region need to attend to ‘first things’ first; that is, to ensure basic literacy, numeracy, and

access and only when this is complete should they attend to the other matter that I have

recommended and think on how to adjust their education systems to the dictates of

globalization.

The problematic aspect of such arguments, if any, is that it assumes that the world economy

and the attendant pressure of globalization and knowledge intensity will stand still and wait

for the first process to complete itself before further change processes are set in motion. This,

of course, is highly improbable and flows against the grain of the extremely rapid changes

occurring with the global economy and modern world.

Thank you again for inviting me to join you, and presenting a united front, today.

I feel truly honoured to stand here before all of you to deliver my Keynote Speech.

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Wail Benjelloun

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Endnote Presentation

Knowledge-based economies: globalization and the business of science

Wail Benjelloun, Dean, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University - Agdal, Rabat, Morocco

I. Introduction

The mind-boggling pace of recent progress in human knowledge – notably in the basic

sciences – has impacted the world economy, consequently the economic growth and global

competitiveness of Morocco and the Arab Region will depend on our ability to benefit from,

and to add value to, scientific discovery. Professor Stafford Beer described this fast-

approaching world as Absolutum obsoletum (if it works it is out-of-date) (Beer, 1985). In the

face of this almost evolutionary trend the term knowledge-based economies takes on a special

significance. Knowledge-based economies may mean enjoying access in real time to

information (i.e. knowledge) necessary for making appropriate competitive decisions. The

competitive edge is gained through the possession of information that others may not benefit

from. To gain that edge, the information technologies (a product of scientific research) that

involve computers, internet, satellite feeds, dedicated lines, telephones, etc. must be harnessed

in the Arab Region – there is no need to insist on how much progress has been made in this

field.

The concept of knowledge-based economies is most challenging when it involves

entrepreneurship based on new high-end (state-of-the-art) knowledge, new research, and

innovations. Though basic science has not traditionally had an immediate impact on industry

or the economic world in general, and delays in return were often incompatible with the short-

term market expectations, recently the picture has changed. In the course of the last decade for

example, the employment generated by start-up companies in the United States has more than

compensated for the unemployment produced by the layoffs resulting from the

restructuring of multi-national companies. Since the early 1970s universities and their

incubators, particularly in North America and more recently in Europe and Asia, have been

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supporting young entrepreneurs in the start-up phase of their business endeavours. In addition,

a culture of entrepreneurship has developed in major R&D laboratories worldwide, and start-

up companies resulting from these activities are flourishing. Which only goes to prove that

the relationship between science and research, on the one hand and business on the other, is

becoming more and more closely linked together.

In the Arab Region, and specifically in Morocco where natural resources are limited, such

science-business symbiosis needs to be recognized as one of the important keys to a better

future. Our economic development must increasingly be based on the output of the most

cherished resource, ‘human capital’. As a result, universities are initiating efforts to add value

to the results of their research, with the establishment of University-Industry interfaces, and

small business incubators. The Moroccan National Charter for Education and Training, and

the resulting legal texts, has encouraged such entrepreneurship. On the other side of the fence,

the appearance of the first timid venture capital funds has taken place and industry has

responded with it own embryonic research and development (R&D) programmes. These

trends must be encouraged and reinforced.

Faculties of Science are increasingly including in their curriculum courses such as

management and management information systems, entrepreneurship, marketing and finance

(these would not have been deemed appropriate, or necessary, only a few years ago) besides

the traditional offerings in mathematics, physics, computer science, chemistry, biology and

geology. The Faculty of Science in Rabat has offered programmes in insurance statistics and a

Master’s programme in mathematics for finance has recently been accredited. This is in

recognition of the fact that our products (the results of basic science research) are best

exploited when placed in a socio-economic context.

This recent ‘scientification’ of commercial technology has brought the interface between

universities and industry into sharp focus. In particular, academic entrepreneurship, that is, the

variety of ways in which academics take direct part in the commercialization of research, is

gradually becoming an integral part of university activity worldwide. The jargon of

economics is fast invading the scientific research arena. Similarly, the most rapidly growing

and wealth-creating industries such as biotechnology, computers and telecommunications are

progressively more research-based. Such entrepreneurship already flourishes in some

countries, and must now also be placed in the forefront of the public policy arena of the Arab

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States. It is understood that talking about science in such blatantly economic terms might be

difficult for those used to a more traditional approach. And yet our whole intellectual

property system (IPS) which has been in place for some time, with its patents and royalties, is

really an older expression of this new reality.

Strong national commitments are, indeed, necessary to encourage this science-business

relationship if sustainable economic growth is to be ensured. As this commitment is

developed, several key institutional factors, outlined as follows, will be crucial to our success.

Firstly, heavy investment must be made in human capital formation and training. The

percentage of populations receiving a university education is still dismally low. When this is

considered in conjunction with the high rate of illiteracy and the fact that only 23.5 per cent of

students entering primary school in Morocco, for example, eventually complete the secondary

cycle, the magnitude of the challenge becomes evident (Prospective Maroc, 2030). Data

provided in Table 1 below serves as the backdrop for human development activity in our

Region. The existence of a wide range around the mean of Arab country indicators, with a

high incidence of outliers and skew, rendered the mode a more reliable measure of central

tendency (raw data were taken from the Human Development Report, 2006, UNDP). When

compared to Norway the highest ranked nation or to South Korea (ranked thirty-three, a

country ‘within reach’), Arab nations generally lag behind in terms of control of demographic

growth, life expectancies and access to education. It, therefore, comes as no surprise to see

that the technology indicators, also shown in this table, show a wide lag behind for the Arab

Region.

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Table 1. Arab States Human Development Indicators Indicator

Arab mean (range)

Arab mode

Norway

Republic of Korea

HDI rank 85 (33-153) 82 1 26

Annual population growth rate %

1.95 (1-3.1)

2.0 0.5 0.3

Life expectancy at birth 70.8 (52.5-74.2)

72.5 79.3 76.9

Infant mortality /1000 births

27.3 (7-78)

21 4 5

Grade 5 (% of Grade 1)

92.2 (73-100)

96 100 100

Adult (15+) illiteracy % 23.5 (6.7-48.8)

20.5 0 2

Technological indicators : Cell telephone subscribers/1,000

381.7 (53-908)

313

861

761

Internet users/1,000 113 (5-321)

104 390 657

Hi-tech exports (% of manufactured exports)

3.75 (1-13)

2

18

33

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, (UNDP, 2006). Beyond access to university education, programme adjustments – both in educational

curriculum and research orientations – to meet demand in the private sector require a

welcoming national policy environment and sufficient levels of public funding. It is now

generally recognized that without educational investment and appropriate research funding no

significant level of sustainable national economic development can be attained. Yet the

Moroccan investment in research stands at only 0.6 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP)

compared to 3 per cent in South Korea.

In addition to a greater budgetary commitment to research, national decision-makers and

universities must put in place mechanisms that adjust research funds and orientations to

demand in the private sector and that facilitate faculty’s bridging of the gap between academia

and the private sector. This can be ensured through an association of venture capital and

shared salary schemes which encourage the private sector to feel it has a stake in the

university.

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Secondly, incentives should be designed for young people to become entrepreneurs and

encourage the expansion of existing entrepreneurial ventures (State of Virginia. 2007). In the

Arab Region, this requires major changes in institutional mentalities in and out of academia.

Given the proper encouragement, the university could ensure qualitative development leaps,

bounds and innovations that accelerate economic development at a greater pace than that

obtained through traditional macroeconomic measures. A hard look must be taken at the tax

codes to include the necessary breaks for start-ups, university incubators and young

businesses in general that add value to scientific production. Properly administered,

entrepreneurial incentives can have complex repercussions, including orienting students’

educational choices towards scientific disciplines with an economic impact.

In a country such as Morocco where the overwhelming share of research is carried out at

universities it becomes even more imperative that the interface between university research

and commercialization be well-developed, in order to maximize social benefits from research.

In recent years university researchers have managed to significantly increase the Faculty’s

operating budget, complementing state-provided funds with returns from the

commercialization of know-how and research development activities. And yet, even if all

other elements favouring science-based entrepreneurship are at hand, results in terms of

economic performance are likely to be meagre, unless the appropriate climate is in place

within the university system itself. A number of factors are likely to be crucial: (i) the degree

to which up-to-date research results and methods are communicated to students as part of the

regular instruction; (ii) whether the internal reward systems (be they monetary or non-

monetary) encourage excellence in both teaching and research, and (iii) the extent to which

the university system allows for, and promotes, innovation and personal initiative.

II. Conclusions

Innovation plays a crucial role in entrepreneurship, and scientific and technological

innovations are the basis for development. Innovation may be defined as:

“The transformation of knowledge into products, processes, and businesses that create and

sustain economic and societal well-being”.

Thus the three elements of innovation are: (i) knowledge; (ii) a workforce able to transform

knowledge; and (iii) the infrastructure necessary for both.

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Scientific and technological innovations can provide the base for traditional manufacturing to

move from low-skill to high technology sectors, allowing the creation of new higher-

technology manufacturing industries. Currently, only 11 per cent of Morocco’s exported

goods may be considered as products of high technology (as compared to 33 per cent in South

Korea and 31 per cent in Malaysia). Our service industries also need to move toward

knowledge-based services, e.g. software, business, biomedical, and financial services.

Finally, the legal system needs to address the issue of intellectual property and enforcement of

patent protection. Innovation is not an end-game strategy. It is a modus operandi for an

economy that can face the challenges of globalization.

Succinctly put, successful knowledge-based economies require that universities be open to

influences from the outside world and that they disseminate information about their teaching

and research activities outside academia, and in so doing facilitate society’s access to relevant

information about research results. Likewise society must put in place the necessary

instruments to encourage and expand this effort through taxation and other incentive schemes.

* * *

Bibliographical References Beer, S. 1985. The Preposterous Inference. In: Computer Networks 9. pp. 11-20.

Prospective Maroc 2030. Haut Commissariat au Plan (HCP), 2007. Rabat, Morocco. State of Virginia. 2007. Guide to Establishing a Business. A Virginia Guide to Business

Incentives. UNDP. 2006. Technology and Innovation Awareness Programme. UNDP Human

Development Report, Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis.

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WTO/GATS: Possible implications for higher education and research in the Arab States

Abdalla R. Bubtana Consultant, UNESCO, Paris Former Chief of the Higher Education Section, Education Sector, UNESCO Former Director of UNESCO, DOPHO, and Representative of UNESCO to the Gulf Arab States

Abstract

Higher education has been witnessing major transformations and facing enormous challenges

worldwide in recent years. In spite of the fact that the number of students enrolled in this

system has exceeded 100 million, the social demand has been also increasing, thus surpassing

the capacity of national systems to respond adequately. The system is not only growing in

terms of access but also in terms of financial investment and trade which were estimated to be

US$30 billion in 1999 (Vlk, 2006 ). This figure may have exceeded US$40 billion in 2006.

This reflects the increasing importance of this sector in terms of economic power. This was

perhaps one of the reasons that motivated WTO and some countries to include higher

education as one of the services to be covered by the GATS agreement concluded in 1995 as

the first legal instrument focusing exclusively on trade in services through the removal of

existing barriers on trade in this domain. It is to be also noted that research will be covered

under the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

The inclusion of higher education in this agreement has been at the centre of heated debate

among opponents and proponents from various regions of the world. While proponents claim

benefits such as more diversified systems, greater efficiency and improved quality, opponents

reject the idea of converting higher education from a public service to a commercial

commodity. The pros and cons of the agreement and the conflicting views over its positive

and negative consequences will be thoroughly analyzed in various sections of this paper.

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Most importantly, this paper will discuss the possible implications of the agreement for Arab

higher education particularly policy, legislation, regulatory, and the educational, socio-cultural

and financial aspects.

Based on these analyses, the paper will attempt to draw conclusions and state some

recommendations for possible future actions.

I. Introduction

One of the main instruments of globalization and the emergence of the neo-liberal global

economy is the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the launching of the

General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). Today, this organization, which

administers the application of various agreements and regulations concerning the

liberalization of trade, is consisted of more than 150 countries from all regions of the world.

The initial responsibility of WTO was to administer the GATT agreement which dealt mainly

with trade, commerce and finance – in other words, with money, commodities and products.

The services sector – such as education, higher education, tourism, health etc. – was not

included in the provisions of GATT.

The General Agreement on Trades in Services (GATS), which was negotiated during the

WTO Uruguay Round and came into effect in 1995, is the first legal agreement focusing

exclusively on trade in services through the removal of existing barriers to trade in these

services. The liberalization of trade in higher education can be included in the negotiations of

GATS. This agreement which was initiated by Australia, Canada, the United States and a

number of European countries has been facing fierce resistance not only from the academic

community but also from some powerful NGOs active in the field of education such as the

European Institute (EI), the Advisory Centre for Education (ACE), the European University

Association (EUA), the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) and others.

Even the European Union (EU) took a decision in 1993 not to submit higher education into

the initial rounds of negotiations on GATS. In spite of this, as of February 2007, over forty-

seven countries have made commitments to include education in the agreement, though only

thirty-eight of those included commitments to higher education (Knight, 2006). These include

some developing countries such as Congo, Jamaica, Lesotho and Sierra Leone.

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The debate over the implications of GATS on higher education and research has intensified

during the last few years and is divided between the opponents and proponents of the

agreement. The arguments focus on highlighting its possible negative or positive impact on

the future of higher education. While proponents highlight the benefits that free trade can

bring to higher education in terms of diversifying the providers and delivery modes,

broadening access, promoting competitiveness and increasing financial and economic gains,

opponents reject the idea of converting higher education from a public service to a marketable

commodity. It is to be mentioned here that the amount of financial resources spent on higher

education shows its increasing importance in terms of economic power. Opponents also fear

that the agreement may constitute a pretext for the further shrinking of the government role

and the possible take over of systems by the corporate community which is interested mainly

in profit making with less interest in serving national interests and agendas. The fear in

developing countries is that, in addition to these negative aspects, cross- and trans-border

providers will lead to negative rather than positive consequences such as increased social

costs for higher education, the return of the elitist systems and gradual disappearance of

national systems that cannot compete with foreign providers. Some critics consider the

agreement as a pretext for a total take over by the corporate community of higher education

and for monopolizing research for commercial purposes. At the present time, jargons that

were strictly used in business and commerce such as marketization, commercialization,

commodification, Macdonalization and franchising are frequently applied to higher education.

The debate extends beyond these issues to target the legal and political aspects of the

agreement. On one hand, questions are raised about the possibility of governments to commit

themselves to agreements which concern autonomous institutions such as universities. On the

other hand, there is debate on what are considered to be ambiguous stipulations in the

agreement that can be subjected to different interpretations (such as Article 1:3 which deals

with the exemption of services “supplied in the exercise of governmental

authority”).Throughout this heated debate, a legitimate question is: What are the possible

policy implications of GATS on systems of higher education in developed and developing

countries?

There is no doubt that the commitments of governments to the application of GATS will

require major policy revisions and provisions, at national level, so as to ensure conformity

with the stipulations of the agreement. In addition to gradual diminishing of the role of the

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state in funding and regulating systems of higher education, policies must be adopted to allow

both the private sector and foreign providers to freely compete at national level. The state

control of quality, relevance and adherence to national priorities and agendas will drastically

decrease. Furthermore, subjecting higher education to market forces will not face any

limitations by state rules and regulations. Principles, such as equal access and the

democratization of higher education, will be no longer policy priority. These aspects and

others will be further elaborated in this paper.

The possible impact of GATS on developing countries, including those in the Arab States

region, has not yet been thoroughly assessed or analyzed. So far, the available literature

indicates different voices and views. For some countries, the advantages are that foreign

providers would increase access to higher and adult education programmes, develop advanced

higher education and research infrastructures, increased the mobility of students, academic

staff and researchers and increase competitiveness which leads to improved quality. For other

countries, the disadvantages are also numerous such as the fear of losing control over higher

education through deregulation, foreign dominance and exploitation of national systems,

inability to compete in global trading systems and the threat to national systems that cannot

compete with foreign providers. These advantages and disadvantages will also be analyzed in

this paper.

