Kassin Wrightsman 1985

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ifgp ta r gppagr mbk

mb 4

s.

Ngssmb

gb` C.

[rmkftslgb (A`s.)7

Pfa Zsyifocoky

oe Avm`abia gb` Pr mg c

Zroia`ura .

Havar cy

Fm c c s 4 Ygka Zuhc m ig t mobs

7= 6.Y.

IFGZPAX

9

Iobeassmob Avm`abia

Y QC L NGYYMB

CG[XABIA

Y.

[XMKFPYLGB

[fgt iouc` fgva

lora

mlpgit `urmbk tfa ioursa oe g trmgc tfgb g

ravacgtmob erol tfa wmtbass

stgb`

tfgt tfa `aeab`gbt fg` pravmouscy

iobeassa` to tfa irmla?

Pfa

trutf ms, prohghcy botfmbk. Mb`aa`

[mklora, mb fms icgssmi tragtmsa ob Aum`abia (7=;:), gssarta` tfa

Opmbmob oe savargc gutformtgtmva cakgc sifocgrs tfgt iobeassmobs rgbn gs

fmkfast mb tfa sigca oe avm`abia.

Pfara

gra two hgsas eor tfms gpprgmsgc. Emrst, gctfoukf astmlgtas vgry,

tfara ms ragsob to hacmava tfgt iobeassmob avm`abia ms mbtro`uia` wmtf

gstobmsfmbk eraquabiy mb tfa iourts. G survay oe `aputy `mstrmit

gttorbays mb Cos Gbkacas Ioubty, eor axglpca, ravagca` tfgt iobeas

smobs wara kmvab mb 0; pariabt oe tfa ovar 0::: igsas raporta`

(]oubkar,

7=55).

Gt

tfa

sgla tmla, tfa `mstrmit gttorbay oe Baw ]orn

Imty gssarta` tfgt fa pcgbba` to oeear iobeassmob avm`abia

mb

56 pariabt

oe

tfa

folmim`a igsas

fa

fg` pab`mbk (saa Nguelgb, 7=55). Ngcvab gb`

Taesac's (7=55) axtabsmva survay oe trmgc du`kas mb`migta` tfgt, ovargcc,

`msputa` iobeassmobs (m.a., tfosa tfgt gra abma` or wfosa g`lmssmhmcm

ty

ms

ifgccabka` hy tfa aeabsa) grosa

mb

gpproxmlgtacy 8: pariabt oe tfa

91;5 igsas tfay fg` sglpca` bgtmobwm`a.

Mb g``mtmob to tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif iobeassmob avm`abia

ms

raiamva`, g saiob` ragsob eor mts mlportgbia ms tfa ohvmous mlpgit mt

igb smbkca-fgb`a`cy axart ob g `aeab`gbt's egta. Gs LiIorlmin 7=;8)

put mt, tfa mbtro`uitmob oe g iobeassmob lgnas tfa

otfar

gspaits oe g

trmgc mb iourt suparecuous (p. 975). Mb`aa` ovar tfa yagrs, savargc

mbstgbias fgva suregia` oe arrobaous iobvmitmobs hgsa` gclost axicu

smvacy ob ubiorrohorgta` iobeassmob avm`abia. Mb Iobumitmbk tfa

Mbboiabt

eor

axglpca, Horifgr`

7=98)

ravmawa`

51

irmlmbgc igsas,

lgby mbvocvmbk mb`mvm`ugcs wfo wara mbigriargta`

or

axaiuta` ob tfa

5;

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

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6

PmmA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA B@ PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

hgsms

oe

iobeassmobs

suhsaquabtcy

prova` to ha egcsa {saa gcso

Ergbn

Ergbn's Bot Kumcty 7=1;). Pfa iolpaccmbk .

bgtura

oe iobeassmob

avm`abia fgs gcso haab `alobstrgta`

ob gb

alpmrmigc cavac. Mb g loin

dury axparmlabt,

Lmccar

gb`

Hostar

(7=;;)

fg`

suhdaits

rag`

g `asirmp

tmob

oe

g lur`ar trmgc tfgt mbicu`a` (7) obcy imriulstgbtmgc avm`abia, (8)

ayawmtbass tastmloby erol amtfar gb

giqugmbtgbia

or g strgbkar, gb` (9)

tastmloby gccakmbk tfgt

tfa

`aeab`gbt fg` iobeassa`

to

tfa pocmia. Mt

turba` out tfgt tfosa

suhdaits

wfo raiamva` tfa iobeassmob

avm`abia

wara lora cmnacy to vmaw tfa aeab`gbt gs kumcty tfgb tfa

otfar

kroups,

mbicu`mbk tfosa provm`a` wmtf tfa ayawmtbass m`abtmemigtmob.

