Section 9: Human Development Psychology in Modules by Saul Kassin.

Section 9:Human Development

Psychology in Modules by Saul Kassin

Human Development

Basic Developmental Questions

Prenatal Development

The Remarkable Newborn

The Infant and Growing Child

Adolescence

Adulthood and Old Age

Basic Developmental Questions

Developmental PsychologyThe study of how people grow, mature, and change over the life span

Two Major Ways to Conduct ResearchCross-sectional Studies

•People of different ages are tested and compared

Longitudinal Studies•The same people are tested at different times to track changes related to age

©2006 Prentice Hall

Basic Developmental Questions Developmental Research Strategies


Prenatal DevelopmentThe Growing FetusZygote

A fertilized egg that undergoes a two-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Embryo The developing human organism, from two weeks

to two months after fertilization

Fetus The developing human organism, from nine

weeks after fertilization to birth


Prenatal DevelopmentThe Growing Fetus

Fertilization 30 Hours

6 weeks 4 months


Prenatal DevelopmentThe Growing Fetus TeratogensToxic substances that can harm the embryo or

fetus during prenatal development Malnutrition Viral Infections

• AIDS, Rubella (German measles), and others X-rays, lead, and other environmental hazards Drugs

• Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), Cigarettes, Cocaine, Aspirin, Marijuana, and other drugs both licit and illicit

The Remarkable Newborn Ways to Study the Abilities of NewbornsHabituation

The tendency for attention to a stimulus to wane over time (often used to determine whether an infant has “learned” a stimulus

RecoveryFollowing habituation to one stimulus, the tendency for a second stimulus to arouse new interest (often used to test whether infants can discriminate between stimuli)


The Remarkable Newborn Reflexes

Grasping Reflex In infants, an automatic tendency to grasp

an object that stimulates the palm

Rooting Reflex In response to contact on the cheek, an

infant’s tendency to turn toward the stimulus and open its mouth


The Remarkable NewbornSensory Capacities Visual Preferences in Newborns Infants spend more time

looking at patterns than solids.

Infants spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face.

Is this just preference for complexity or an adaptation?


The Remarkable NewbornSensory Capacities Newborn Orientation to the Face

Infants were shown a blank shape, a face, or scrambled facial features.

The face and scrambled face have same complexity.

Infants looked more intensely at the actual face.


The Remarkable Newborn Sensory Capacities Newborn Imitation

Babies sometimes mimic gestures made by others who are within sight.

Sticking tongue out of mouth

Moving head side to side


The Remarkable NewbornSensitivity to Number Can Infants Add and Subtract? Infants saw a sequence

of events that illustrated addition or subtraction.

Then they saw a correct or incorrect outcome (2-1=2, for example).

The infant looked longer at outcomes that were incorrect.


The Infant and Growing ChildBiological Development

The Developing Brain


The Infant and Growing ChildCognitive Development Piaget’s TheorySchemas

In Piaget’s theory, mental representations of the world that guide the processes of assimilation and accommodation

Assimilation • The process of incorporating and, if necessary, changing new

information to fit existing schemas Accommodation

• The process of modifying existing schemas in response to new information


The Infant and Growing ChildCognitive Development Changing Schemas of the Earth

From preschool through about the 5th grade, children gradually assimilate and then accommodate their schemas to form an accurate representation of the earth’s shape. Preschool

5th grade


The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of Development

Stages of Development Each stage is qualitatively different from others Ages for stage transitions are approximate Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational


The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development


The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development

Separation AnxietySeparation anxiety is a fear reaction in response to the absence of the primary caregiver.

It is seen in all cultures. It corresponds with the

development of object permanence and the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.


The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentTasks Used to Test Conservation

The ability to conserve marks the transition from the preoperational stage to the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.


The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive Development

Speed of Information Processing

Response times decrease from 7 - 12 years of age Consistent across several different types of tasks

This may be due to the biological maturation of the brain Increased myelination of axons which speeds up neural processing


The Infant and Growing ChildSocial DevelopmentThe Parent-Child Relationship

Critical Period A period of time during which an organism

must be exposed to a certain stimulus for proper development to occur

Attachment A deep emotional bond that an infant

develops with its primary caretaker


The Infant and Growing Child Social DevelopmentStyles of AttachmentStrange Situation Test

A parent-infant “separation and reunion” procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child’s attachment

Secure Attachment The baby is secure when the parent is present,

distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion.

Insecure Attachment The baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and

reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.

Adolescence

AdolescenceThe period of life from puberty to adulthood, corresponding roughly to the ages of 13 to 20

PubertyThe onset of adolescence, as evidence by rapid growth, rising levels of sex hormones, and sexual maturity

MenarcheA girl’s first menstrual period


AdolescencePuberty

Adolescent Growth Spurt

At about age 13 for girls, 16 for boys, there is a final maturational growth spurt in height.