Without adhering to GATS, some Arab countries have been witnessing an apparent increase

in the number of cross-border institutions. Examples are Egypt, Qatar, the United Arab

Emirates and others. The trend towards privatization has also been increasing in almost all

Arab countries during the last ten years and government support to higher education, although

not totally diminished, is gradually decreasing to be substituted by the private sector. The

application of GATS may lead to further reduced state involvement in higher education.

Although the challenges posed by GATS will be major for Arab systems of higher education,

it is evident that neither policy-makers, nor the academic community, nor the stakeholders

have seriously analyzed this aspect to assess the future impact and implications. This is the

present state of affairs, although a good number of Arab countries have joined WTO and will

be obliged to enter into actual negotiations on the application of GATS. This paper will be a

good opportunity to raise awareness among all Arab stakeholders concerning the agreement

and what it represents for the future of Arab systems of higher education and research.

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Based on the analyses in the various sections, the paper will attempt to state some conclusions

and recommendations which may help policy-makers to deal with the possible future

challenges and implications of GATS.

II. Legal and political contexts of GATS

As an international instrument approved by governments, GATS has certain stipulations

which must be respected. So, legal and political action must be taken to implement this

instrument at the national level under the strict control of the WTO. Any violations by

national governments will be referred back to this body for judgement regarding disputes

between governments and institutions. From the political point of view, only governments can

enter into negotiations affirming the political sovereignty of the states party to the agreement.

In the case of higher education, academic institutions, in spite of their autonomy, are rarely

called upon to participate in the rounds of negotiations. Nor are NGOs active in this field.

Adhering to GATS is thus a political decision which has policy, legal and administrative

consequences.

Although the political context is clearly defined and concerns national governments which are

members of WTO, the legal context remains unclear and subject to different interpretations –

particularly in terms of services that can be included in the negotiation plans or schedules of

governments. Although in principle GATS applies to all services sectors, Article 1.3 excludes

“services supplied in the exercise of governmental authority”. These are services that are

supplied neither on a commercial basis nor in competition with other suppliers. This is

perhaps the most controversial article that has triggered most of the debate over the inclusion

of higher education in the agreement.

For the Arab Region, the interpretation of these exclusion phrases may be positive or negative.

Since most Arab countries presently allow the establishment of private institutions, higher

education services are not totally the responsibility of government. Furthermore, a part of

higher education services is being provided on commercial and competitive basis. However,

all these services are provided in conformity with the strict rules and regulations of

government in terms of licensing and accreditation. Moreover, some private institutions

receive government funding and some public institutions receive private funding. This

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100

situation may lead to a more complicated interpretation of Article 1.3 of the agreement. Hence,

it extremely difficult to clearly define which education services are supplied strictly on

commercial basis due the public/private mix in all systems and within many institutions of

higher education (Gilles and Lambert, 2003).

The Arab countries, according to the above analysis, may seem unable to benefit from the

exemption of Article 1.3 and may be obliged to include higher education in their negotiation

schedules. However, they may put limitations on various modes of trade in this domain such

as cross-border supply or commercial presence. It must be said that a number of Arab

governments may see benefits in making a full commitment to GATS, including in the higher

education field, particularly as related to cross-border providers, consumption abroad,

commercial presence and presence of natural persons. In some Arab countries, all these modes

of supply applicable under GATS are being adopted on a bilateral basis. This is the case in

Egypt, the United Arab Emirates (UAR), and Qatar. It is worth mentioning here that in some

countries, such as Greece and Israel, there is almost total opposition to including non-national

providers in the national higher education system or to recognizing their diplomas and degrees

(Padayachee, 2003).

It is very important to note that if major international NGOs such as the European Universities

Association (EUA) consider the legal aspects of GATS to be ambiguous and request more

discussions particularly on Article 1.3, Arab governments should not rush into making

unrestricted or full commitments to the agreement before its possible consequences are

clarified and understood.

III. GATS: pros and cons

There is no doubt that GATS, like any other trade agreement, has both various advantages and

disadvantages of its course of action. The debate over these aspects has escalated during the

last decade involving not only policy-makers but also different stakeholders. The most

outspoken of these are the academic community and NGOs active in the field of higher

education.

It must be said here that, under GATS, governments have complete freedom to choose which

services are to be involved. Also, in their negotiation schedules, they can put some restrictions

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on the extent to which free trade is allowed with regard to certain services. This arrangement

thus allows Member States to negotiate conditions which maximize the advantages of the

agreement and minimize its disadvantages.

III.1 The Pros

Some advocates of free liberalized trade consider it important for countries to adhere to

GATT, GATS and other agreements concluded within the framework of WTO. Although they

recognize some negative consequences, they estimate that the advantages are enormous and in

the interest of Member States. They consider that a refusal to adhere to agreements will lead

to the total isolation of a country within the international trade system.

WTO itself has indicated six benefits of trade liberalization. They can be summarized as

follows:

(1) Economic performance: an efficient services infrastructure is a precondition for

economic success.

(2) Development: access to world-class services helps exporters and producers in

developing countries to capitalize on their competitive strengths, whatever the goods

or services they sell.

(3) Consumer savings: there is strong evidence in many services that the liberalization of

trade leads to lower prices, better quality and wider choices for the consumers.

(4) Faster innovation: countries with liberalized service markets are those which benefited

more from greater products and process innovations such the explosive growth of the

internet in the US.

(5) Greater transparency and predictability: a country’s commitments in its own WTO

services schedule amount to legally providing a guarantee indicating that foreign firms

will be allowed to supply their services under stable conditions.

(6) Technology transfer: services commitments at the WTO help to encourage foreign

direct investment (FDI). (WTO, 2007).

As seen by the proponents, advantages include: (a) greater student access to higher education

to help meet increasing demand; (b) innovation through new providers and delivery modes;

and (c) increased economic gains (Knight, 2006). But, although these benefits may be valid

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in their economic and commercial aspects, they tend to ignore the cultural and social

dimensions of free trade. While some of them are applicable to the education and higher

education services, there are other aspects of greater importance such as promotion of cultural

identity, developing national citizenship and nation building which cannot be commodified,

marketized or traded by foreign investors.

III.2 The Cons

In spite of the proclaimed benefits, many experts in developing countries are skeptical about

them. For them, globalization has not brought the promised economic gains. On the contrary,

it has led to greater inequality for developing countries. These experts think that, in spite of

opening up of the international trade, the absolute numbers of poor in the developing

countries have been constantly increasing. They call upon policy-makers and GATS’

negotiators to learn from lessons learnt from the applications of the agreement before pledging

unrestricted commitment to it (Pially, 2003).

Opponents of the agreement, from both developing and developed countries, have been strong

voices which maintain that increased trade, in higher education may:

(i) Threaten the role of governments to regulate higher education and meet

national policy objectives; and

(ii) Jeopardize the ‘public good’ and quality of education (Knight, 2006 p. 137).

For them, converting higher education from a public service to a

commercialized commodity must be totally rejected.

They also fear that the agreement may constitute a pretext for the further shrinking of the

government role and the possible take over of systems by the private sector and the corporate

community which are interested mainly in profit-making with less interest in serving national

interests and agendas. The fear in the developing countries is that, in addition to these

negative aspects, cross- and trans-border providers will lead to negative rather than positive

consequences such as increased social cost for higher education, the return of elitist systems

and the gradual vanishing of national systems that cannot compete with foreign providers.

Some critics consider the agreement as a pretext for a total take over by the corporate

community of higher education and for monopolizing research for commercial purposes. The

brain drain was cited as one of the negative consequences of the agreement which allows for,

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under its Mode 4: The presence of natural persons. Thus permitting greater mobility for

academicians and researchers.

To avoid the negative consequences for those governments that are obliged to include higher

education in their negotiation schedules some conditions are needed in relation to certain

aspects which allow for restrictive or gradual liberalization of trade. These include limiting

the number of branches to be operated by cross-border providers at national level, setting a

ceiling or percentage on the amount of profit they can make, or applying tight controls on

licensing and accreditation regulations.

In general, very influential NGOs such as the European University Association (EUA), the

Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC), the Advisory Centre for

Education (ACE), the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) and others see no

need for applying this new agreement to higher education and instead, they call for the

promotion of bilateral cooperation and those agreements reached within the framework of

multilateral organizations, such as UNESCO’s Conventions (UNESCO, 2002) on the

recognition of degrees and studies in higher education (Breton and Lambert, 2003).

It must be said that any agreement which is ambiguous, that does not gain consensus and

serves the interests of only certain stakeholders is likely to operate imperfectly. This seems to

be the case vis-à-vis GATS. This agreement has been criticized for representing only the

views and interests of developed countries with less say or influence from developing

countries (Tortian, 2003).

IV. Possible implications for higher education in the Arab States

Among the 150 members of the WTO, there are eleven Arab countries with full membership

and three with observer status (WTO, 2007). It is known that so far among the thirty-eight

countries which pledged commitments under GATS, there is only one Arab country (Bahrain).

However, it is not easy to verify whether Bahrain has already submitted its national schedule

for the forthcoming rounds of negotiation and whether education and higher education have

been included.

There is a possibility that a number of Arab governments will be pressured to open their

higher education to free trade. It has been mentioned before that a number of countries have

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already opened their markets for cross-border providers on a bilateral basis, even before

adhering to GATS.

It is important at this stage to speculate on the possible future consequences and implications

of adhering to GATS for Arab higher education. There is a fear that Arab negotiating teams,

mostly economists and planners, are not really aware of the negative consequences which may

result from unrestrictive commitments to GATS in a sensitive field such as education. These

teams are usually concerned with economic and financial benefits rather than social and

cultural priorities.

Also, it is crucial that all higher education stakeholders must quickly launch awareness

campaigns, through meetings, seminars and conferences with the intention of drawing

authorities’ attention to the negative and positive aspects of joining GATS. In other regions of

the world, controversial debates about these issues have taken place during the last decade.

Even very powerful NGOs active in higher education from developed countries have issued

declarations deploring the idea of including higher education in the negotiation of GATS and

warned governments about the possible catastrophic consequences. The Arab Region is far

behind in this domain and the present meeting should constitute a point of departure for

specialized future meetings focusing on GATS and Arab higher education. This meeting may

wish to issue a declaration to promote this idea and trigger awareness about the importance of

this issue among policy-makers, the academic community and all stakeholders.

IV.1 Policy implications

Any Arab country which includes higher education in its future negotiations related to GATS

will be required to make certain revisions to their current educational polices. For example,

allowing foreign providers to freely compete with national institutions of higher education

would require certain revisions to policies, which restrict these services to national entities

and citizens. Admission polices must be also adjusted to fit the requirements of cross-border

providers and those of non-conventional institutions of distance and virtual higher education.

The principle of free and equal access to higher education, which is dominant in Arab higher

education policies, will be less important under GATS.

In financial terms, the spread of private and foreign providers may gradually shrink

government’s support to higher education, leaving it totally to market forces.

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Unless Arab governments put restrictive clauses on the liberalization of trade, higher

education will be gradually converted from a public service to a marketable commodity open

for competition between national institutions and foreign providers. The fear is that in the

long run national institutions which cannot compete in free trade markets will vanish from the

scene to be replaced by foreign providers for whom cultural and social agendas are not

important. What is important is profit making!

IV.2 Legislative implications

In most Arab constitutions and educational legislation, higher education is a basic human right

and is the sole responsibility of the state. Hence, in most countries, higher education is free.

As a result of the tremendous pressure caused by social demand and the inability of state

institutions to meet this, almost all countries have revised their legislation to allow the

development of private institutions which are owned by nationals. In some countries like

Egypt, Qatar, and the UAE, cross-border providers were allowed to operate due to exceptional

legislation and within the framework of bilateral agreements.

Once commitments are made within the framework of GATS, Arab legislation must undergo

major revisions to offer fair, unrestricted and indiscriminate treatment to foreign providers as

stipulated by the agreement. This can only be avoided if governments indicate in their

negotiation schedules some restrictions which will apply once the agreement is enforced.

Examples of such restrictions are: (a) to limit number of foreign providers; (b) to limit the

profit margins; (c) to limit the number of students to be admitted to foreign institutions.

IV.3 Regulatory implications

It is well known that most Arab countries [and also African countries (Mihyo, 2004)]lack

sound mechanisms and frameworks for accreditation, recognition and quality assurance of

institutions of higher education, despite the importance of this aspect for all countries whether

they are importing or exporting educational services. Before liberalizing trade in higher

education, it is vital to set up national mechanisms which can address accreditation and

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quality assessment procedures for the academic programmes of new and foreign providers.

This is very important for preventing foreign providers from offering programmes of dubious

quality (Pially, 2003).

The ever increasing expansion of distance and open higher education with major investments

in the utilization of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has resulted in new

types of higher education represented by virtual universities, e-learning institutions and open

universities. This has undoubtedly changed the whole landscape of the higher education

systems. All these types of providers are capable of crossing borders without adhering to the

rules and regulations of any state. In the absence of national and international regulatory

frameworks, the concepts of quality, accreditation and recognition of studies and degrees

remain questionable areas.

The absence of these mechanisms and frameworks constitute major obstacles for Arab States

with regard to liberalizing trade in higher education. However, this can be used as a valid

argument by academics and stakeholders for convincing governments to delay the inclusion of

higher education in their commitments to GATS and, instead, to opt for more gradual

liberalization in future negotiation rounds.

IV.4 Educational implications

A consistent criticism of the liberalization of higher education is that it will curtail a nation’s

ability to develop its own system, thus reflecting its unique social, cultural and political

characteristics (Pially, 2003). There is also a risk of homogenizing national education systems.

Foreign providers bring with them foreign curricula which mostly have limited relevance to

the importing countries’ socio-cultural contexts. This is in contradiction with the national

mission of higher education which seeks, among other functions, to preserve and promote

national cultures, instil cultural identity and educate for citizenship.

The most important and crucial fear is that flooding a country with foreign providers, based

on GATS, will force national institutions, which cannot compete with foreign providers in

free-trade markets, to gradually disappear from the national map of higher education. This

situation may lead in the long run to a total take over by cross-border providers with no

interest in serving national objectives and agendas.

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IV.5 Financial implications

It is a fact that globalization and its instruments such as GATT and GATS seek first and

foremost to decrease the role of the state not only in commerce and services but also in almost

all human activities. In other words, it seeks to end the concept of the welfare state which is

dominant in most Arab and developing countries.

In these countries, the public funding of higher education is witnessing either zero or negative

growth despite the rising social demand. This is why most of them have recently allowed the

private sector to share the financial burden. The role of this sector in funding has greatly

increased in recent years, thus, giving governments’ reasons to reduce its public funding to

higher education. The question to be raised concerning funding vis-à-vis GATS is whether

cross-border providers can mobilize alternate funding sources or whether they are there to

gain access to financial resources. Although in both cases the answer is ‘Yes’, they will signal

to governments that they can decrease funding for higher and adult education, thereby

jeopardizing domestic publicly-funded institutions (Knight, 2006).

Allowing free trade in higher education with foreign providers charging high tuition fees will

both increase the cost of education, thus paving the way for the return of the elitist systems,

and increase the financial burden on the society as a whole.

IV.6 Socio-cultural implications

The mission of higher education is not restricted to training professionals and serving

economical objectives only. As well, it must instil cultural values and social equality.

Education being a basic human right must be made available to society either free or at

affordable cost. This is a principle which has prevailed in Arab countries since the post-

independence era. However, there is a fear that converting higher education into a marketable

commodity will endanger this cherished principle.