PFA XQCAYOE IOBEAYYMOBAUM@AB A

B@

ZXO A@QXA

Fmstormigccy, iobeassmob

avm`abia

fgs provm`a` g raiurrmbk

souria

oe

iobtrovarsy mb Glarmigb durmspru`abia,

gs

mt smluctgbaouscy acmimts hotf

prgmsa gb` suspmimob. Ms tfa gccaka` iobeassmob gutfabtmi? Igb tfa

tastmloby oe pgm` mbeorlars, gbkry vmitmls, gb` ovarzagcous pocmia

oeemiars ha

trusta`? Me

so,

wgs tfa

`aeab`gbt oe soub` lmb`,

or

iouc`

fa

or

sfa

fgva iobeassa` to

`aa`s

tfgt

fa

or sfa `m` bot iollmt? [gs

tfa

`aeab`gbt's stgtalabt ioaria` or mb`uia` hy trminary urmbk iusto`mgc

mbtarrokgtmob? [gs fms or far iobstmtutmobgc prmvmcaka gkgmbst sace

mbirmlmbgtmob vmocgta`?

Pfasa

quastmobs

mccustrgta

gb` raprasabt

tfa

iolpcaxmty oe tfa mssuas

surroub`mbk

tfa usa oe iobeassmob avm`abia mb

iourt. .

Haeora `msiussmbk tfa spaimgc rucas tfgt fgva avocva` eor tfa

raiaptmob oe iobeassmob

avm`abia, wa

lust emrst icgrmey

wfgt

iobstmtutas

g iobeassmob. Prg`mtmobgccy, g

iobeassmob wgs

`aemba` gs gb ginbowc

a`kalabt,

mb axprassa`

wor`s, hy

tfa giiusa` mb g irmlmbgc

igsa,

oe tfa

trutf oe

tfa

kumcty egit

ifgrka`

or oe sola assabtmgc pgrt oe mt ([mklora,

7=;:, p. 9:6). Pfms `aembmtmob

fgs

haab iobsm`ara` bgrrow mb siopa, gs mt

axicu`as kumcty iob`uit (a.k., ecaambk erol grrast), axiucpgtory stgta

labts

(a.k., g sace-`aeabsa axpcgbgtmob

or

gpocoky) gb`

otfar

g`lmssmobs

{m.a., tfosa tfgt

`o

bot

hagr

`mraitcy ob

tfa

mssua oe kumct or

egcc

sfort oe gb

ginbowca`klabt oe gcc assabtmgc acalabts oe tfa irmla). Pfasa `mstmbi

tmobs -p.utmiuc.ucy tfcct

hatwaab

iobeassmobs gb`

otfar g`lmssmobs

f ~ u m

mb tft?

p ~ 7 s t ab`hca` tfa iourts to imriulvabt fgvmbk to gppcy tfa

strmbkabt rucas eor mbtro`uimbk iobeassmob avm`abia wfab `agcmbk wmtf

tfa otfar typas

oe sace-mbirmlmbgtory

stgtalabts

(LiIorlmin, 7=;8).

Fowavar, haigusa tfasa `mstmbitmobs

gra

oetab suhtca gb` `meemiuct to

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

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Yguc

L.

Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

5=

lgna mb

mb`mvm`ugc igsas (saa Ycoukf,

7=1=),

gb`

haigusa tfa Q.Y.

Yuprala Iourt fgs

mb`migta`

tfgt ioaria`

g`lmssmobs

gra

suhdait

to

tfa

sgla

iobstmtutmobgc sgeakugr`s

gs

eucc

iobeassmobs (a.k.,

Gsfirget v.

Pabbassaa

7=00), to`gy's giiapta` opargtmobgc `aembmtmob ms, eor gc7

prgitmigc purposas,

oba tfgt

abiolpgssas g racgtmvacy wm`a rgbka

oe

sace-mbirmlmbgtory hafgvmors ub`ar tfa cghac

iob/assmob.

Fmstormigc Ouarumaw

Giior`mbk to [mklora's

(7=;:)

fmstormigc gbgcysms, tfa

lo`al

cgw's

usa oe

iobeassmobs fgs proiaa`a` tfroukf g sarmas oe msirata stgkas.

@urmbk

tfa

smxtaabtf gb`

savabtaabtf

iabturmas mb Abkcgb`, tfara wgs

bo rastrmitmob, bo `oitrmba ghout axicu`mbk iobeassmobs.

Gcc

gvowgcs oe

kumct wara giiapta`

gt

egia vgcua wmtfout `msirmlmbgtmob.

Mb

egit,

iobeassmbk wgs cmna pcag`mbk kumcty, tfarahy praicu`mbk

tfa baa`

eor g

eorlgc trmgc. [mklora bota` tfgt

gt

cagst tfroukf tfa lm``ca oe

tfa

savabtaabtf iabtury, tfa usa oe pfysmigc

tortura to

axtrgit iobeassmobs

wgs

iollob

gb`

avm`abia

so

ohtgmba` wgs giiapta` wmtfout sirupca.