AdolescencePubertyThe Timing of Puberty and Body Images in Girls

Girls who mature earlier than their peers are usually less satisfied with their size, weight, and figure.


AdolescencePubertyThe Timing of Puberty and Body Images in Boys

Boys who mature later than their peers have negative body images, but they are only temporary.


AdolescenceCognitive DevelopmentKohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningMoral Reasoning

The way people think and try to solve moral dilemmas.

Preconventional Level Morality judged in terms of reward and punishment

Conventional Level Morality judged in terms of social order and approval

Postconventional Level Morality judged in terms of abstract principles, like

equality and justice


AdolescenceCognitive DevelopmentKohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning

Most 7-10 year olds are reasoning at the preconventional level.

Most 13-16 year olds are reasoning at the conventional level.

Few participants show reasoning indicative of the postconventional level.


AdolescenceCognitive DevelopmentCriticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

Cultural Bias Some cultural differences are not reflected in

this theory. Gender Bias

Empirical support for this claim is weak.Connection between moral reasoning and

moral behavior is often indirect.


AdolescenceSocial and Personal Development

Adolescent Disengagement

The proportion of time spent with the family decreases almost 3% per year

This decline was not found for time spent alone with parents

Identity Crisis An adolescent’s struggle to

establish a personal identity, or self-concept



Adolescents in the 7th and 8th grades felt worse while with their family.

Boys feel better after 8th grade and feel the best in 9th and 10th grades.

Girls continue to feel bad until the 10th grade.

Patterns of Adolescent “Transformation”Within the Family



Peer Influences Adolescent relationships are intimate. Adolescents begin to discover friendships with

other-sex peers. Conformity rises steadily with age, peaks in

ninth grade, and then declines.



Sexuality Whether teens act on sexual impulses depends

on social factors. Adolescents who engage in sexual behavior

with others are not necessarily informed about health risks and contraception .

Adolescent sexual behavior may be due to attempts to be more like an adult or as way to rebel.


AdolescenceAdolescence and Mental HealthThe stereotypic images of adolescents are:

Mood swings, identity crises, anxiety, rebelliousness, depression, drug use, and suicide

Three perceived sources of difficulty in adolescence are:

Conflict with parents, risk-taking behavior, and mood disruption

Conflict with parents and risk-taking do occur, but the idea that adolescents are in a state of distress is exaggerated.


Adulthood and Old AgePhysical Changes in Adulthood

Life Span The maximum age possible for members of a

given species.

Life Expectancy The number of years that an average

member of a species is expected to live.

Menopause The end of menstruation and fertility.


Adulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual Functions

Memory and Forgetting Cognitive abilities do not inevitably decline. Some elderly may show declines on free-recall

tasks, however declines on tests of recognition memory are less likely.

Memory declines may be due to impairments in sensory acuity and a slowing of neuronal processing.


Adulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual Functions The Alzheimer’s Problem Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive brain disorder that strikes older people, causing memory loss and other symptoms.

In the U.S., the projected number of Alzheimer’s patients is 14 million in 2050.

The cost is at least $100 billion per year.


Adulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual Functions Age Trends in Measures of Intelligence

Fluid intelligence, which includes inductive reasoning and spatial ability, declines steadily throughout middle and late adulthood.

Crystallized intelligence, which includes verbal ability and numeric ability, remains stable into the 70’s.


Adulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual Functions Timed vs. Untimed Vocabulary Tests

Some abilities are less affected by age than are others. Scores declined only in the timed test.


Adulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal DevelopmentErikson’s Eight Stages of Development - ITrust vs. Mistrust

Infancy (0-1 year)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toddler (1-2 years)

Initiative vs. Guilt Preschool (3-5 years)

Industry vs. Inferiority Elementary School (6-12 years)


Adulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal DevelopmentErikson’s Eight Stages of Development - II Identity vs. Role confusion

Adolescence (13-19 years)

Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adulthood (20-40 years)

Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle adulthood (40-65 years)

Integrity vs. Despair Late adulthood (65 and older)


Adulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal Development

Life Satisfaction

In multiple cultures, 75-80% say they are satisfied with life.

Ratings of life satisfaction do not vary with age.


Adulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal Development

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is highest in childhood.

It drops sharply during adolescence.

It increases gradually during adulthood, peaks in the sixties, and declines in old age.


Adulthood and Old AgeDying and Death

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross proposed five stages in approaching death:

Denial (“It must be a mistake.”) Anger (“It isn’t fair!”) Bargaining (“Let me live longer and I’ll be a better

person.”) Depression (“ I’ve lost everything important to me.”) Acceptance (“What has to be, has to be.”)

Not everyone follows this sequence through the stages and all people do not experience all stages.

Section 9: Human Development Psychology in Modules by Saul Kassin.

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