Higher education must assume the responsibility of preserving and enriching the national

culture, preparing for citizenship and serving national social and economic objectives and

agendas. There is a doubt that foreign providers will be interested in catering for these

objectives. On the contrary, they may contribute to the homogenization of cultures and focus

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on economic returns and profits. Experiences have often proved that foreign providers are

insensitive to the national, cultural, educational and social ethos of other countries.

It is clearly stated in most Arab legislation that education is responsible for instilling Arab and

Islamic values and ethics and for contributing to the preservation and enrichment of social and

cultural traditions. Foreign providers will be less interested in serving these objectives for two

reasons (a) their interest is mainly in programmes which can be saleable on the market; and (b)

they bring with them cultural values that are predominant in their countries of origin. This will

certainly contribute to the homogenization of national cultures and therefore threaten the

concept of cultural diversity.

A relevant question, particularly in the cultural domain, is whether Arab governments will be

able to force foreign providers to customize their programmes, curricula and content to fit and

be more relevant to their national contexts.

Therefore, any Arab country deciding to adhere to GATS and including education in this

agreement must be aware of the possible negative cultural and social consequences and

attempt to lay down some limitations and restrictive measures to preserve its social and

cultural identity.

V. Conclusions

From the previous analyses of the nature and objectives of GATS, the following conclusions

may be drawn:

The debate over the implications of GATS on higher education and research has intensified

during the last few years and is divided between the opponents and proponents of the

agreement. The arguments focus on highlighting the possible negative or positive impact of

the agreement regarding the future of higher education. Within the Arab Region, very limited

debate has taken place on GATS.

The amount of trade in higher education was estimated to be around US$ 30 billion in 1999.

This amount may have increased by the year 2006 to reach over US$ 40 billion. This indicates

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the increase of higher education in terms of economic power. This is one of the reasons to

include it into GATS negotiations.

There are ambiguous stipulations in the agreement that can be subjected to different

interpretations such as Article 1:3 which deals with the exemption from the agreement of

services “supplied in the exercise of governmental authority”.

There is no doubt that GATS, like any other trade agreement, has some advantages and

disadvantages. There is a need for the Arab countries to undertake negotiations which will

lead to maximize the benefits and minimize the disadvantages.

Although the proclaimed benefits of GATS, on which most of the proponents focus their

arguments, may be valid in their economic and commercial aspects, these tend to ignore the

cultural and social dimensions of free trade.

Opponents of the agreement, from both developing and developed countries, maintain that

increased trade, in higher education may: (1) threaten the role of governments to regulate

higher education and meet national policy objectives; and (2) jeopardize the ‘public good’ and

quality aspects of higher education.

There is a fear that Arab negotiating teams, mostly economists and planners, are not really

aware of the negative consequences which may result in making unrestrictive commitments to

GATS in such a sensitive field such as education. These teams are usually concerned with

economic and financial benefits rather than with social and cultural priorities.

It is important, at this stage, that all Arab higher education stakeholders launch awareness

campaigns, through meetings, seminars and conferences with the intention of drawing

authorities’ attention to the negative and positive aspects of joining GATS. In other regions of

the world, debate on these issues has been controversial over the last decade.

Any Arab country which includes higher education in its future negotiations of GATS will

probably be required to make certain policy and legislative revisions to current educational

polices to offer fair, unrestricted and indiscriminate treatment for foreign cross-border

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providers. This may lead to the disappearance of national institutions that cannot compete on

free-trade markets.

Before liberalizing trade in higher education, it is vital to have national mechanisms which

address accreditation and quality assessment procedures for the academic programmes of new

and foreign providers. This is very important for preventing foreign providers from offering

programmes of dubious quality.

A consistent criticism of the liberalization of higher education is that it will curtail a nation’s

ability to develop its own system reflecting its unique social, cultural and political

characteristics. There is also a risk of homogenizing national education systems. Foreign

providers bring with them foreign curricula which mostly have limited relevance to the

importing countries’ socio-cultural contexts.

Allowing free trade in higher education, with foreign providers charging high tuition fees, will

on the one hand increase the cost of education, thus paving the way for the return of the elitist

systems, and on the other, will lead to shrinking government funding thus increasing the

financial burden on society as a whole.

Higher education must assume the responsibility of preserving and enriching the national

culture, preparing for the citizenship and serving national social and economic objectives and

agendas. There is a doubt that foreign providers will be interested in these objectives. On the

contrary they may contribute to the homogenization of culture and focus on financial gains.

VI. Recommendations

The following recommendations can be proposed:

Due to the apparent lack of awareness and knowledge about GATS among Arab States’

policy-makers, it is recommended that a series of meetings, debates and consultations be

organized involving all stakeholders with the purpose of discussing possible negative and

positive implications of liberalizing trade in higher education in Arab States.

The Arab academic communities and NGOs active in the field of higher education must

regularly place GATS on the agenda of their meetings and debates, and issue relevant

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declarations and appeals concerning the GATS agreement for the attention of their respective

governments.

If any Arab country decides to include higher education in its GATS agreement it must either

opt for gradual liberalization or lay down some restrictions and limitations that preserve

national interests and maximize the benefits of the agreement.

Before entering into commitments, Arab countries must seek clarifications on the ambiguous

phrases stipulated in the agreement such as Article 1.3.

Since most Arab countries have not so far been able to establish efficient frameworks or

mechanisms for accreditation and quality assurance in higher education, this may lead to the

inability of governments to adequately regulate the quality of cross-border and foreign

providers. It is, therefore, recommended that Governments delay actions to include higher

education in the GATS negotiations until these measures are in place.

Arab Governments must explore the possibility of entering into negotiations of GATS as a

regional group, within the framework of the Arab League, such as the case with the European

Union (EU).

Arab governments should assess the impact of GATS and learn lessons from its applications,

in terms of positive and negative consequences, before committing themselves to this or other

trade agreements.

* * *

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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES Breton G. and M. Lambert (Eds) Universities and Globalization: Private linkages, Public trust. UNESCO, Paris 2003 Knight Jane, Higher education in the trade context of GATS. Presentation at Unesco Regional scientific committee for the Arab States , Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates , 2006 Mihyo, P. GATS and higher education in Africa: Conceptual issues and development perspectives. Paper presented to the Association of African Universities workshop on the implications of GATS for higher education in Africa, Accra, Ghana, 2004 Neave, G (Ed.) The Universities’ Responsibilities to Society: International Perspectives. International Association of Universities, Paris 2000 Padayachee, L The treatment of higher education within GATS: the present status of negotiations. Trade Law Centre for Africa, 2003 Tortian Hassmik, The impact of globalization on higher education. Masters’ thesis presented to the University of Westminster , 2003 Vlk, A . The negotiation of higher education under GATS. Legal and regulatory consequences and stakeholder responses. Centre for higher education policy studies CHEPS, Twente University, 2002 UNESCO Proceedings of the first global forum on International quality assurance, accreditation and the recognition of qualifications in higher education. UNESCO, Paris 2002 WTO: The general agreement on trade in services (GATS): objectives, coverage and disciplines. http:// wwww.wto.org

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Funding higher education in the Arab States:

thoughts and reflections on the topic

Ali El-Hawat Professor of Sociology, Faculty of Literature, Sociology Department University of Al-Fateh Tripoli, Libya Libyan Arab Jamahiriya National Commission for UNESCO

I. Objectives

In this paper an attempt is made to achieve three inter-related objectives:

• The first objective is to draw a comprehensive image of the funding strategy of

higher education (HE) in Arab States.

• The second objective is to account for the growing changes in this funding strategy.

These changes are seen in the partnership of the private sector in higher education and

the growing forces of globalization. However, the trend has a significant impact on

both higher education in the form of institutions and on the Arab society at large,

particularly in the scientific, social and political arenas.

• The third objective of this paper is to see how Arab higher education planners and

decision-makers look for ways and means to fund higher education outside the public

sector and to re-orient it in order to produce better-trained graduates and knowledge

that serve the need for their development in a very dynamic, twenty-first century

global society.

It should be noted that it is difficult to cover all Arab societies in this short paper. Therefore,

the focus and analysis are directed only to the general trends of funding higher education in

Arab societies and the possible impact that could be seen as a result of these changes.

Finally, this paper will seek to make recommendations toward financing the growth and

development of HE in Arab societies in the twenty-first century, especially with regards to

developing the quality of higher education and the knowledge base that is required to help

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secure a truly global society, culture, and economy as well as a global mind and vision of the

Arab student.

II. Methodology

In order to achieve the objectives of this paper, the methodology utilized is based on situation

analysis, and the assessment of the prevailing conditions of Arab higher education in broad

terms. For this purpose, some indicators and classifications are designed to analyze the growth

of higher education in Arab countries, and to evaluate the changing patterns and/or the

expected changes in the funding of higher education. There is growing change and this will

have its strong impact in the near future. This change might be more noticeable in areas other

than at present, but it is growing fast with regard to the funding strategies of higher education.

The author’s long experience as a university staff member in an Arab society is included in

this paper’s methodology, analysis and interpretation.

III. Funding strategy

During the 1950s and 1960s after their independence, most Arab countries struggled to

develop systems of higher education that would enable their societies to build education

systems that would flourish and grow. The search to develop such education systems was

consistent with a global trend in which the expansion of higher education was the most

important single post-war trend worldwide (Abdalla Abu Batana, 2006).

Arab governments have rapidly established a great number of universities in recent decades.

In 1950, there were no more than ten universities scattered across the Region. Today,

however, the Arab Region has more than 200 higher education institutions, universities, and

colleges, and has witnessed an unprecedented increase in enrolment rates in higher education

institutions. This increase resulted from a growing social demand for education and the

governments’ commitment to render higher education as accessible as possible. However, all

of these higher education institutions were funded through public sources (Ahmed Hassan

Mohammed, 2006).

Most Arab governments spend between 10 to 20 per cent of their annual budgets on education,

including HE. Arab governments have many other competing obligations, some of which

include building a modern state, ensuring equal opportunities to citizens, and the offering of

free basic and secondary education ‘free for all’ to citizens (as stipulated in the constitutions

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of most Arab countries). However, this trend can no longer be sustained due to several

constraints such as: (i) population growth; (ii) limited financial resources; (iii) foreign debt

and (iv) political problems in the Region, which draw significant amounts of capital for

buying arms to the detriment of building schools, hospitals and providing social services. As a

result, higher education in the Arab Region has fallen short of meeting its social and economic

goals. Some of the main factors that have been identified as putting a strain on higher

education in the Region include the following:

1. Increased population growth and the massification of secondary education.

2. Inadequate financial resources.

3. Inflexible and centralized management.

4. Lack of diversification in the programmes/ and institutions of higher education.

5. Inability to meet students’ needs; and

6. Weakness of the links between higher education institutions, general and secondary

education institutions, local communities and societal and human development

needs.

These factors formed the basis for policy-makers at the Arab Region Conference on Higher

Education in Beirut 1998 (UNESCO, 2003), in preparation for the World Conference on

Higher Education, to state the need for:

(1) New teaching and learning methods and processes.

(2) New education technologies.

(3) New scientific and analytical thinking skills; and

(4) New ways and programmes for financing and managing HE institutions.

In addition, the most notable change in the last two decades has been the establishment

of a sizeable number of new providers of higher education both at the university and the

technical levels. In fact, of the 203 universities in the Arab Region today, 62 were established

during the fifteen year period from 1975 to 1989, while 54 were established during the 1990s,

and 32 since 2000. To these, one should add the numerous community colleges, technical

higher education. Institutions and colleges of technology established in many Arab countries

show that almost 30 per cent of all such institutions were established during the last decade,

totalling no less than 170 institutions throughout the Arab States with a concentration in

Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestinian Territories, Sudan, and the United Arab

Emirates.

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Another feature of this new trend is that a large number of the institutions constitute private

non-governmental institutions, many of which are being established in partnership with

American or European institutions of higher learning, and most of which are for-profit

institutions and, therefore, are accessible only to those who can afford them.

During this period, the number of students has also grown from less than some thousands to

more than 5 million university students at the present time. This development in the number

of universities and students has rendered Arab governments unable to find financial resources

to manage such an education system alongside other social services such as health and social

welfare programmes.

Arab governments, including oil producing countries, find themselves in a difficult situation

since they are committed, at least in theory, to providing equal opportunities in education.

But in reality they are no longer able to provide or offer such education freely. The cost is

very high, requiring budget cuts for other social services like health care and social welfare

programmes. As a result of such strains and pressures Arab governments have attempted, to:

• Allocate a percentage of their national budget to higher education and scientific

research; however, this budget is very small and does not exceed 5 per cent of the national

budget. This decrease in financial resources has led to budget cuts on different higher

education programmes, including reform programmes related to the quality of higher

education and programmes related to infrastructure development.

• Limit the admission of students at the higher education institutions, so as to limit and

reduce the total cost of higher education.

• Integrate some public universities and colleges in one university, in order to reduce

expenditure. For example, Libya adopts this strategy and has reduced public universities from

fourteen to nine universities, but is allowing private universities.

• Impose fees on students, especially those relating to registration, library services,

books, and other social services.

• Reduce expenditure on some scientific research programmes, especially, research that

does not serve development. Theoretical, and basic research, as a result is very much reduced

and therefore is absent in Arab universities.

• Request financial funds from foreign countries and international organizations like

UNESCO, the World Bank, and other Arab development organizations, especially Arab oil

countries like Libya, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States.

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• Obtain income from consultative services offered by universities to different

organizations, public or private, and reinvest this income in higher education programmes.

Such a strategy is adopted in many Arab countries such as Egypt, Jordan, Libya, Morocco and

Tunisia.

• Reduce daily management expenditure such as office furniture, transportation, paper

and building maintenance. [Information concerning these strategies is taken from ISESCO

(2003)].

All these strategies have had a direct effect on higher education and scientific research, but

translate to a lack of funds for higher education growth, especially with regard to its quality

and knowledge production. In addition, this change of funding on higher education will affect

students from poor families and low socio-economic classes in Arab societies, which means

creating more social gaps between different groups of the society, especially students who can

and those who cannot access private higher education. The best thing families can hope for is

to pay for their children’s education, but most poor families will be unable to afford the cost

of sending their children through higher education, thus many of these children are likely to

enter the labour market at a very young age or end up without work as is the situation in many

Arab countries today.

IV. Growing changes and higher education (HE)

Arab societies and their education systems are facing dramatic changes. To account for such

changes, the following trends can be observed:

• Encouragement of the private sector, local or foreign, to invest in higher education.

• Insufficiency of budget allocations to social welfare programmes including higher

education.

• Imposition of fees on higher education, and other social services.

• Unemployment of many university graduates. Employment in the Arab States is at

least in the range of 15-20 per cent of the labour force, a great percentage of which

pertain to graduates of different educational levels.

• Lack or delay of many plans of reforming higher education, especially aspects of

quality, and introducing modern educational technology.

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• Widening of the gap between the university curriculum, and the labour market,

especially in the modern sector of the economy which depends heavily on the

knowledge economy and information technology.

• Growth of religious fundamentalism among university students, and the absence of

cultural dialogue among different groups in Arab societies.

• Brain drain of educated graduates looking for a better lifestyle, income, and better

opportunities for self-development, and personal freedom.

V. Funding higher education: changes and crises

Funding higher education in Arab countries is facing new challenges and requires new

funding sources to continue in size and quality. These challenges are growing mostly for the

following reasons:

1. In general, higher education is under-funded, except in some Arab oil countries. At

present, most higher education institutions are unable to meet the increasing social demands

for higher education or the support which is necessary for reforming and modernizing the

programmes in order to cope with the challenges imposed by globalization and socio-

economic develop.

2. In view of recent national and international development, the role of the state in

developing countries to finance public services, including higher education, is diminishing.

Recent national and international reports refer to a continuous decline in financing higher

education, especially in countries implementing a new structural adjustment and/or

privatization (Abdalla Abu Batana, 2006).

3. Instead of concentrating on improving higher education infrastructure and research

projects administrations focus more on the daily management of HE budgets in many Arab

States. Furthermore, this problem is being exacerbated by increasingly crowded classrooms, a

lack of modern education technology, unqualified staff and high drop-out and repetition rates.