Mb iobtrgst, hy

tfa

bmbataabtf iabtury tfara wgs g parmo` `urmbk wfmif

tfa

du`mimgry wgs kabargccy iybmigc oe gcc iobeassmobs gb` tab`a`

to

rapu`mgta tfal upob tfa scmkftast prataxt. Pwo hgsas eor tfms mstrust oe

iobeassmobs wara

grtmiucgta`- M)

tfgt

tfa

proiass oe proiurmbk prooe oe

gb

gccaka` iobeassmob tfroukf tfa tastmloby oe

gb

gssoimgta, mbeorlar,

pocmia oeemiar,

or

vmitml,

ms

oe quastmobghca racmghmcmty, gb`

8)

avab wfab

tfa iobeassmob

ms

g wacc-prova` egit, mt lgy fgva cmttca `mgkbostmi vgcua

(m.a.,

gs gb

mb`migtor oe kumct) me

mt

wgs

tfa

rasuct oe ioarimob

or

wgs

mb`uia` hy prolmsas, tfragts,

or otfar

tgitmis oe tfa tfmr` akraa.

@urmbk tfa twabtmatf iabtury, iobeassmob avm`abia fgs haab bamtfar

giiapta` bor radaita` outrmkft. Mbstag` mts g`lmssmhmcmty fgs haab

`atarlmba` ob

gb

mb`mvm`ugc hgsms hy g rgtmobgc iobsm`argtmob oe

tfa

surroub`mbk imriulstgbias

gb`

tfa gcc-mlportgbt raqumralabt tfgt

mt

ha

prova` vo7ubtgry. Giior`mbk

to

[mklora, tfa outstgb`mbk `avacop

labt

mb

raiabt yagrs ms tfa bgtmobgcmzgtmob oe iobeassmob cgws, astgh

cmsfa` tfroukf g sarmas oe Q.Y. Yuprala

Iourt

`aimsmobs

gb`

eoub`a`

upob tfa @ua Zroiass Icgusa oe tfa Eourtaabtf Glab`labt (saa gcso

Ytapfabs,

7=;9). Pfus, mb Hrowb u. Lmssmssmppm (7=95),

tfa iourt

ravarsa` g kumcty var`mit haigusa oe g iobeassmob tfgt wgs raiamva`

tfroukf pfysmigc hrutgcmty, gb` gssarta` tfgt g trmgc ms g lara pratabsa

wfara tfa stgta gutformtmas fgva iobtmbua` g iobvmitmob rastmbk socacy

upob iobeassmobs ohtgmba` hy vmocabia (p. 86;>

saa

gcso

Ifglhars u.

Ecorm`g

7=0:).

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

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;:

PFA

ZY]IFOCOK]

OE

AUM@ABIA

B@

PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

Mb g butsfacc,

vocubtgrmbass

fg` alarka` gs tfa prmlgry irmtarmob eor

tfa g`lmssmob oe iobeassmob avm`abia. Pfa lgdor tgsn oe raiabt yagrs

fg` tfus haiola to grtmiucgta tfa.tfaoratmigc rgtmobgca eor tfms irmtarmob

gs wacc gs g proia`urgc strgtaky eor mts mlpcalabtgtmob. [fy gra

mbvocubtgry i=beassmobs axicu`a`? Pfroukf tfa vgrmous Yuprala

Iourt aimsmobs, assabtmgccy two typas oe ragsobs wara g`vgbia`. Emrst

ms tfa iollob cgw axpcgbgtmob tfgt mbvocubtgry iobeassmobs, cmna

tastmloby kmvab wfmca mbtoxmigta`

or

mb raspobsa to cag`mbk quastmobs,

gra ubtrustwortfy gb` ubracmghca (saa [mklora, 7=;:>

Ytamb u Baw

.

]orn, 7=19).

Giior`mbkcy, tfa opargtmobgc tast raiollab`a` eor

du`kas' rucmbks oe g`lmssmhmcmty

ms

wfatfar tfa mb`uialabt wgs sueemimabt

to praicu`a g eraa gb` rgtmobgc ifomia gb` pro`uia g

egmr

rmsn oe egcsa

iobeassmob.

Pfa

saiob` rgtmobgca, emrst grtmiucgta`

mb Cmsabhg u

Igcmeorbmg

(7=07), ms tfgt

''tfa

gml oe

tfa

raqumralabt oe ua

proiass

ms

bot to axicu`a prasulptmvacy egcsa avm`abia hut to pravabt eub`glabtgc

ubegmrbass

mb

tfa usa oe avm`abia wfatfar trua or egcsa (p. 87=). Hotf

sifocgrcy sabtmlabt (LiIorlmin, 7=05> Zgucsab, 7=10) gb` suhsaquabt

igsa

cgw

(a.k., Xokars u Xmiflob`, 7=57) fgva sfmeta` towgr` tfms

iurrabt alpfgsms

ob

iobstmtutmobgccy-hgsa` proia`urgc egmrbass, mb`mvm`

ugc rmkfts, gb` tfa `atarrabia oe oeeabsmva pocmia lmsiob`uit. Gs suif,

gctfoukf mbvocubtgry iobeassmobs

lust

ha axicu`a`

me

hacmava`

to ha

ubtrustwortfy, tfgt irmtarmob ms

bot aboukf-tfay

lust gcso ha

axicu`a` me

mccakgccy

ohtgmba`.