Under such circumstances, higher education has become a real challenge to making way for

development and to policy-makers, rather than becoming a tool of development. Perhaps only

now it is becoming a veritable tool for social and political instability in the region.

4. The crisis is building up and the private sector has now become an alternative to HE

funding. Many private or semi-private universities have sprung up in Arab countries without

sufficient planning, capital, or qualified personnel. The problem is that these private

universities were not created following the models of western countries. Instead, they were

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established in haste to try to solve a social problem rather than to improve higher education

research activities and the quality of education.

Consequently some remarks should be brought to light and noted concerning these new

private universities in Arab countries. They were not well-planned and could be compared to

fast-food stands in the crowded streets of western cities; whose role is to provide food to

appease hunger.

Another major problem should be pointed out and that is the lack of available transparent

reliable statistics on the private funding of higher education and research activities in Arab

countries, even as the number of private universities increases. However this type of

education is severely criticized and opposed by many, on the grounds that private higher

education will create many social and cultural problems. The most important of these

criticisms is that:

1. Some consider private education to be against social justice because private higher

education will lose its role as a mechanism for social mobility in Arab societies and as a

tool for improving the low standards of living of vulnerable groups, for the simple

reason that only the wealthy can afford to pay for their children’s higher education

2. Some also see it, right or wrong, as a cultural privilege for the wealthy. It will also

introduce other cultural values and norms that are different from the national culture,

especially in the case of foreign-funded universities, and higher education institutions.

As a result, it is believed that Arab governments are still reluctant and hesitant to accept

private HE especially those which are totally funded, and supported, by foreign capital and

funds. Furthermore, Arab governments may put considerable preconditions on opening

private universities of higher education. In addition, the private sector’s contribution to

education, including higher education, is something new to the Arab mindset and the value

structure of the Region. Wealthy Arabs and organizations usually invest in land, real estate

and trade but never in education and higher education. Therefore, the private sector is quite

hesitant to invest in higher education. This is contrary to what is going on in western

countries, especially in Canada and the US.

Also, it could be considered that those Arab governments which encourage private sector

investment in HE do not wish to acknowledge their social, economic and cultural influences.

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It will take a very long time to convince wealthy Arab businessmen, individuals or

organizations to put their capital in human development projects (HDP). Unless the Arab

mindset changes and accepts investment in education, Arab higher education will continue to

depend on government sources and will continue to face financial difficulties and challenges

of quality relevant to societies’ contemporary needs.

VI. Changes of funding patterns: impact and consequences

There are changing patterns of funding higher education, be it:

• reducing public allocations;

• decreasing the financial services for education;

• allowing the private sector to take up the responsibility of HE.

Higher education will be affected as an institution; and society at large also. As an institution

or a system it will be distanced from achieving any higher education excellence, and will not

be able to admit and/or meet growing social demand. The impact can be observed in the

following three areas:

1. Social impact

a. The absence of the role of higher education as a mechanism to upgrade the social

mobility of many vulnerable groups especially the poor, women, and rural

populations.

b. The reproduction of illiteracy – at least in the sense of technological illiteracy and

modern specialities.

c. An increase in unemployment, which will lead to more poverty in the Arab

modern society, simply because the youth lack modern technological education

necessary for the modern labour market whether inside Arab societies or abroad.

d. Widening the gap between Arab societies and advanced developed societies

worldwide. This gap will further isolate Arabs from modern economy and culture.

e. A growing prevalence of social problems in Arab societies, such as crime, social

disorganization, corruption, possibly religious fundamentalism, and political

unrest.

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f. The widening gap among people who benefit from university education, and

people who are unable to do so. The result is a lack of consensus among the

citizens of one nation: the immediate result of which is backwardness of nation

building in the modern sense.

2. Scientific impact

Decreasing funds for higher education limits and even prevents necessary reforms especially

in the areas of quality and knowledge production. If the alternative is private higher education,

this will foster moreover the type of knowledge and reform that serves its goals and economic

interests. So the dilemma in supporting only the public sector is that HE will not receive the

funds needed to carry out its needed reform, and the private sector will care only for certain

aspects of reform that serve its goals and interests. For example, the public sector cannot

finance major reforms in educational technologies and education infrastructure such as good

libraries, advanced laboratories and educational university campuses while the private sector

does not take into consideration the cultural and social role of HE in the overall development

of the country. The private sector is usually motivated by profit or ideological interests. This

is exemplified by the Arab student who studies in a private university and is not trained for

the real needs of his society. He is usually trained to benefit foreign economy and not society

operating in his home country; consequently he will go abroad to live and work in the west.

As for the consequences of the lack of funds for HE, the unqualified teaching staff and limited

resources available for research activities, the result is twofold: a slowing down process of

building knowledge-societies in the Arab World and a system that remains traditional and

incapable of preparing students in the modern technological sciences. Instead it will

concentrate on social sciences, art, law, and classical sciences which are not really needed in

the modern labour market as mentioned previously. Private universities will tend to

concentrate only on limited subjects that serve their goals for-profit or serving certain social

and cultural purposes. A typical example is that many private universities in Arab countries

teach only business administration, social science and some technological sciences that are

needed either in the local labour market, or on the international market. While these subjects

are, indeed, needed, development and nation-building still demand a wider range of specialties

and subjects.

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3. Political impact

Lack of public funding for HE has led to encouraging the private sector to invest more in

same. And this, in itself, has led to relaxing the heavy hands of governments on the minds,

curricula and research activities of the universities. Also it has opened the way to different

cultural effects of higher education, in particular, the influence of foreign capital, which has

resulted in a gradual change in HE of its goals, roles and purposes. Perhaps as a result, Arab

societies are now divided into two opposing political forces – the national goals of nation-

building and the international interests of the global market and economy. Also, the HE

system becomes a platform for political debate and, to some degree, a forum for ideological

conflict between global views and local national views.

However, scarcity of funds may have several consequences:

(1) Diversification of political culture inside universities, especially between

public and private higher education, especially if the private is funded by foreign

capital.

(2) Growth of a sub-political culture within the national culture. This sub-culture

may have different views and come from different walks and talks of life, which vary

from the prevailing national culture.

(3) Growth of new political concepts relating to human rights, women’s freedom,

democracy and freedom of the individual and the economy, while these concepts may

be spreading not due to HE, but rather because such concepts gain more strength in

private higher education institutions than in public universities.

Again, the encouragement of the private sector to invest in higher education is very recent in

Arab countries. It is not fully adapted in Arab education systems as many planners, policy-

makers, and the public oppose it on the grounds that private universities will widen social

differences among people (i.e. between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’ in society), that their

motive is for-profit and not quality higher education, or that they seek to gain some

ideological influence. Whatever the case, the foreseen results of private higher education will

be the commercialization of higher education rather than its protection as a human right. It

will become a commodity, subject to market laws and mechanisms.

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The outcome is that education will no longer be a tool for human development, but rather a

tool for profit and injustice in Arab societies. Probably 60 per cent of the Arab population is

below the poverty line by international standards. So how can this widespread population

adopt a better standard of living, free from economic poverty if public funds dry up in

education and other human development areas?

VII. Funding higher education and scientific research: plans and actions

In the light of a possible further scarcity of state funding caused by certain inescapable factors

such as the inability of states to increase financial allocations, foreign debt and the gradual

disappearance of covering social services including education, health and social insurance,

efforts must be directed to diversify sources of funding.

However, the World Conference on Higher Education (Nettleford, 1998) and it’s subsequent

meeting of partners (WCHE+5, 1998) affirmed that while seeking the contribution of all

stakeholders, including the private sector in the development of HE, states and governments

should fully pursue their responsibility and engagement for its support not leaving higher

education to be shaped solely by the market, because this will create an unpredictable

situation (UNESCO, 1998).

In view of the previous comments, the author identifies three scenarios that could help deal

with the problem of funding HE and scientific research in the Arab States.

Scenario 1: Maintain the prevailing funding pattern as such, but supervise closely the

management of higher education budgets, reverse the spending from daily administrative cost

such as salaries and transportation etc. in order to improve the quality of higher education –

especially in teaching technology and research activities.

In this scenario, it is important to take further legal and financial measures to re-direct

expenditures, the most important of which includes the following policies:

1. Impose new taxation on luxury goods and invest the revenue on the development of

HE; and create more infrastructures to meet the growing social demand on higher

education.

2. Allocate more financial resources from the public budget to higher education and

scientific research.

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3. Use the revenue of obligatory aims (Zaqaat in Arabic) in HE development.

4. Allocate part of the oil revenue in oil-producing countries to developing public

education in general and particularly in higher education; and

5. Establish a national fund for higher education and scientific research. This fund should

only be confined to HE and research projects.

Scenario 2: Create a higher education system owned by both the public and the private

sectors. In this scenario, higher education institutions should be established, financed and

managed in a partnership arrangement.

To ensure this, certain measures have to be taken:

a. Students should pay reasonable fees but within the financial abilities of their

families.

b. Students from low socio-economic categories should be supported by the state as a

way of developing society; and

c. Local economic establishments, companies, banks and businessmen should

contribute to HE development according to pre-arranged conditions – or contracting

out research to benefit them and the students.

Scenario 3: Allow the establishment of private universities that are financed either by local

markets, or through foreign capital. These private universities should put emphasis on high

quality HE and scientific research. In these universities, students would have to pay fees and

have obtained higher scores in secondary education prior to entry. Brilliant students who

come to study in these universities should be excused from paying any fees (through

scholarships from their countries or even from foreign sources).

These universities must take the following measures:

1. Teach Arabic, Arab history and cultural heritage, though other foreign language

courses may be part of the curricular..

2. Conduct advanced research related to national or internal economy.

3. Ensure that their boards are represented by national governments and the national

economy especially from the manufacturing, agriculture, trade and new technology

sectors.

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4. Ensure that the presidents of the universities or vice-presidents are nationals of the

country hosting the university.

5. Establish scientific and teaching relationships with national or international

institutions and admit a percentage of students from foreign countries. Likewise, this

applies to developed or developing countries.

As for the practical implementation of these three scenarios, and in author’s order of

preference:

Scenario 1: ‘The Prevailing Funding Pattern’ could be implemented as follows:

1. Design a five-year strategy, at the end of which all three scenarios are to be put into

practice.

2. Set up a national fund implementing these scenarios. This fund receives financial

allocations from the state and other national allocations earned from luxury goods taxation.

3. Receive capital from the revenue of research done by the university and its research

centres.

4. Set up a national board, or authority in charge of implementing all stages, and changes

demanded by these scenarios.

5. Issue administrative and legal programmes required by these scenarios.

6. Organize workshops, conferences, and expert meetings to make the public aware of this

alternative to higher education and to evaluate the outcome of implementing these scenarios.

Scenario 3: ‘Private universities’ could be implemented as follows:

1. The state should free itself completely from HE responsibility, and leave the ‘job’ to both

the national or foreign markets.

2. The state shall only monitor higher education from the perspective of quality assurance

(QA), and other legal aspects such as a company working, or investing, on its territories.

3. The state shall offer scholarships to its students to study in these universities.

4. The state should have neither control over the curricula, nor the teaching staff. But it is

obligatory that these universities teach national history, culture and language.

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Deciding the preference among these three scenarios constitutes a difficult decision, and may,

therefore, require further research and thinking, but primarily Scenario 1: ‘The prevailing

funding pattern’, is, the author believes, the most suitable one for Arab society, culture, and

economy.

The rationale behind such a choice can be explained given the following considerations:

1. Arab societies need to invest more money, effort, time and thinking on education in

order to meet the needs of the twenty-first century, including achieving better

standards of human development. At present, there are more than 70 million illiterate

persons in Arab countries, eight million of whom are children.

5. A university could be established as a branch of a foreign one, teach in any language and

conduct any desirable research.

6. Along with these scenarios, the state should establish a national system of the community

college type of HE. This system should be funded, managed, and geared towards the national

needs of labour, and the national social and cultural aspirations of the country.

Scenario 2: ‘Partnerships of Both the Public and Private Sectors Fora’ could be carried

out as follows:

1. Design a five-year strategy at the end of which this scenario should be implemented.

2. Create a capital for this type of higher education through transferring universities into

corporations of higher education, but with restricted and defined profit for their services.

3. Sell and transfer the capital of these universities into bonuses on the national and

international market.

4. Admit only brilliant students who can contribute to research, and knowledge production.

5. Establish a national board for over-seeing these universities academically and also policy-

wise.

6. A total of 50 per cent of the board members, and the presidents of these universities,

should be nationals of the Host Country.

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2. Higher education is the road map to building knowledge-societies in the Arab States,

and constitutes the only way to establish knowledge-societies and knowledge-

economies – and train modern nationals to think, live and work in a global world.

3. Private higher education is a good choice in any society, but the majority of the Arab

population lives below the poverty line and cannot afford to pay for their children’s

education, so there is no choice but for the state to contribute to its citizens’ education,

at least for the poorest and most vulnerable.

4. Higher education is always a public affair, so the private sector can contribute to

higher education, the state being responsible only legally and morally by offering

education to its citizens, especially in Arab societies where the citizens can hardly

manage to live as dignified human beings.

In addition to the aforementioned scenarios, one of the ways to minimize social demand on

higher education is to encourage the public and the private sectors to establish higher

education of the community colleges type. These colleges should be linked directly to local

labour markets and the community and in accordance with the social and economic needs.

These colleges can be financed in cooperation with or owned and managed by non-

governmental organizations (NGOs). These colleges should be somehow between university

education and secondary school education. Their main purpose is to admit students who seek

some kind of higher education and who are keen to enter the labour market as soon as

possible and become good, hard-working citizens of their local communities.

As higher education in the Arab Region is generally, with some exceptions, of lower quality

and similar to that of many developing countries, any strategy for funding higher education in

Arab countries must be devoted to quality assurance (QA). Arab higher education should also

introduce many reform programmes in curricula and teaching technology.

In addition, Arab countries should design plans and programmes for creating higher education

institutions in order to meet the growing social demand on higher education, update the

university and provide different programmes of HE and university programmes.

VIII. Summary and concluding remarks

This paper attempted to discuss the funding of higher education strategies and scientific

research in Arab States. It can be concluded that Arab higher education is undergoing drastic

change and transformation due to the forces of globalization and the dynamics of the twenty-

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first century. This trend affects not only funding patterns but also every aspect of Arab higher

education. In order to cope with societal patterns and demands, Arabs must adapt their

traditional higher education systems in not only terms of funding patterns, but also in almost

every aspect of the education system. Perhaps the most urgent area besides funding is the

quality of higher education (HE) and teaching methods.

This paper is concerned primarily with funding strategies and has concluded that funding

strategies, carried out in any form will have major impacts on both HE and society at large.

As for higher education itself, it must be transformed in philosophy and practice, and if it

continues as it is now, it will become an education system serving society in times past, not

modern society. of today. In addition, such higher education will create more social problems

than offering solutions to these problems. Unless the whole education system, higher

education included, is transformed and modernized, further development, in other domains, of

Arab countries will be of no avail.

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The major conclusion reached in this paper is that reform/funding strategies of higher

education, whether as a result of shrinking funds or the participation of private sector, will

have over the long-term three major impacts:

I. A social impact as observed as some kind of disorganization and the

growing gap between different social groups.

II. A scientific impact as already observed by the growing gap between

knowledge-societies and poorer knowledge-societies; and

III. A political impact as observed in the growing political unrest and

lack of stability

Finally, this paper holds the assumption that it is too early to evaluate the situation, but that

regardless as to whether Arab societies adopt private or public higher education it is thought

that three scenarios could be followed:

• The first to maintain the public higher education as it is but to allocate more

funds to meet the needs of quality and social demands on higher education.

• The second to have higher education funded and managed by both the public

and private sector.

• The third scenario to allow the private sector to open private universities that

are designed basically to produce knowledge and modern technology, and

possibly to establish community colleges to satisfy the needs of the labour

market and promote good citizenship. These community colleges can be

established by either the public sector or the private sector provided that they

correspond to the ‘Social, Cultural and Economic Needs for Development of

Arab countries’ in the twenty-first century.

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Bibliographical References

Ahmed Hassan Mohammed. 2006. Distance Higher Education in the Arab Regions: The Need for quality Assurance Frameworks, Internet:http://www.westgaed-Distanceojdla/sprig81/Mohamed81.htm.

Abdalla Abu Batana. 2006. Education, Higher Education, and Scientific Research in

Islamic Countries: Status, and Future Prospects, Paris, Research Project in progress (Data and materials of the project).

ISESCO. 2003. Higher education financing in the 21st century, Rabat, ISESCO

publication. (in Arabic). UNESCO Cooperation Programme 2002-2003. Nettleford, R. 1998. Mobilizing the Power of Culture in Higher Education. Paper

presented at the Free Roundtable debate at the World Conference on Higher Education in the 21st Century (Vision and Action), UNESCO, Paris, 5-8 October 1998.

UNESCO. 1998. World Conference on Higher Education, (WCHE, 1998) Higher

Education in the Twenty-first Century, Vision and Action Framework for Priority Action for Change and Development of Higher Education (Draft) Ed98/con(202)7 Provisional. (Draft) ED-98/Conf-2022/7in press).

UNESCO. (2003). Higher Education in the Arab Region 1990-2003. Meeting of

Higher Education Partners, Paris, 23-25 June 2003.

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Research and development in the Arab States: the impact of globalization, facts and perspectives

Albert Sasson, Member, Hassan II Academy of Science and Technology, Rabat, Morocco Senior Visiting Professor, United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS), Yokohama, Japan

I. Research and development in the Arab States: an overview

In 2007, the Arab World accounted for twenty-two countries with a total population of

approximately 300 million people. Striking contrasts exist among these countries in terms of

revenue, socio-economic development and per capita income. Arab countries with significant

oil and natural gas resources benefit from high income, thus contrasting with the financial

revenue of countries with limited or no such resources. Human resources, despite the

endeavours made to date, are insufficient or even lacking in several areas, especially in the

scientific and technological ones. The Arab States have a low ranking in research

development and technological innovation. The overall spending in R&D is about 0.15 per

cent of the gross domestic product (GDP), compared with an average of 1.4 per cent in the

world, and 2.5 per cent in Europe. This spending is provided by the public sector to a very

large extent (97 per cent).

Covering the period 1990-2000, there were about 500 scientists and engineers involved in

R&D per million people in the Arab States, compared with more than 4,000 per million

people in North America, 2,500 in Europe and about 700 in South and East Asia. The world

average was around 1,000 per million.

By the end of the twentieth century, the number of publications – original writings and

translations – per million people was around 0.05 in the Arab World, compared with an

average of 0.15 worldwide and 0.6 in the industrialized countries. In Africa in 2006 and in

terms of scientific publications, Egypt ranked first, followed by Morocco and Tunisia. In

addition to universities, there were about 280 scientific research institutes or centres in the

Arab States, while the number of patents registered in the United States by Arab countries

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over the twenty-year period 1980-1999/2000 amounted to 171 for Saudi Arabia, 77 for Egypt,

52 for Kuwait, 32 for the United Arab Emirates, 15 for Jordan, 10 for Syria and 6 for Bahrain,

compared with 16,328 for South Korea, 7,652 for Israel and 147 for Chile.

II. Case Studies

1. Biotechnology

Among the key factors that determine the successful development of biotechnologies

in emerging countries, the following are worth mentioning:

• Strong political should be expressed over the long term (for at least 20 years).

• Selection of biotechnology as a major priority sector among a few priority areas.

• Design of a consistent strategy for short-, medium- and long-term policies, involving

all the actors and entities such as financial, educational and R&D institutions, as well

as providing for the formulation and enforcement of laws, regulations and procedures.

• Setting up a strategy that enables focused R&D to lead to specific products that meet a

demand in the local market or in the regional and international ones.

• Coordination of the whole R&D and production system at the highest level of the

government (e.g. in the Prime Minister’s Office) so as to ensure an effective

coordination among all the institutions involved, to avoid duplication of efforts and to

develop synergies.

• Mobilization of the private sector, which should find good reasons for association and

be convinced that it is crucial in its own interests.

• Collection of sufficient resources for investing in R&D and production.

Among the Arab States, Egypt, Tunisia and, to some extent, Jordan and the United

Arab Emirates (UAE), have tried to fulfil some of the above-mentioned criteria and be present

in the field of medical biotechnology. However, far less than other developing countries such

as Cuba (which invested more than US$1 billion over 20 years in the development and

production of bio-technology derived diagnostics, vaccines and drugs, and continues to work

hard on new processes of drug development), or India, Brazil or the Republic of Korea.

Agricultural biotechnology, in its simplest techniques such as in vitro micropropagation of

crop species and their commercial clonal multiplication, is carried out in several Arab States,

e.g. Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and the Gulf Arab States (particularly for the date palm).

But, except for Egypt, no genomics work is being carried out, nor is there any development of

transgenic crops which are more resistant to pests and tolerant to abiotic stress. However, the

impact of globalization can be perceived through some multilateral or bilateral assistance

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programmes and cooperation, which include the advanced training of scientists so as to

initiate more sophisticated R&D projects.

An illustrative example is that of the Pasteur Institute of Tunis, founded in 1893 by Dr

Charles Nicolle, who discovered the vector (lice) of exanthematic typhus (Rickettsia

prowazekii). Nowadays, this institute employs 370 persons, including 60 scientists. In

addition to its contribution to the implementation of public health policy, it is an R&D

institution as well as a training ground for about 100 graduate students (Master and Ph.D.

degrees) per year. Up until the end of 2005, the Pasteur Institute was also in charge of

producing vaccines, controlling their quality and distribution. The number of publications in

international journals by the Institute’s researchers had reached 322 in 2003 but, thereafter,

decreased to 27 in 2004 and 12 in 2005. The main R&D areas are tuberculosis, leishmaniasis,

rabies, venoms and toxins. Patents have been awarded for the identification of a tripeptide in

viper’s venom having an anti-aggregation platelet effect; for the identification of molecules in

scorpion’s venom with a pharmacological effect; and for the identification in Leishmania of

virulence factors that could be a target for medicines. Other patents have been filed for

Leishmania proteins that could be used in the development of a vaccine against this disease;

such as a DNA anti-rabies vaccine with a high immunogenicity in a single shot. Research is

being carried out on the production in the yeast Pichia pastoris of recombinant alpha-

interferon and of a molecule of Mycobacterium tuberculosis that could help to better diagnose

the disease. Production capacity of the Institute is about 75,000 10ml-vials of anti-scorpion

serum, 70,000 10ml-vials of anti-rabies serum, 40,000 10ml-vials of anti-venom (viper), as

well as 10 million doses of BCG per annum.

The research and development of the Pasteur Institute of Tunis are closely associated with

cooperation involving overseas research groups or teams, particularly in France, where there

is an important diaspora of Tunisian scientists, physicians and engineers. This is another

important impact of globalization on the current and future evolution of R&D in Tunisia, and

also in Algeria and Morocco, but much less for the Gulf Arab States and Egypt. These

scientists who have made the decision to live and work in Europe have often kept close ties

with their Maghreb countries of origin; and not only they can assist assist in various teaching

and training tasks locally on a part-time basis, but also help in designing and implementing

cooperation agreements.

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Another example is that of the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (FMHS) of the

United Arab Emirates (UAE) University. Although “biomedical research publications in the

Arab World mostly focus on the relatively cheap curative/comparative clinical services rather

than the more expensive research and development aspects” (Tadmouri et al., 2003), a small

number of people at FMHS/UAE University produced significant contributions over the

period 2000-06 in the areas of clinical research, basic research and translational or applied

research. For instance, in clinical and molecular immunology, this was carried out in

cooperation with Italian teams in Milan, Italy. Cooperation has been established with the

Terry Fox Cancer Research Fund on cancer immunotherapies, for the early diagnosis of

Parkinson’s disease; with the Wellcome Trust and the University of Cambridge, UK, and with

the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research in the US. There is also a significant

increase in funding for biomedical research. Despite the lack of a national strategy for

funding scientific research, there is a nascent post-graduate education programme and

opportunities for mutually beneficial scientific exchanges, both amongst the Arab States and

internationally. There are fellowships available to support exchange visits by European

students and postdoctoral fellows to laboratories in the UAE and vice versa. The UAE is

considered an attractive geographic location with modern facilities. Well-trained young

scientists are increasingly being recruited. Hiring on soft-money has become possible and the

UAE University Office of Research is very active in engaging industrial and private support

for research funding. Globalization has an obvious impact, due to the pro-business approach

of the government and its forward-looking mindset and to the favourable labour market

conditions. This is quite striking in the area of information and communication technologies

(ICTs), and the setting up of Dubai Biotechnology Park (Dubiotech) and of the Arab Science

and Technology Foundation (ASTF) could be considered good steps in the right direction.

2. Pharmaceutical industry

This is an area which is closely associated with R&D in the biomedical sciences and

biotechnology and on which globalization has a profound impact.

By 2005, the market value of pharmaceutical products in the Arab States was estimated at

US$6.2 billion, i.e. 1.5 per cent of the world market, for 6 per cent of the world population.

Jordan was the first exporter of pharmaceutical products for about US$280 million in 2003.

There were about 230 producers, private or public companies, working in association with

foreign partners. While some 90 per cent of raw materials are imported, R&D is at an

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embryonic stage and corresponds to less than 2 per cent of revenues. Products are mainly

generics manufactured under license and the formulation and reformulation of these products

is an important activity. A major challenge relates to the respect of intellectual property rights

(IPRs) and to the duration (up to two years) of registering a new drug with the Ministry of

Health (MOH).

In Jordan, the pharmaceutical industry occupies second rank in the country’s economy.

About sixteen factories, including eight private and six public, have a turnover ranging

between US$4 million and US$40 million, which is far below the minimum efficient scale in

Europe or the US (around US$500 million). Invested capital is about US$400 million and the

number of workers totals 5,000.

In 2005, total production reached a value of US$275 million, 77 per cent of which was

exported. A total of five companies dominated the local market (90 per cent), and the sector

grew by an average 15 per cent annually over the decade 1995-2005. Ventures of Jordanian

companies outside the country exist in Algeria, Bosnia, Egypt, Italy, Libya, Morocco,

Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen. The pharmaceutical products are:

60 per cent antibacterials, antirheumatics and pain killers; 30 per cent hormones, ophthalmic

preparations, anticancer and cardio-vascular drugs; and 10 per cent over-the-counter (OTC)

products.

The pharmaceutical sector has become the second largest export earner (US$193 million)

behind textiles (US$673.5 million). Among the Arab States, Jordan is the first exporter of

pharmaceuticals. The main importers are Arab countries (90 per cent), especially Algeria,

Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Iraq and the United Arab Emirates. Jordan’s pharmaceuticals are

registered in more than 60 markets worldwide, including Europe and the US. It is expected

that Europe will be Jordan’s main export destination and North America the second, thus

shifting the balance away from the traditional Arab markets. Henceforth, the establishment of

alliances to better meet the challenge of globalization which include licenses with Takeda

Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. (Japan), Fujisawa (Japan), Pfizer (UK), Roche and Bayer (US),

packaging with Novartis, co-marketing with Eli Lilly (US) and established Watson in Jordan.

Also, all companies have the local and regional good manufacturing practices (GMP)

accreditation, and six of them have the European Union (EU), US Food and Drug

Administration and GMP accreditation. In addition, Jordan has four clinical research

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organizations (CROs) meeting international requirements. Eight pharmaceutical colleges

graduate about 800 pharmacists a year (55 per cent of them are Jordanians) and there is a

Centre of Excellence in Healthcare (CEH). Jordan has gained good experience in drugs

registration in the region, in Europe and in the US.

However, despite the registration of forty patents by the Jordanian pharmaceutical industry in

Europe, the US and Japan, R&D corresponds to only 2 per cent of total sales, compared with

over 17 per cent in industrialized countries. The limiting factors are the financial resources

and the infrastructure for clinical testing. The owners of Jordan’s pharmaceutical industry try

above all to satisfy the shareholders by giving dividends of more than 50 per cent of the

annual net profit, although they do not spend more than 2 per cent on R&D itself. This is

generally the case for all Arab countries.

Dar Al Dawa (DAD, Home of Medicine), Jordan, established in 1975 as a public shareholding

company, has been considered number one for six consecutive years in the Jordanian market

and number sixteen in Saudi Arabia and number fourteen in the UAE. With a total registered

capital of around US$28 million, DAD employs 800 workers, produces 200 pharmaceuticals

(with annual sales of US$66 million in 2005), and exports to twenty-five markets.

DAD has partnerships in several companies: DADVet (Veterinary and Agricultural Industrial

Co., Ltd., 33 per cent ownership), SAIPH (Société Arabe des industries pharmaceutiques),

Tunisia; SAIDAL Pharmaceutial Production, Algeria; JORAS Pharmaceutical Spa, Algeria

(with 70 per cent ownership). Strategic alliances include licensing with Pfizer Inc.-US,

Novartis-Switzerland, Taisho-Japan, Octavis Island-Turkey; contract manufacturing and

supply with Australian, Dutch, French, Irish, Swedish and Turkish companies. DAD has

developed a new anti-bacterial molecule, the patent for which has been filed in Europe, Japan

and the US, with the preclinical studies looking promising. One product, registered in

Sweden, is expected to be marketed in 2007, while 12 other products were submitted in 2006

in Europe and Australia.

Jordan’s pharmaceutical industry owners are currently convinced that they should invest more

funds in R&D areas, because of the harsh competition and penetration of the regulated

markets. On the other hand, the cost of developing a generic product in Jordan is far less

compared to that of Europe and the US and consequently more European companies have

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started cooperating with the Jordanian ones to develop products for the European market. Co-

developing technology in Jordan, then outsourcing to Europe or the US, will lower the cost of

the operation. Managers need more training in order to penetrate the industrialized countries’

markets. Companies, mostly owned by families, must open up to face competition and be

present in the new regulated markets. Mergers will help to achieve a capital size that can

attract multinationals and thus increase the competitiveness of these companies.

Morocco’s pharmaceutical industry is another good example of a sector that is striving to

develop locally and, at the same time, to adapt itself to globalization. In addition, it is an

example of an incipient collaboration between the private sector and the academic one in

R&D.

The Moroccan pharmaceutical sector is considered as one of the most mature in Africa, the

Arab World and the Maghreb. In 2006, it included twenty-seven industrial sites where

national laboratories and multinationals are manufacturing their products under certification

by French regulatory bodies and by Canadian and British bodies in several cases. The sector

plays an important socio-economic role: 35,000 persons employed directly or indirectly,

including 20 per cent managers and executives; 10 per cent of the whole production is

exported, mainly to French-speaking African countries; drugs represent 37 per cent of health

care expenses by households.

About 80 per cent of national needs are met by the pharmaceutical sector. The antibiotics

share of the market value is 16.5 per cent, followed by anti-inflammatory and anti-

hypertension drugs. About €40 million are invested annually by the sector, mainly for

improving production and quality. R&D is incipient and illustrates the pioneering activity of

some national laboratories. Current challenges are the following:

• How does one cope with the small size of the national market? Drug expenses amount

to MAD200 (about US$20) per capita per annum; the number of drug units sold has been

stagnating since 1998; the whole annual turnover is around €500 million, with annual growth

not above 2-3 per cent over the last five years (2001-05). One solution is to expand the

business internationally and in so doing be in tune with globalization.

• How to anticipate the impact of the compulsory illness insurance set up in Morocco in

October 2005?

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• How to support the growth of generics locally? Generics made up 23 per cent of

Morocco’s pharmaceutical market in 2004, compared with 18 per cent in 2000.