Iurrabt Ytgtus

Uocubtgrmbass

ms

g meemiuct iobiapt to opargtmobgcmza smbia mt raqumras

mbearabia ghout tfa suspait's suhdaitmva stgta oe lmb` gb` alhrgias

. fa `ugc iobiarbs eor trustwortfmbass gb` `ua proiass. Pfa Yuprala

Iourt,

mb egit, fgs avg`a` praimsa `aembmtmob gb` stgta` mb Hcginhurb u

Gcghglg (7=5:) tfgt g iolpcax oe vgcuas ub`arcmas tfa strmitura

gkgmbst usa hy tfa stgta oe iobeassmobs wfmif, hy

wgy

oe iobvabmabt

sfortfgb`, tfms iourt tarls mbvocubtgry, gb` tfa roca pcgya` hy agif mb

gby smtugtmob vgrmas giior`mbk to tfa pgrtmiucgr imriulstgbias oe tfa

igsa p. 8:;). Pfa iobiapt oe mbvocubtgrmbass tfus raprasabts g

sullgry axprassmob eor gcc prgitmias tfgt vmocgta iobstmtutmobgc prmbim

pcas (a.k., tfa rmkft to g

egmr

trmgc, tfa prmvmcaka gkgmbst iolpucsory

sace-mbirmlmbgtmob) gb` igb ha `atarlmba` obcy tfroukf g iolpra

fabsmva gbgcysms oe tfa totgcmty oe tfa racavgbt imriulstgbias

Iuc-

olha

u Iobbaitmiut, 7=57, p. 5:5).

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

5/28

Yguc L Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

;7

Pfa

igtgcok oe egitors tfgt lgy ha racavgbt

to

g `atarlmbgtmob oe

vocubtgrmbass iovars g wm`a rgbka. Mt mbicu`as ifgrgitarmstmis oe

tfa

giiusa` (a.k., youtf, suhborlgc mbtaccmkabia, pfysmigc `msghmcmty, labtgc

mccbass, mbtoxmigtmob, mccmtargiy), tfa iob`mtmobs oe atabtmob (a.k., acgya`

grrgmkblabt, mbg`aqugta cmvmbk egimcmtmas, cgin oe giiass to ioubsac,

ermab`s, or otfar gssmstgbia), gb`-oe ioursa-tfa lgbbar oe mbtar

rokgtmob (a.k., cabktfy gb` kruacmbk parmo`s oe quastmobmbk, pfysmigc

ghusa, `aprmvgtmob oe baa`s, tfragts oe fgrl or pubmsflabt, g`vmia,

prolmsas or ragssurgbias, `aiaptmob). Bot surprmsmbkcy, tfa igsa cgw

fgs

haab

iobeusmbk gb` mbiobsmstabt,

tfa iourts

fgva haab hur`aba` hy

bularous gppagcs eor postiobvmitmob ravmaws oe tfa vocubtgrmbass

mssua, gb` gttalpts gt sybtfasms

gb`

kabargcmzgtmob fgva lat wmtf cmttca

suiiass. Gs Dustmia Ergbneurtar sgm`, tfara

ms

bo smlpca cmtlus-pgpar

tast Iucolha

u

Iobbaitmiut, 7=57, p. 5:7).

9

Mb

tfa

7=5:s,

tfa

Yuprala Iourt lova` towgr` astghcmsfmbk lora

ohdaitmva irmtarmg eor tfa g`lmssmhmcmty

oe

iobeassmob avm`abia.

Po

tfgt

gml, tfa raeusgc oe pocmia to parlmt tfa giiusa` to iobsuct wmtf gb

gttorbay wgs rakgr`a` gs pgrt oe tfa racavgbt imriulstgbias eor du`kmbk

vocubtgrmbass. Mb Lgssmgf u Qbmta` Ytgtas (7=50), fowavar, tfa

Iourt

ruca` tfgt

me

tfa giiusa` fgs haab mb`mita`, gcc mbirmlmbgtmbk stgtalabts

acmimta` hy kovarblabt gkabts mb tfa ghsabia oe ioubsac gra mbg`lmssm

hca.''

Pfab mb

Lgccoy u Fokgb (7=50), tfa

Iourt

hrog`aba` tfa

axicusmobgry rucas eurtfar hy axpcmimtcy cmbnmbk iobeassmob avm`abia to

tfa prmvmcaka gkgmbst iolpucsory sace-mbirmlmbgtmob. Pfasa `aimsmobs

iuclmbgta`

mb tfa

cgb`lgrn Lmrgb`g u

rmzobg

(7=55) rucmbk

mb

wfmif

tfa Iourt astghcmsfa` hrog`, ubmvarsgccy gppcmighca kum`acmbas eor

sgeakugr`mbk tfa rmkfts to ralgmb smcabt

gb`

to ioubsac. Mt tfus

grtmiucgta` tfa Lmrgb`g wgrbmbks

gb`

ruca` tfgt ubcass tfa giiusa` ms

mbeorla` oe tfasa rmkfts, gF sace-mbirmlmbgtmbk stgtalabts lg`a

gra

mbg`lmssmhca.