• How to benefit from globalization through playing a more active role in the

international market? For example, drawing on the free-trade agreement (FTA) concluded in

2004 with the US, the European Union (EU, to be in place in 2010), or with Turkey which is

an important and promising market.

Even if it is true that the size of the Moroccan pharmaceutical market and the profits

generated, both locally and internationally, cannot support the costs of developing new drugs,

some R&D work can still be carried out nevertheless. For instance, clinical research can be

done in collaboration with multinationals, or efforts can be made to produce ‘botanical drugs’

from medicinal plants or plant extracts. Since 2006, an agreement has been concluded

between the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University Mohammed V, Sousissi, Rabat, and the

private laboratory of the pharmaceutical firm Cooper Maroc, to carry out research on the

argane tree (Argania spinosa), which is an endemic tree species growing in the southwest of

the country (Souss Region, Morocco) exploited for its edible oil. This R&D work is

supported by the Foundation Mohammed V for national solidarity. As the argane oil has been

used in cosmetics and skin ointments, the objectives of the collaboration between Cooper

Maroc and the Faculty of Pharmacy are to: (i) develop physicochemical studies; (ii) examine

galenic preparations; (iii) identify market needs and translate them into upstream research on

the most appropriate galenic preparation (cream or gel, for instance, and concentration of

saponines); and (iv) file the relevant patents.

3. Renewable energy

Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the fourth largest OPEC

oil producer with about 10 per cent of known reserves, is seeking to become a centre for the

development and implementation of clean energy technology. In 2006, the Emirate of Dubai

launched the Masdar Initiative (masdar is the Arabic word for source), which has signed up

major oil and technology companies and universities around the world, as well as UAE

ministries, so as to help develop and commercialize renewable energy technologies backed by

heavy funding from Abu Dhabi.

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The UAE has been singled out as one of the world’s highest per capita emitters of carbon

dioxide and other greenhouse effect gases. The UAE has an especially high energy demand to

maintain a luxurious life of air conditioning, cool swimming pools and even an indoor ski

slope in Dubai. But the UAE is the most serious among Persian Gulf oil-producing countries

whose consumption for electrical power has spawned efforts to find other sources of energy to

save high value fossil fuels for export. Masdar has drawn up a US$ 250 million Clean

Technology Fund and begun construction of a special economic zone for the advanced energy

industry. In February 2007, Abu Dhabi announced plans to build a 500-megawatt solar power

plant in the area – one of the most ambitious of its kind in the world. It should be operational

in 2009, either as a stand-alone plant or as part of a desalination project.

Furthermore, Masdar announced an even more ambitious project to develop a graduate-level

research centre in association with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and to

focus on renewable energy technologies. Scientists who join the programme will be able to

attend MIT courses in Boston and will be assisted in developing research and courses at Abu

Dhabi. The MIT administrators likened the endeavour to one that the university spearheaded

in Bangalore during the 1960s that helped create the high-technology corridor in India. “This

is the first oil-producing state that has accepted and agreed with the concept that oil may not

be the only source of energy in the future”, stated Professor F. Moavenzadeh, Director,

Technology Development Programme at MIT. In a decade, Masdar’s executives and MIT’s

administrators predict that Abu Dhabi is likely to have expertise in solar energy, photovoltaic,

energy storage, carbon sequestration and hydrogen fuel. Consequently, Abu Dhabi’s

expertize will be in energy, not just in oil. Sultan A. Al-Jaber, Chief Executive of the Abu

Dhabi Future Energy Company (ADFC), the government arm that manages the Masdar

Initiative, stated: “We realize that the world energy markets are diversifying, so we need to

diversify too. We see the growth of renewable energy as an opportunity, not as a problem”.

Abu Dhabi is undoubtedly a forerunner, but other Arab countries (oil rich and exporters of oil

and natural gas) have also dabbled with renewable energy. The Bahrain World Trade Centre

(BWTC) Project includes wind turbines that, developers say, will meet up to 35 per cent of

the Project’s power needs. Solar heating in houses is encouraged, while desalination of sea or

brackish waters is benefiting from technology advances aimed at saving energy. Last but not

least, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf Arab States have begun research programmes to look into

nuclear energy.

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III. Conclusions

National and regional studies, carried out by Arab experts, expatriates, or foreign specialists

(including from the United Nations specialized agencies and the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) have concluded that scientific research, development and technological

innovation in the Arab States needed a major whiplash to become closer to the world average

indices, such as the: (i) expenditure as a percentage of GDP; (ii) number of scientists,

engineers and technicians per million inhabitants; (iii) number of scientific publications in

peer reviews; and (iv) number of patents filed and of technological innovations that improve

the quality of manufactured products.

However, despite the wide range of social and economic situations, there is an increasing

awareness of the need to invest in R&D, in higher reduction, and in the training and retraining

of highly-qualified personnel and skilled labour, in addition to building the effective

infrastructures necessary. Certainly, foresight and political business acumen will play a key

role in this endeavour. This is witnessed, for instance in the case of launching the Masdar

Initiative in Abu Dhabi; in the case of the Education City in Doha, Qatar, which owes a lot to

Her Highness Sheikha Mouza Bint Nasser Al Misnad, Chair of the Qatar Foundation, and her

successful efforts to attract some of the best universities in the world; witnessed also in

Jordan, in the area of information and communication technologies (ICTs), as well as in the

pharmaceutical sector; and in Morocco and Tunisia, which are striving to undertake good and

relevant research aimed at supporting social and economic development – with practically no

support from oil revenues – in health care, medicine and pharmacy, as well as in agriculture,

forestry and fisheries.

Globalization plays a key role in this awareness and policy-making because it can offer

opportunities and benefits to those:

• Who would like to penetrate markets, using their competitive advantages

(skills, labour, geographical position, free-trade agreements, etc.).

• Who seek to build alliances and make joint ventures; and those

• Who are willing to adapt their technology and production to international

standards and regulations.

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To these ends, research, development and innovation are key factors. This trend is obvious in

the case of pharmaceuticals: the prospects for the development of the pharmaceutical sector in

both Jordan and Morocco are not only to meet local needs, but also to move towards the

international arena. Likewise, nowadays certain multinational pharmaceutical groups (mainly

European and North American) are trying to conclude cooperative agreements and joint

ventures with Indian firms – world champions in generics development, manufacture and

sales – often considered as foes (because they sell their generics at cheap prices, and may

infringe on the patents of drugs produced by the big pharmaceutical companies and thereafter

sell generic equivalents). However, enemies may become allies in the globalized

pharmaceutical market. Thus, Indian firms can develop new drugs (and even blockbuster

drugs) from the multitude of molecules screened by the multinationals at a lower cost and

even more rapidly, in addition to keeping their supremacy in the development and

manufacture of generics.

* * *

146

Antoine B. Zahlan

147

Keynote Address

Higher education, R&D, economic development, regional and global interface

Antoine B. Zahlan Science Policy Consultant, London, UK

Introduction

Knowledge and science are universal activities. Every society, however, has its own problems

and its own challenges. An essential feature of knowledge is that it requires human capital

(educated persons) for both its production and its application.

The national systems of higher education and research and development (R&D) are the

quintessential tools for the creation and application of knowledge. Although knowledge can

be stored indefinitely on paper or discs, it is of little value unless appropriately educated and

skilled persons can access and transform this knowledge.

Even then, knowledge is ineffective unless the persons seeking to use it are appropriately

organized and supported by suitable institutions and policies. Thus, an apparent knowledge

gap between countries may arise because of a variety of reasons, such as:

• Shortage of human capital.

• Limited access to recorded knowledge.

• Absence or weakness of the organizations necessary to enable human capital to

function.

• Absence of the vital economic and science policies by which to enable the acquisition,

accumulation and application of particular knowledge.

• Absence of the organizations and/or supporting institutions which provide the

necessary legal and financial services.

This Seminar is concerned with Arab States. Thus, our first task is to pinpoint the causes of

the prevailing knowledge gap and consequent crises in development in the Arab countries and

to figure out how to bridge this gap.

Antoine B. Zahlan

148

The author has organized this paper in two parts:

Part I presents data and analysis through which the nature and extent of the Arab knowledge

gap can be pinpointed.

Part II discusses measures that, if adopted, would enable the Arab countries, singly and

collectively, to work towards overcoming their developmental crises through an effective use

of their human capital and resources. The central problem in the interface between higher

education and R&D on the one hand and the application of knowledge, on the other, is that

the former has no direct influence on the latter. The influence that systems of higher education

exert on society and the economy is through the research that they produce and through the

employment of their graduates. The limited amount of research and the high level of brain

drain curtail this influence. Yet this situation can be readily reversed.

Part I. Nature of the Arab knowledge gap

Knowledge is a complex entity. The indicators that specify the relative standing of countries

include: (i) human capital; (ii) funding of R&D; (iii) yearly number of publications in refereed

journals; (iv) population of scientific and engineering workers; (v) quality of the education

system; (vi) number of patents registered annually; (vii) export of products of advanced

technologies; and (viii) rate of change of these indicators. In this paper, the author examines

only the first four of these indicators.

It is difficult to define the magnitude of those indicators which are associated with specific

levels of development. However, there is universal acceptance that certain countries have

attained take-off in terms of economic growth. It is, for example, accepted that China and

India are in such a state of ‘take-off’. International discourse today is no longer concerned

with the underdevelopment of China and India, but rather with when they may be expected to

join the club of industrial nations. Thus these two countries provide a useful yardstick with

which to compare other countries.

The Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) published a volume (Naim and Atta-ur-Rahman,

eds., 2006) on scientific activities in all Islamic countries which accounts for roughly 25 per

Antoine B. Zahlan

149

cent of the world population. This volume includes a chapter on each Member Country which

covers basic information on: (i) population, (ii) changes in literacy during past decade; (iii)

information on the top ten scientific disciplines, (iv) areas of scientific research during past

five and ten years, (v) productive universities, (vii) names of leading authors by university,

(viii) number and trends in scientific publication during the past decade, (ix) exports and

GDP). The OIC reports that their share of the world’s research output during the past decade

was roughly 2.5 per cent of world output. The UNESCO Science Report (UNESCO, 2005)

gives an account of science in the Arab World. Additional sources of information will be

cited in this paper to enable us to compare and to make a contrast of the performance of Arab

countries.

1. Comparative status of Arab human capital

Arab countries emerged from their colonial period with very low levels of human capital.

After independence, all Arab States expanded their education systems dramatically, investing

heavily in infrastructure and study abroad. In 1949, there were only ten universities in the

Arab World and some 30,000 university graduates. Since then, over 300 universities have

been established and they have graduated an estimated 15 million students. Table 1 shows that

enrolment in national universities in the Arab World per million inhabitants was higher than

that of either China or India (year 2000).

Research and graduate work in Arab universities, however, are still carried out on a limited

scale. Teaching loads are at a high level and research funding (as shown further on) is almost

non-existent. As a result, Arabs have continued to depend on study abroad for their post-

graduate education. According to UNESCO’s latest (1999) statistics, the total number of Arab

students enrolled in universities outside the Arab World was 120,602, compared with 106,036

Chinese and 52,932 Indians (see Table 1). Clearly, then, there are far more Arabs undertaking

foreign study than either Chinese or Indians. About 82 per cent of these Arab students are

pursuing post-graduate education in OECD Member Countries. European universities are the

major destination of Arab students.

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150

Table 1. Study abroad for Arab States and selected countries

Country (1)

1999 (2)

1999 (3)

(Corrected)

Populationper

million 1997 (4)

Study abroad

per million

(5)

Study at home per

million (6)

Study at home per

million (7)

Arab World

111,854

120,602

253.4

476

3,168,445

12,474

China

95,899

106,036

1,227.0

86

7,364,000

6,002

India

48,348

52,932

962.0

55

9,834,000

10,223

Source: Compiled from UNESCO (2005) statistics amongst others. Second column shows UNESCO data. Third column shows corrected UNESCO Data with EU statistics. On the basis of incomplete UNESCO statistical information, the author estimates that 12,000

Arabs are awarded Ph.Ds. abroad annually and that 85 per cent, or more, of these brain drain.

This is a loss to the Arab World of around 10,000 Ph.D. graduates annually. Consequently,

there are 60,000-70,000 Arabs having Ph.Ds. working in the Arab World compared with an

estimated 150,000 abroad.

Of the scientific human capital holding a Ph.D. in the Arab World, only about 10,000 publish

one or more scientific papers in a refereed international periodical per annum. Most of the

remainder have no opportunity to become research active because of poor working conditions

and a lack of R&D funding.

China and India are currently considered the champions of rapidly developing countries. They

have taken the place of Korea and Taiwan who have now joined the ranks of OECD Member

Countries. As can be noted from Table 1, Arab countries have invested more in education, at

home and abroad, than either China or India. Obviously, it is not the amount of human capital

that is making China and India the champions of development and the Arab countries slow

developers. As we shall note later, in greater detail, it is rather the national science and

economic policies adopted by Arab States that deprives them of the benefits of their

substantial human capital.

Antoine B. Zahlan

151

The total number of Arabs who brain-drained to OECD Member Countries by 1999 was

967,548, which is roughly 300,000 more than Indians, and only slightly lower than Chinese

(see Table 2).

Table 2. Number of Highly Skilled Personnel (HSP) in OECD Member

Countries, 1999

Country Expatriates

HSP

Percentages

HSP

Number

Arab World 4,462,391 22 967,548

China 1,928,199 51.9 1,000,735

India 1,649,711 39.6 653,286

Source: SOPEMI. 2004. Trends in International Migration Annual Report, OECD, 2004.

Table II.A2.6, NB: The term now in common use for university graduates is Highly Skilled Personnel (HSP). Before the importance of gender issues the term in use was High Level Manpower (HLM). On a per capita basis, the Arab brain drain is four times greater than that of China; and five

times that of India. Overall emigration from China and India is 3.6 million compared to 4.5

million from the Arab World. Thus, China and the Arab World export an equal number of

Highly Skilled Personnel (HSP). But in terms of total emigration (skilled and semi-skilled,

and dependents) the Arab World exceeds China and India combined.

Arab professionals perform very effectively in OECD Member Countries; this is attested to by

the continuing brain drain as well as by the prominent positions held by Arab professionals.

No comparative surveys of the performance by national groups are available; although there

are major differences between different groups; one cannot say that any one group has out-

performed another.

Deriving economic growth from human capital depends on the methods utilized during the

execution of economic activity. Investments made through turnkey contracts that make little

provision for technology transfer to national and regional organizations do not generate local

employment. They result in a low multiplier factor. If we examine the behaviour of China,

India, Korea and others we find that these countries pursue specific policies which use every

Antoine B. Zahlan

152

activity as a mechanism to acquire and accumulate technology. They thus learned to: (i)

maintain; (ii) operate; (iii) innovate; (iv) upgrade; and (v) duplicate all their investments.

This is the main reason for the rapid growth registered by China and India. Their adoption of

the requisite science and economic policies has promoted the utilization and development of

national organizations to acquire, accumulate, apply, and adapt technology. Arab countries

have not adopted similar policies and practices (Zahlan, 1999).

Planners expect to recover the cost of educating human capital from the contributions made

by graduates to the national economy. Thus, the ability to employ graduates productively is of

central economic importance. The brain-drain phenomenon has shown that a country may

educate its youth, but without employing this youth productively, it cannot derive the desired

economic benefits from its investment in education.

National policies regarding the processes of production, innovation and investment determine

the extent to which economic growth may be derived from human capital. Investments made

through turnkey contracts that make little provision for the employment of national

organizations and labour result in a low multiplier factor.

Furthermore, the Arab World is a vast market for technological investments. The oil and gas

sector, the construction industry, transport, manufacturing industries, ICT and many others

have led to massive investments of over US$3,000 billion between 1980 and 2000. Yet there

has not been a corresponding increase in per capita income. Once again, a more efficient use

of human capital would produce better results. Clearly, the problem facing the Arab countries

is not one of a shortage of capital, human capital or even R&D. A solution to this problem

undoubtedly lies in a better utilization of human capital (Zahlan, 1999).