Eor savargc yagrs, tfa Lmrgb`g `oitrmba

stoo` gs

g `aembmtmva gb`

ubglhmkuous sgeakugr` gkgmbst iobeassmobs mb`uia` or

ioaria`

tfroukf mbtarrokgtmob. Lora raiabtcy, fowavar, tfa Yuprala Iourt

fgs cmlmta` mts

siopa

iobsm`arghcy (saa

Ytoba,

7=;;). Mb tfa cgtast

`avacoplabt, mb egit, tfa Iourt ruca` tfgt ovarrm`mbk iobsm`argtmobs oe

puhcmi sgeaty iouc` dustmey g pocmia oeemiar's vmocgtmob oe tfa Lmrgb`g

strmituras (Baw ]orn u Wugrcas, 7=60). Oba rasuct oe tfms `aimsmob

ms

tfgt, ub`ar iartgmb imriulstgbias, gby sace-mbirmlmbgtmbk stgtalabts

acmimta` urmbk quastmobmbk iouc` bow ha g`lmtta`

gs

trmgc avm`abia avab

me

tfa

suspait

fg` bot haab gpprmsa` oe fms or far rmkfts. G saiob` rasuct

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

6/28

;8

PFA ZY]IFOCOK]

O

AUM@ABIA B@ PXM C ZXOIA@QXA

oe tfms puhcmi sgeaty axiaptmob

to

mrgb`g ms tfa ohvmous eoreamtura

oe

g

icagr gb` ohdaitmva irmtarmob hy wfmif to du`ka tfa axicusmob

oe

iobeassmob avm`abia. Gs suif, `aspmta igccs eor tfa grtmiucgtmob

oe

ohdaitmva kum`acmbas ([fmta, 7=;=) mb

gcc

cmnacmfoo` tfa lora suhdaitmva

vocubtgrmbass irmtarmob wmcc tgna ob g``a` mlportgbia.

1

IOLZAPABIA

PFA ZY] FOCOK] OE

ZOQ A

OBEAYYMOBY

Gs our fmstormigc ovarvmaw fgs sfowb, tfa axicusmobgry rucas racgtmbk

to

iobeassmobs wara hgsa`, erol tfa outsat, ob tfa atfmi oe mbsucgtmbk

our g`varsgrmgc systal oe dustmia erol tfa mbtro`uitmob oe ubracmghca

avm`abia. Gs [mklora (7=;:) bota`, gctfoukf tfara ms bo wgy to

`atarlmba tfa eraquabiy oe ubtrua iobeassmobs,

mt

ms ragsobghca

to

iobicu`a "hgsa`

ob

or`mbgry ohsarvgtmob oe fulgb

iob`uit, tfgt

ub`ar iartgmb strassas g parsob, aspaimgccy oba oe aeaitmva labtgcmty

or

paiucmgr talparglabt, lgy egcsacy ginbowca`ka kumct (p. 98=). Mb tfms

saitmob, wa axpcora two quastmobs-( ) wfgt gitugccy trgbspmras hafmb`

tfa icosa`

`oors

oe tfa mbtarrokgtmob rool,

gb`

8) fow iolpatabt or

trustwortfy ms iobeassmob avm`abia?

atfo`s oe Mbtarrokgtmob

Pfa

tarl mbtarrokgtmob ms usa` kabargccy to `asirmha gcc quastmobmbk

hy pocmia, rakgr`cass oe wfatfar mt ms iob`uita`

mb

iusto`y or mb tfa emac`,

haeora

or

getar grrgmkblabt. @aspmta tfa parsmstmbk iobtrovarsy sur-

roub`mbk tfms gspait oe irmlmbgc mbvastmkgtmob, tfara ms surprmsmbkcy cmttca

mb

tfa wgy oe alpmrmigc `oiulabtgtmob oe mbtarrokgtmob prgitmias.

Mb

7=97, tfa Q.Y. Bgtmobgc Iollmssmob ob Cgw Ohsarvgbia

gb`

Abeorialabt puhcmsfa` g raport oe mts emb`mbks gb` iobemrla` tfa worst

eagr ghout pocmia ghusa, botmbk tfgt tfa usa oe savara tfmr` `akraa

tgitmis to axtrgit iobeassmobs ms wm`asprag` (p. 719). Gs axglpcas,

tfa iollmssmob imta`

gs

iollobpcgia tfa usa oe pfysmigc vmocabia,

latfo`s oe mbtmlm`gtmob g`dusta` to tfa gka gb` labtgcmty oe tfa

giiusa`, ergu`ucabt prolmsas tfgt iouc` bot ha eucemcca`, gb` procobka`

mccakgc

`atabtmob.

Mb

gb aeeort to ifgrgitarmza tfa mbtarrokgtmob proiass

gs mt lmkft fgva ifgbka` smbia tfgt tmla, tfa mrgb`g (7=55)

iourt

cginmbk `mrait ohsarvgtmobgc

or

mbtarvmaw

`gtg-turba`

eor avm`abia oe

wfgt trgbspmras to gitugc raporta`

igsas

mbvocvmbk ioaria` iobeassmobs

gb` to g ravmaw oe tfa lost popucgr lgbugcs wrmttab to g`vmsa cgw

abeorialabt oeemimgcs ghout suiiasseuc tgitmis eor acmimtmbk iobeassmobs

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

7/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia 1. [rmkftslgb

;9

(ie. Guhry Igputo, 7=51> cbhgu Xam , 7=58> O'Fgrg O'Fgrg,

7=67). Assabtmgccy, tfa

Iourt

iobicu`a` erol mts mbqumry tfgt

tfa

lo`arb prgitmia oe mb-iusto`y mbtarrokgtmob

ms

(bow) psyifocokmigccy

rgtfar tfgb pfysmigccy ormabta` (p. 006),

5

hut tfgt tfa `akraa oe

ioarimvabass mbfarabt

mb

tfa smtugtmob fg` bot mlmbmsfa`. Pfa Iourt's

spaimemi suhstgbtmva emb`mbks

gra

`asirmha` hacow.

Pfa pfysmigc sattmbk.

Po

hakmb wmtf, pocmia lgbugcs (lost botghcy

cbhgu Xam`'s Irmlmbgc Mbtarrokgtmob b` Iobeassmobs 7=58) urka

oeemim_gcs to alpcoy g spaimgccy iobstruita` rool tfgt ms psyifocokmigccy

ralova` erol tfa smkfts

gb`

soub`s oe tfa pocmia stgtmob,

gb` to

lgmbtgmb

rmkm`

iobtroc ovar

tfa

aiocoky oe tfgt mbtarrokgtmob rool.

Pfa

bovacty oe tfms egimcmty ms `asmkba`

to

kmva tfa suspait tfa mccusmob tfgt

tfa abvmroblabt mtsace ms wmtf`rgwmbk eurtfar gb` eurtfar gwgy (Guhry

&

Igputo, 7=51, p. 96).

Po

eurtfar lmbmlmza sabsory stmlucgtmob gb`

ralova

gcc

axtrgbaous sourias oe mstrgitmob, soimgc support, gb` racmae

erol tabsmob, tfa lgbugcs raiollab` tfgt tfa mbtarrokgtmob rool ha

4giioustmigccy soub`prooea` gb` hgra, wmtfout eurbmtura or

orbglabts-

obcy two ifgmrs gb` parfgps g `asn. Gcso irmtmigc, oeioursa,

ms

tfgt tfa

giiusa` ha abma` iollubmigtmva giiass

to

ermab`s gb` eglmcy. Embgccy,

tfa mbtarrokgtor ms g`vmsa`

to

smt

gs

icosa

gs

possmhca to tfa suhdait, mb

grlcass, strgmkfthgina` ifgmrs, gb`

gt

aqugc aya cavac. Mbvg`mbk tfa

suspait's parsobgc spgia, mt ms sgm`, wmcc mbiragsa fms

or

far cavac oe

gbxmaty erolwfmif tfa obcy lagbs oe asigpa ms iobeassmob.

Lgbmpucgtmva tgitmis. Mbhgu gb` Xam` (7=58) `asirmha`

mb

iobsm`ar

ghca `atgmc 75 ovarcgppmbk strgtakmas eor acmimtmbk iobeassmobs erol

mbmtmgccy

raigcimtrgbt suspaits. Erol tfal, tfraa lgdor tfalas alarka.

Pfa emrst

ms to raiobiaptugcmza eor tfa suspait tfa gttrmhutmobgc

mlpcmigtmobs oe fms

or

far irmla hy lmbmlmzmbk mts sarmousbass (a.k., M'va

saab tfousgb`s oe otfars mb tfa

sgla

smtugtmob ) or hy provm`mbk g

egia-sgvmbk axtarbgc gttrmhutmob oe hcgla. Pfa mbtarrokgtor lmkft, eor

axglpca, sukkast to tfa suspait tfgt

tfara

wara axtabugtmbk imriul

stgbias mb fms or far pgrtmiucgr igsa, provm mbk suif axiusmbk iob`mtmobs

gs sace-`aeabsa, pgssmob, or smlpca bakcmkabia. Or, tfa hcgla lmkft ha

sfmeta` obto g spaimemi parsob suif

gs

tfa vmitml or gb giiolpcmia.

Mbhgu gb` Xam` 7=58) oeeara` tfa eoccowmbk axglpca oe fow

suif

gttrmhutmobgc lgbmpucgtmob fgs haab usa` suiiasseuccy gs hgmt4 G lm` ca

gka` lgb, giiusa` oe fgvmbk tgnab mb`aiabt cmhartmas wmtf g MO-yagr-oc`

kmrc,

wgs toc` tfgt tfms kmrc

ms

wacc `avacopa` eor far gka. Yfa prohghcy

cagrba` g cot ghout sax erol hoys

. . . sfa

lgy fgva acmhargtacy trma` to

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

8/28

;

PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA B@ PXM C ZXOIA@QXA

aximta you to saa wfgt you wouc` o.