Antoine B. Zahlan

153

R&D Funding

The only way to retain research quality personnel (Ph.D. level) and keep them fit is by

enabling them to conduct research; this means that R&D funding is a critical factor.

In Table 3, the author summarizes some of the comparative data presented in the UNESCO

Report, and finds that the Arab countries, along with the least-developed countries (LDCs)

(which happen to be the poorest in the world) allocate the lowest proportion of their GNP to

R&D. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries [Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,

the Sultanate of Oman and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)] are amongst the lowest

supporters of R&D in the Arab World in terms of the percentage of their gross domestic

product (GDP) devoted to R&D. The major area where the Arab countries are in deficit in

comparison with China and India is in research funding. The Chinese and Indian governments

devote far more towards R&D than any Arab government (see Table 3). This is, of course, an

important reason why the Arab brain drain is much higher, on a per capita basis, than that of

China or India. China spends ten times more than the Arab countries on R&D per inhabitant;

India spends three times more.

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154

Table 3. Comparative support for R&D (2002) in Gross Expenditure on

R&D (GERD)

Country GERD

US$ billion

GERD percentage of

GDP GERD per

inhabitant US$

Researchers per million

inhabitants

World 829.9 1.7 134.4

894.0 Developed countries 645.8 2.3 540.4 3.272.7 Developing countries 183.6 1.0 42.8 374.3 Less-developed countries 0.5 0.1 0.7 4.5 Arab States Africa 1.2 0.2 6.5 159.4 Arab States Asia 0.6 0.1 6.2 93.5 All Arab States 1.9 0.2 6.4 136.0 Brazil 13.1 1.0 75.0 314.9 China 72.0 1.2 56.2 633.0 India 20.8 0.7 19.8 112.1 Israel 6.1 4.9 922.4 1 395.2

Source: UNESCO. (2005), Table 1, p. 4.

2. Comparative research output

A useful gauge for assessing scientific activity is to compare the number of research

publications in refereed international journals per country and per million populations. From

such comparisons, it can be seen that Arab output increased from eleven publications per

million populations in 1981 to 33.2 in 2003. The Republic of Korea output was only six per

million in 1981 it equalized with the Arab World in 1985 and was thirteen times larger in

2003. India’s output appears to have remained constant at seventeen to nineteen publications

per million over the period 1981-2003; while that of China increased from a low of one to

36.1 in 2003. China equalized with the Arab World in 2003. Since 2003 both China and India

have dramatically increased their R&D appropriations and deepened their science policies to

accelerate the rate of economic development (see Table 4).

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Table 4. Publications per million populations (1981-2003)

Source: Institute of Scientific Information (ISI), Philadelphia, US. (Compiled by the author).

The Arab countries in 2007 are roughly at the same level as 2003 of India and China in R&D

output and human capital. China, like Korea before it, is moving very briskly ahead. It is very

likely that China has already moved far ahead of the Arab World during the past four years.

3. International cooperation amongst Arab researchers

The enormous scale and complexity of knowledge makes it imperative for knowledge workers

to cooperate. In order for cooperation to take place, enabling social and political conditions

are required to facilitate these processes. (See Table 5)

Country 1981 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 2003

Arab World 11 15 21 21 21 21 24 26 33.2 Brazil 16 19 25 27 31 31 34 42 74.8 China 1 3 7 7 8 8 9 11 36.1 France 496 593 628 627 686 721 768 840 826 India 17 15 16 17 17 17 18 19 19.4 Korea (Republic of)

6 15 42 48 58 74 97 144 433

Netherlands 567 768 932 920 1 009 1 098 1 166 1 252 1 209 Switzerland 1 202 1 406 1 352 1 361 1 525 1 622 1 780 1 878 2 005

Antoine B. Zahlan

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Table 5. Regional and international cooperation of researchers in the Arab World, 1995.

Country

Total

Number

N°. Joint

Papers

N°. Main

Partner

N°.

OECD

N°.

Arab

N°.

Multinational

% % % % %

Algeria 328 227 (69) France 151(65) 187 (81) 3 (1)

Bahrain 106 29 (27) UK 7 (24) 11 (38) 3 (10) 6 (21)

Egypt 1 999 585 (29) USA 154 (26) 367 (63) 123 (21) 49 (8)

Iraq 114 34 (30) USA 5 (15) 20 (59) 12 (35) 0

Jordan 266 95 (36) USA 23 (24) 58 (61) 18 (19) 12 (13)

Kuwait 290 117 (40) USA 25 (21) 56 (48) 26 (22) 17 (15)

Lebanon 73 32 (44) USA 14 (44) 27 (84) 1 (3) 4 (13)

Libya 58 35 (60) UK 9 (26) 16 (46) 7 (20) 4 (11)

Mauritania 7

Morocco 536 395 (74) France 214 (61) 314 (80) 2 (0.5) 61 (15)

Oman 84 37 (45)

Palestine 16

Qatar 59 36 (54) Egypt 23 (64) 9 (25) 24 (67) 2 (6)

Saudi Arabia 1 240 294 (24) USA 72 (25) 161 (55) 79 (27) 26 (9)

Somalia 6

Sudan 112 74 (66) USA 10 (14) 45 (61) 11 (15) 13 (18)

Syria 134 81 (60)* France/UK 16 ea 44 (86) 0 2=ICARDA

Tunisia 342 147 (46) France 87 (59) 122 (83) 3 (2) 17 (12)

UAE 137 55 (40) Egypt 11 (20) 26 (47) 22 (40) 6 (11)

Yemen 30 28 (83) Egypt/UK 6 ea 15 (54) 8 (29) 4 (14)

Total 5937 2 301 (39) 849 (33) 1,478 (64) 342 (15) 223 (10)

Source: Zahlan, 1999.

NB: Including twenty-nine publications by scientists at the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA).

Antoine B. Zahlan

157

The extent of cooperation between researchers is reflected in the conduct of scientific research

resulting in co-authored publications. Table 5 above shows that researchers in all Arab

countries were involved in international cooperation in 1995. There are major differences

between Arab countries in the level and patterns of cooperation.

Cooperation in science and technology are of vital importance to the quality and success of

the scientific enterprise. The reason is that scientific progress depends on high quality

expertise that is a scarce commodity. Hence the importance of cooperation between the

relatively small number of scientists working in each specific field. The trend towards the

increasing dominance of teams in the production of knowledge in all fields is supported by

extensive recent studies (Wuchty, Jones and Uzzi, 2007). Increasingly these teams have a

multi-organizational complexion.

International cooperation between scientists and technologists takes many forms. One of the

most basic forms of cooperation is the exchanges that take place at scientific meetings: in

1995 for example about 18,000 scientific meetings, whose proceedings were published, took

place around the world. These meetings provided opportunities for scientists to meet and

exchange information.

Scientists based in Arab countries do not have a satisfactory rate of participation in such

meetings. They contributed only a total of 200 papers to the 18,000 meetings that were held

worldwide in 1995. In other words the connectivity link-up of Arab scientists with the

international community is at a low level.

Another level of cooperation consists of research collaboration between scientists in two or

more countries. The author undertook a detailed analysis of Arab scientific output and

discovered that cooperation between Arab scientists is almost non-existent despite the

presence of a number of Arab regional organizations whose objective is to promote such

cooperation. Neither national nor regional Arab organizations devote serious resources to

promote cooperation.

The Arab States share a wide range of common scientific and technical problems. Thus there

should be considerable incentives for co-operation. Most of the Arab World is in a dry zone

where water is scarce; this dictates certain research issues in water use in agriculture and in

Antoine B. Zahlan

158

water management. Likewise several Arab countries are oil and gas producers; this provides

common technological challenges and opportunities for sharing experiences. Moreover they

all share a number of problems in health, and in the application of codes and standards as well

as in many other fields.

Scientists in GCC universities published 1,722 papers in 1990 and 2,716 in 1995. Of this one

quarter were co-authored with scientists in non-Arab institutions. In 1990 collaboration within

the GCC was only 2.7 per cent of all co-authored papers; this increased to 6 per cent in 1995.

See Zahlan (1999) for detailed information on R&D regional and international collaboration.

Scientists in the Maghreb countries (which generally apply to Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia)

exhibit a high level of international collaboration but a very low level of regional

collaboration. The level of international collaboration in four Maghreb countries underwent

some changes between 1990 and 1995: Algerian collaboration fell from 80 per cent of all

publications to 69 per cent; Libya increased from 31 per cent to 60 per cent Morocco from 64

per cent to 74 per cent and Tunisia from 29 per cent to 64 per cent. The average rate of

international collaboration for the Maghreb countries increased from 54 per cent to 64 per

cent during this period. Scientists in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia published a total of 1,264

papers in 1995; of these some 804 were co-authored with scientists outside their own

countries. Very surprisingly only eleven of the 804 publications involved scientists from two

Maghreb countries. Of these eleven only one paper was conducted fully by Maghreb scientists.

Regional collaboration is thus exceedingly meagre.

The rate of international co-authorship in the Mashreq countries (Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon,

Syria and Palestine) is close to the world-wide average of 25 per cent. Cooperation within the

Mashreq is also very limited.

4. Arab science and technology systems

The crisis in Arab development arises from the fact that Arab countries are not receiving the

returns normally expected from their investments in human resources, R&D and Gross Fixed

Capital Formation (GFCF). This is largely due to the underdeveloped condition of national

science and technology systems (S&T-System).

Antoine B. Zahlan

159

The S&T-System consists of a complex knowledge-intensive system of organizations and

institutions. An important function of the S&T-System is to enable the production,

accumulation, acquisition, diffusion and conversion of knowledge into useful and desired

outputs.

The quality and efficiency of the connectivity that links up the various components of the

S&T-System with each other as well as are as critical as the components themselves. In other

words the components are of little benefit without the associated connections. These issues are

discussed at length in Zahlan, (1983, 1990, and 1999).

A factor impeding the formation of connectivity is the prevailing national economic and

science policies combined with the weaknesses (and often non-existence) of Arab professional

societies and scientific associations and the lack of funding to support the travel of Arab

scientists to participate in national, regional and international scientific conferences and

activities.

The extent of articulation of the skills, education and management of labour force with the

S&T-System determines labour productivity and the ability to acquire and accumulate new

technologies. A concern with labour productivity and performance is central to the

international competitiveness of a nation’s economy.

In 1970 the Arab States were close to European and Japanese levels of labour productivity. It

is interesting to note that the decline took place after the first oil boom in 1974 after ‘an

investment’ of US$2,000 billion in GFCF by 2000 and after a massive expansion in education

systems at all levels (Zahlan, 1994). It is estimated that at the moment Arab countries are

investing between US$2,000 and US$3,000 billion in new projects almost exclusively through

the technology free turn-key approach.

The declining performance of Arab labour is a unique phenomenon. It is related to the

increasing dependence on turnkey and client-in-hand forms of contracting which have grown

alongside the increasing numbers of professionals and financial resources! This is the

consequence of the lack of integration between the education systems, the economy and the

labour market.

Antoine B. Zahlan

160

Very briefly, the main barriers to development are, the:

(1) Public sector policies of pursuing technology-free turnkey contracts with international

Consulting Engineering Design Organisations (CEDOs) with limited attention paid to

the acquisition of knowledge.

(2) Vertical integration of major national industrial firms and their heavy dependence on

international Industry Related Services suppliers thereby giving little attention to

national and regional organisations.

(3) Limited adoption of out-sourcing and sub-contracting by parastatals and private firms.

(4) Weaknesses of national and regional professional and scientific societies.

(5) Limited efforts to un-package technology and undertake reverse engineering.

(6) Very limited number of science policy studies undertaken in the region.

(7) Limited number of science and technology parks around universities and technical

schools to promote technology transfer to small- and medium-enterprises.

(8 Poor quality of statistical and technical information services; there are of course some

exceptions to this.

(9) Low level of incentives to encourage innovation.

(10) Low level of mechanisms to promote the diffusion of best practice.

(11) Limited attention paid to the promotion of competition.

(12) Low level of concern for labour productivity and quality control; although some efforts

have been made in several Arab countries to improve standards and quality control.

Antoine B. Zahlan

161

Part II. Conclusions: Measures to overcome current difficulties

It has been noted in Part I above that Arab human capital, R&D capabilities, financial and

natural resources are equal to or higher than those of China or India on a per capita basis. Yet

the performance of the Arab countries is far inferior to them. The reform of existing policies

cannot take place without a thorough understanding of the causes for the poor comparative

performance of Arab countries.

Understanding current difficulties in all their complexity requires a massive amount of

research especially in the economic, management and science policy spheres. Only then will it

be possible to define the wide variety of problems that confront us and to define operational

methods for overcoming them.

There are well-known methods for rapid and low cost methods to diffuse expertise and to

promote research in these practical areas, on a step-by-step basis. The adoption of these

methods is facilitated by the rich abundance of Arab human capital and the large number of

universities.

An essential measure to increasing employment and reducing cost consists in the training and

certification of the labour force. The objectives of this measure would be to increase labour

skills and productivity in technologies which are in big demand; and to increase their mobility

through their endowment with certificates that reflect their levels of skills.

Consulting and contracting organizations are basic instruments for converting investments in

education and R&D into economic benefits. Thus measures to enable Arab consulting and

contracting industry to increase market share should have high priority. This would entail

increasing the ability to compete with international contractors in the home markets. The

measures include improving financial services, establishing an efficient legal system, labour

training and certification, accurate and efficient statistical and information services. These

measures would transform and strengthen the weak linkages between contracting and

consulting firms, professional organizations, universities and Arab human resources (Imad,

2002). This measure should yield considerable socio-economic benefits and profits.

Antoine B. Zahlan

162

1. Funding scientific meetings

The paucity of scientific cooperation and collaboration between scientists in the Arab World

is a major obstacle to benefiting from available human capital. Scientific meetings provide a

low-cost mechanism to effect exchanges between professionals. An increase in the funding of

scientific conferences in the Arab World would enable scientists to network more effectively.

2. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)

Arab countries lag behind other nations in developing their ICT sectors. Yet they are

purchasing a wide range of ICT services, hardware for military telecommunication, TV and

radio services, industries, government departments, airports and airlines, banks, etc. A

concerted effort to un-package the ICT components of large contracts would promote local

participation in technology transfer and innovation in this vital domain.

Bridging the knowledge gap should be straightforward and low in cost and would contribute

immensely to national well-being, self-reliance and prosperity.

NB: Keynote Address presented at the 2nd Regional Research Seminar for Arab States on “The impact of globalization on higher education and research in the Arab States”, Rabat, Morocco, 25-26 May 2007. UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Knowledge and Research, UNESCO Headquarters, Paris, France.

* * *

Antoine B. Zahlan

163

Bibliographical References Imad, M. 2002. Organizational Context of Knowledge Acquisition, Transfer, Management

and Localization of Technology. Background paper prepared for the Arab Human Development Reports (AHDRs), 2003.

Naim, S.T.K. and Atta-ur-Rahman (eds.) 2006. Status of Scientific Research in OIC Member

States, Committee on Science and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH),

Pakistan, (in press, 2006).

UNESCO. 2005. UNESCO Science Report 2005. Paris, UNESCO. Wuchty, S., Jones, B.F. and Uzzi, B. 2007. The Increasing Dominance of Teams in

Production of Knowledge. In: Science 316, No. 5827, pp. 1036-39, 18 May 2007.

Zahlan, A.B. 1983. The Arab Construction Industry. Croom Helm, London. Also published in Arabic by the Centre for Arab Unity Studies (CAUS), Beirut.

______. 1990. Acquiring Technological Capacity: A Study of Arab Consulting and

Contracting Firms. Macmillan, London. Also published in Arabic by the Centre for Arab Unity Studies (CAUS), Beirut.