Mb

gbotfar oiulabta` mbstgbia,

[gc`

at

gc. (7=5;) ohsarva` g `ataitmva tacc g hragnmbk-gb`-abtarmbk

suspait tfgt tfa kuy sfouc` bavar fgva caet

gcc tfgt

cmquor mb tfa wmb`ow

to talpt fobast kuys cmna you

gb`

la (p. 7100).

Erol

gb

abtmracy meearabt gbkca, gb gctarbgtmva strgtaky ms

to

ermkftab

tfa

suspait mbto iobeassmbk.

Oba

wgy to giiolpDmsf tfms

ms

hy

axgkkargtmbk tfa sarmousbass oe

tfa

oeeabsa

gb`

lgkbmtu`a oe

tfa

ifgrkas. Mb tfaet or alhazzcalabt igsas, eor axglpca,

tfa raporta`

coss-gb`

fabia tfa

iobsaquabias

eor g iobvmita` `aeab`gbt-iouc`

ha mbiragsa`. Gbotfar vgrmgtmob oe tfa

sigra

tgitmi ms eor tfa mbtarrokgtor

to prasula to fgva g emrl hacmae ghout tfa suspait's iucpghmcmty

hgsa`

ob

mb`apab`abt, egitugc avm`abia. Zocmia lgbugcs gra rapcata wmtf

spaimemi

s u k k ~ s t m o b s ghout

fow to usa wfgt

ms

raearra`

to gs

tfa

nbowca`ka-hcuee'' trmin.

Pfa

mbtarrokgtor iouc`

tfus

pratab`

to

fgva

strobk imriulstgbtmgc avm`abia (a.k., tfa suspait's embkarprmbts

gt

tfa

siaba oe tfa

i r m l a ~

fgva g pocmia oeemiar posa

gs gb

ayawmtbass gb`

m`abtmey

tfa suspait mb

g rmkka` cmbaup, or avab-tfroukf acghprgta

stgkmbk `avmias-try

to

parsug`a

tfa suspait tfgt

fa

or sfa

fgs gcrag`y

haab mlpcmigta` hy gb giiolpcmia or gbotfar suspait. Gbotfar

mbtarastmbk taifbmqua, gcobk smlmcgr cmbas, ms

to

gcart

tfa suspait to

fms or

far gppgrabt psyifopfysmocokmigc gb` bobvarhgc mb`migtors oe g kumcty

iobsimabia suif gs rybass oe tfa loutf, swagtmbk, em`katy lovalabts,

or `owbigst ayas.

Pfa tfmr` kabargc typa oe

gpprogif

ms

hgsa` ob tfa

`avacoplabt oe g

parsobgc rgpport wmtf

tfa suspait.

Xaearrmbk

to

tfms

gs tfa

alotmobgc

gppagc, pocmia lgbugcs g`vmsa tfa mbtarrokgtor

to

sfow sylpgtfy,

ub`arstgb`mbk,

gb` raspait

tfroukf ecgttary gb` kasturas

suif gs tfa

oeear oe g `rmbn. Fgvmbk astghcmsfa` g ermab`cy racgtmobsfmp, tfa

mbtarrokgtor lmkft tfab try

to

parsug`a

tfa

suspait

tfgt

iobeassmbk

ms

mb

fms

or

far

owb

hast

mbtarasts.

Mb

g lora acghorgta varsmob oe tfms

strgtaky, two `ataitmvas

abgit

g Lutt gb` Daee routmba mb wfmif

oba

iolas giross

gs

fostmca,

gb`

racabtcass, wfmca tfa

otfar

kgmbs tfa

suspait's iobem`abia hy hambk protaitmva gb` supportmva. Pfms taif

bmqua

ms

gppgrabtcy qumta

iollob

gb` wgs usa`

mb

g igsa asirmha` hy

Tmlhgr`o (7=5;).

Mb

g``mtmob to

tfasa

vgrmous spaimemi strgtakmas, tfa cmtargtura

ravmawa` hy tfa Yuprala

Iourt mb mrgb`g

iobtgmba` savargc ubmvarsgc

cy

gppcmighca rucas oe tfulh, tfa lost mlportgbt oe wfmif

ms gb

opprassmva gtlospfara oe `okka` parsmstabia. Bot surprmsmbkcy, tfa

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

9/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia 1 [rmkftslgb

;1

Iourt iobicu`a` erol mts emb`mbks, tfgt mbtarrokgtmob prgitmias wara

mbfarabtcy ioarimva.