______. 1994. Labour Productivity and Competition. In: Al-Mustaqbal al-Arabi, No 2, pp.

98-112. ______. 1999. Science and Technology in the Arab World: Progress without Change. The

Centre for Arab Unity Studies (CAUS), Beirut. (in Arabic).

* * *

164

Appendix

165

Appendix

PowerPoint Presentation on New Roles for Arab Schools and Universities in a

Knowledge-Based Society

Professor Abdullateef H. Haidar Al Hakimi

Appendix

166

IntroductionIntroductionIn 1997, American sociologist Daniel Bell In 1997, American sociologist Daniel Bell introduced the concept of a introduced the concept of a ‘‘Knowledge SocietyKnowledge Society’’to describe the transformation of todayto describe the transformation of today’’s society s society from an industryfrom an industry--based society to a knowledgebased society to a knowledge--based society. based society. A IndustryA Industry--based society focuses on the based society focuses on the production of goods and marketing them. production of goods and marketing them. However, a knowledgeHowever, a knowledge--based society focuses based society focuses more on the production of knowledge and more on the production of knowledge and translating it into commercial products. translating it into commercial products. In 1993, management guru Peter F. In 1993, management guru Peter F. DruckerDruckerdeveloped the concept further and introduced developed the concept further and introduced the concept of the concept of ‘‘Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers’’..

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

11-- Specialized KnowledgeSpecialized Knowledge::Knowledge is described as highKnowledge is described as high--level specialized level specialized knowledge. knowledge. DruckerDrucker (1994) called it even (1994) called it even ‘‘KnowledgesKnowledges’’. . It has value only if it has practical application It has value only if it has practical application ‘‘Knowledge Knowledge in Actionin Action’’, i.e. when it is applied to society, economics, or , i.e. when it is applied to society, economics, or in the development of knowledge itself. in the development of knowledge itself. DruckerDrucker called people who lead knowledgecalled people who lead knowledge--based based societies societies ‘‘Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers’’. They include: surgeons, . They include: surgeons, lawyers, accountants, engineers and teachers.lawyers, accountants, engineers and teachers. Such people depend on their minds, more than anything Such people depend on their minds, more than anything else, to carry out their duties satisfactorily.else, to carry out their duties satisfactorily.

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

22-- Learning OrganizationsLearning Organizations::For Knowledge Workers to develop knowledge For Knowledge Workers to develop knowledge and turn it into products, they need to belong to and turn it into products, they need to belong to Learning Organizations. Learning Organizations. Learning Organizations will provide most of the Learning Organizations will provide most of the services that society will need in the future:services that society will need in the future:

Health. Health. Education.Education.Trade.Trade.Industry, etc.Industry, etc.

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

A Learning Organization is: A Learning Organization is: a group of individuals who interact with each other a group of individuals who interact with each other and the surrounding world. They work within an and the surrounding world. They work within an organization, in which they feel they belong to. organization, in which they feel they belong to. Such organizations provide Such organizations provide ‘‘Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers’’with opportunities to work in teams to:with opportunities to work in teams to:-- Discover new knowledge.Discover new knowledge.-- Produce it, and Produce it, and -- Apply it. Apply it.

In such organizations, they are described as being:In such organizations, they are described as being:-- Motivated.Motivated.-- LifeLife--long learners, andlong learners, and-- Open minded.Open minded.

9.RABAT.MAY2007.HAIDAR.DIAPOS.ENGLISH.FINAL1.ph.25.09.07 9.RABAT.MAY2007.HAIDAR.DIAPOS.ENGLISH.FINAL1.ph.25.09.07 –– 25 pages25 pages

New Roles for Arab Schools New Roles for Arab Schools and Universities in a and Universities in a

KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

Professor Professor AbdullateefAbdullateef H. H. HaidarHaidar Al Al HakimiHakimi, Ph.D., Ph.D.Dean, College of Education, Dean, College of Education,

United Arab Emirates University (UAEU).United Arab Emirates University (UAEU).UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and KnowledgeUNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and Knowledge

2nd Regional Research Seminar for Arab States on 2nd Regional Research Seminar for Arab States on ““The Impact of Globalization on Higher Education andThe Impact of Globalization on Higher Education and

Research in the Arab StatesResearch in the Arab States””Rabat, Rabat, MoroccoMorocco2525--26 May 200726 May 2007

Definition of a Definition of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

The term ‘knowledge-based society’ refers to “… the dissemination and production of knowledge and its efficient utilization in all societal activities: the economy, civil society, politics, and private life, in a continuous quest to advance human development” (Arab Human Development Report, 2003, p. 55).

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Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

3 3 -- TeamworkTeamwork::‘‘Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers’’ will face unique will face unique challenges. Therefore, they need to work challenges. Therefore, they need to work in teams.in teams.It is well known that people work together It is well known that people work together as a team when they are faced with a task as a team when they are faced with a task that is not within an individual personthat is not within an individual person’’s s ability or when the deadline is too short.ability or when the deadline is too short.Mustang provides an excellent experience Mustang provides an excellent experience in the application of teamwork in industry.in the application of teamwork in industry.

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

44-- InquiryInquiry::Inquiry is essential to discover new knowledge.Inquiry is essential to discover new knowledge.Companies that adopt the concept of Learning Companies that adopt the concept of Learning Organizations will provide their employees with Organizations will provide their employees with ample opportunities to inquire in order to find ample opportunities to inquire in order to find solutions to the problems they face.solutions to the problems they face.Inquiry is essential for professionalsInquiry is essential for professionals’’ achievements achievements because it requires reflection, which is the backbone because it requires reflection, which is the backbone of professional growth. of professional growth. Inquiry also helps professionals to identify the best Inquiry also helps professionals to identify the best practices and consequently develop standards for practices and consequently develop standards for their profession. It is an agent of improvement.their profession. It is an agent of improvement.

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

55-- LifeLife--Long LearningLong Learning::Today, knowledge is described as being in Today, knowledge is described as being in constant change. At the same time, it constant change. At the same time, it provokes changes in other directions. provokes changes in other directions. If a professional is not ready, and willing, If a professional is not ready, and willing, to be upto be up--toto--date regarding new date regarding new developments in his/her field, he/she will developments in his/her field, he/she will not be suitable for the profession. This not be suitable for the profession. This shows the importance of lifeshows the importance of life--long learning long learning for professionals.for professionals.

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

66-- Extensive Use of information communication Extensive Use of information communication technologies (ICT)technologies (ICT)::

It would not be worthwhile providing evidence It would not be worthwhile providing evidence concerning the widespread use of ICT in our lives. concerning the widespread use of ICT in our lives. Nowadays, most professions depend heavily on the use Nowadays, most professions depend heavily on the use of ICT.of ICT.Distances among nations and individuals have Distances among nations and individuals have disappeared.disappeared.Businesses work for 24 hours a day. Businesses work for 24 hours a day. Companies need employees who are skilful in using Companies need employees who are skilful in using ICT to accomplish their tasks faster and better, some ICT to accomplish their tasks faster and better, some would even add anytime, anywhere.would even add anytime, anywhere.

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a KnowledgeKnowledge--Based SocietyBased Society

77-- GlobalizationGlobalizationNowadaysNowadays ccountries do not have the choice of ountries do not have the choice of closing their borders or even selecting countries closing their borders or even selecting countries which they would like to deal with.which they would like to deal with. Companies work on an international basis.Companies work on an international basis.Some enterprises have uprooted from their home Some enterprises have uprooted from their home countries and established their businesses abroad. countries and established their businesses abroad. There are multinational companies. There are multinational companies. Consequently, business is becoming more and Consequently, business is becoming more and more international.more international.

Factors contributing to the widespread Factors contributing to the widespread of Knowledgeof Knowledge--Based SocietiesBased Societies

11-- Advancement in ICTAdvancement in ICT::Technologies be it information technology, Technologies be it information technology, biotechnology, or even nanotechnology biotechnology, or even nanotechnology have influenced all aspects of our lives. have influenced all aspects of our lives. Due to this advancement in ICT the world is Due to this advancement in ICT the world is becoming smaller and smaller. becoming smaller and smaller. It also transformed the economy from a It also transformed the economy from a labourlabour--based to an intellectbased to an intellect--based based economy. This even affected the nature of economy. This even affected the nature of products seen in the market.products seen in the market.

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Factors contributing to the widespread Factors contributing to the widespread of Knowledgeof Knowledge--Based SocietiesBased Societies

22-- GlobalizationGlobalization::Although there are many definitions of Although there are many definitions of globalization, the author of this paper is globalization, the author of this paper is using today the following definition:using today the following definition:“…“… the flow of technology, economy, the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values, ideas,knowledge, people, values, ideas,……across across borders. Globalization affects each country borders. Globalization affects each country in a different way due to a nationin a different way due to a nation’’s s individual history, traditions, culture and individual history, traditions, culture and prioritiespriorities”” (Knight and de Wit, 1997, p. 6).(Knight and de Wit, 1997, p. 6).

Factors contributing to the widespread Factors contributing to the widespread of Knowledgeof Knowledge--Based SocietiesBased Societies

33-- Interaction between ICT and GlobalizationInteraction between ICT and Globalization::The advancement in ICT has helped to connect The advancement in ICT has helped to connect up the world. up the world. ICT made the spread of Globalization faster. ICT made the spread of Globalization faster. Globalization in turn, through international Globalization in turn, through international agreement, made it possible for countries to agreement, made it possible for countries to acquire new ICT and participate in world acquire new ICT and participate in world economy. Bangalore in India and Dalian in economy. Bangalore in India and Dalian in China.China.People are free to move around the world and People are free to move around the world and compete for jobs. compete for jobs.

Factors contributing to the widespread Factors contributing to the widespread of Knowledgeof Knowledge--Based SocietiesBased Societies

44-- International EventsInternational Events::9/11 is another factor that contributed to 9/11 is another factor that contributed to the spread of knowledgethe spread of knowledge--based societies based societies as well as globalization.as well as globalization.People in developed countries became People in developed countries became interested in other peoplesinterested in other peoples’’ cultures.cultures.Governments, especially in developed Governments, especially in developed countries, realized that events in other countries, realized that events in other parts of the world have also an influence parts of the world have also an influence on their states.on their states.

Changes in the Nature of ProfessionsChanges in the Nature of Professions

New developments in ICT and globalization New developments in ICT and globalization influences the nature of knowledge and skills influences the nature of knowledge and skills that professionals need.that professionals need.Professions require more and more ICT skills, Professions require more and more ICT skills, something that high school graduates lack.something that high school graduates lack.ICT increases the effectiveness of workers ICT increases the effectiveness of workers which encourages companies to move towards which encourages companies to move towards nonnon--centralized systems. centralized systems.

Nature of Tasks carried out by Nature of Tasks carried out by Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers

11-- Comprehending deep knowledge and Comprehending deep knowledge and understanding.understanding.

22-- Acquiring highAcquiring high--level thinking skills, such as:level thinking skills, such as:-- Ability to deal with nonAbility to deal with non--traditional problems.traditional problems.-- Use of expert thinking, complex communication.Use of expert thinking, complex communication.-- Use of argument, negotiation and mediation.Use of argument, negotiation and mediation.

33-- Using ICT inUsing ICT in--depth to be able to:depth to be able to:-- Deal with a large amount of knowledge.Deal with a large amount of knowledge.-- Work in real and virtual worlds.Work in real and virtual worlds.

Nature of Tasks carried out by Nature of Tasks carried out by Knowledge WorkersKnowledge Workers

44-- Being proactive is one who is able to:Being proactive is one who is able to:-- Get actively involved in a task Get actively involved in a task –– not just not just

follow instructions.follow instructions.-- Be in control of the task.Be in control of the task.-- Be creative and freeBe creative and free--minded.minded.-- Work in teams.Work in teams.

55-- Being able to deal with change:Being able to deal with change:-- Acquire the lifeAcquire the life--long learning skills.long learning skills.

-- Capable of working in a changing environment.Capable of working in a changing environment.-- Be ready to change profession if necessary.Be ready to change profession if necessary.

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Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

11-- Revise MissionsRevise Missions::Schools and universities revise their missions Schools and universities revise their missions

to become to become ““Centers of EnlightenmentCenters of Enlightenment”” in in society, which:society, which:

Provide highProvide high--level specialized knowledge.level specialized knowledge.Provide professional development to Provide professional development to

professionals in the field.professionals in the field.Help professionals to change professions if Help professionals to change professions if

necessary.necessary.

Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

22-- Become Learning OrganizationsBecome Learning Organizations::Current learning institutions in the Arab Region Current learning institutions in the Arab Region

follow the same follow the same ‘‘factoryfactory--typetype’’ model: model: Students are the raw materials. Students are the raw materials. Teachers are the Teachers are the labourlabour force, and force, and Administrators are just supervisors to ensure Administrators are just supervisors to ensure instructions are followed and certification instructions are followed and certification produced.produced.

In Learning Organizations, Hierarchy is NonIn Learning Organizations, Hierarchy is Non--Existent, everyone is a learner intent on Existent, everyone is a learner intent on improving the professions.improving the professions.

Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

44-- Condense the use of ICTCondense the use of ICT::Technology could participate in solving many Technology could participate in solving many of the current problems of learning such as of the current problems of learning such as passive learning, and shortage of resources.passive learning, and shortage of resources.It could also enrich the learning process to It could also enrich the learning process to make learning meaningful.make learning meaningful.

Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

33-- Revise Learning and Assessment MethodsRevise Learning and Assessment Methods::Current learning and assessment methods in Current learning and assessment methods in

the Arab World are traditional in nature. the Arab World are traditional in nature. They could be described as follows: They could be described as follows:

Do not help students to Do not help students to ““learn how to learnlearn how to learn””. . Do not help students Do not help students ““develop upperdevelop upper--level level

thinking skillsthinking skills””. . Do not Do not ““inculcate inquiryinculcate inquiry””, and , and Do not Do not ““develop reflectiondevelop reflection”” in studentsin students’’ thinking.thinking.

Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

55-- Respond to the Requirements of Respond to the Requirements of GlobalizationGlobalization::No country has the choice of falling by the No country has the choice of falling by the wayside and not participating in globalization. wayside and not participating in globalization. Learning Organizations will need to respond to Learning Organizations will need to respond to globalization and even have an influence on it.globalization and even have an influence on it.

Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

66-- Quality Assurance EffortsQuality Assurance Efforts::In this competitive world, Arab Learning In this competitive world, Arab Learning

Organizations are obliged to adopt suitable Organizations are obliged to adopt suitable systems of quality assurance (QA) to help their systems of quality assurance (QA) to help their graduates acquire knowledge and skills that will graduates acquire knowledge and skills that will make them highly competitive in world markets.make them highly competitive in world markets.

This will require ensuring the following:This will require ensuring the following:– Are the organizations’ objectives appropriate?– Are their plans suitable for these objectives?– Do their actions conform to their plans?– Are their actions effective in achieving their objectives?– What is the measure of their objectives? (Linn, 2003).

Proposed New Roles for Proposed New Roles for Arab Schools and UniversitiesArab Schools and Universities

77-- Reform AdministrationReform Administration::Today, the world is becoming more and more complex. Today, the world is becoming more and more complex. Its problems are getting more complex as well.Its problems are getting more complex as well.Professionals need the freedom of quick decisionProfessionals need the freedom of quick decision--making to solve problems as soon as they are faced with making to solve problems as soon as they are faced with them. them. They need to be equipped with adequate knowledge and They need to be equipped with adequate knowledge and skills to do that and to have the freedom to do as such. skills to do that and to have the freedom to do as such. To respond to these requirements, Learning To respond to these requirements, Learning Organizations, themselves, need to shift to the Organizations, themselves, need to shift to the decentralization of administration.decentralization of administration.

RABAT.MAY2007.HAIDAR.Diapo.ENG.ph.11.09.07RABAT.MAY2007.HAIDAR.Diapo.ENG.ph.11.09.07