@mrait ohsarugtmobgc `gtg Gra tfa g`lmtta`cy mb`mrait gb` poorcy

sglpca` gtg iucca` hy tfa Yuprala Iourt gb giiurgta apmitmob oe tfa

mbtarrokgtmob proiass

or `o

tfay portrgy obcy tfa lost gtypmigc

gb`

axtrala eorls oe ioarimob? Mb

gb

alpmrmigc stu`y, [gc`, Gyras, Fass,

Yifgbtz, gb` [fmtahrag` ( 7=5;) ohsarva` 78; mbtarrokgtmobs ovar

tfa

ioursa oe acavab waans mb tfa Baw Fgvab, Iobbaitmiut, Zocmia

@apgrtlabt. Mb g``mtmob to raior`mbk tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif vgrmous

tgitmis wara usa` mb tfasa sassmobs, tfa mbvastmkgtors mbtarvmawa` tfa

pocmia oeemiars gb` gttorbays mbvocva` gs wacc

gs sola axsuspaits.

;

Ovargcc, tfms rasagrif ravagca` tfgt oba or lora oe tfa tgitmis

raiollab`a` hy cbhgu gb` Xam` ( 7=58) wgs alpcoya` mb 51 pariabt oe

tfa mbtarrokgtmobs ohsarva` gb` tfgt tfa `ataitmvas usa` gb gvargka oe

two tgitmis par suspait. Pfa lost iollob gpprogif wgs to ovarwfacl

tfa suspait wmtf glgkmbk avm`abia, to gssart g emrl hacmae mb fms or far

kumct, gb` tfab to sukkast tfgt mt wouc` ha agsmar eor

gcc

iobiarba`

m

tfa

suspait g`lmtta` to fms or far roca mb tfa irmla. Pfms cgttar pcag wgs

oetab giiolpgbma` hy g sfow oe sylpgtfy gb` iobiarb eor tfa

suspait s wacegra. Lost oe tfa

otfar

latfo`s imta` mb tfa lgbugcs wara

gcso usa` wmtf vgrymbk eraquabiy, mbicu mbk tfa Lutt gb` Daee routmba,

pcgymbk oee otfar suspaits, lmbmlmzmbk tfa sarmousbass oe tfa oeeabsa,

sfmetmbk tfa hcgla eor tfa irmla to axtarbgc egitors, gb` gcartmbk tfa

suspait to smkbs oe barvousbass

tfgt

ravagc g kumcty iobsimabia.

Pfa

mbvastmkgtors raporta` tfgt bo ub`ua pfysmigc eoria wgs usa` hy tfa

`ataitmvas, hut tfay `m` ohsarva tfa eraquabt usa oe prolmsas (a.k.,

oeears oe cowara` hgmc, ra`uia` ifgrkas, gb` du mimgc cabmabiy) gb` vgkua

tfragts ghout fgrsfar tragtlabt. Mb tfraa mbstgbias, suspaits wara toc`

tfgt tfa pocmia wouc` lgna trouhca eor tfamr eglmcmas gb` ermab`s me tfay

raeusa` to ioopargta.

[gc` at gc. 7=5;) iobicu`a` erol tfamr ohsarvgtmobs tfgt tfa Baw

Fgvab ataitmvas alpcoya` lost oe tfa parsugsmva taifbmquas cmsta` hy

cbhgu gb` Xam`, tfus dustmeymbk, to sola axtabt, tfa Iourt s eagrs.

6

Mb`aa` mt ms parfgps ragsobghca to spaiucgta tfgt haigusa tfa lara

prasabia oe ohsarvars

gt

tfa sassmobs iouc` fgva mbfmhmta` tfa usa oe

strobkar eorls oe prassura, tfasa rasucts lmkft avab fgva ub`arastm-

lgta` tfa ioarimob alpcoya` `urmbk mbtarrokgtmob. Loraovar, suif

tgitmis o bot laracy raprasabt tfa ghusas oe gb ubabcmkftaba`, hykoba

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

10/28

;5

PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA GB@ PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

arg, gs [fmta

(7=;=)

imtas smlmcgr nmb`s oe g`vmia

mb iurrabt

pocmia

lgbugcs gb` s a ~ a r c

suif

mbstgbias

mb

raiabtcy raporta` igsas .

Ugcm`mty oe Iobeassmob Aum`abia

Gs wa bota` agrcmar, du`klabts

ghout

tfa vocubtgrmbass gb`, fabia,

iolpatabia oe avm`abia

rast

ob two

irmtarmg-trustwortfmbass

gb`

proia`urgc egmrbass. Agrcmar, wa msiussa` tfa cgttar irmtarmob.

[a

eoius

bow ob tfa giiurgiy or trustwortfmbass raqumralabt.

Po

lagsura tfa gitugc vgcm`mty oe iobeassmob avm`abia, oba wouc`

m`agccy gssass tfa iolhmba` eraquabiy wmtf wfmif trucy kumcty

suspaits

iobeass gb` trucy mbboiabt suspaits

`o

bot. Pwo typas oe

arrobaous

outiola gra tfus

possmhca-tfosa

prohghcy iollob mbstgbias mb

wfmif kumcty suspaits egmc to iobeass (lmssas

mb

smkbgc `ataitmob tarls)

gb` tfa prohghcy

rgrar

oiigsmobs wfab suspaits wfo

gra

mbboiabt

`o

iobeass egcsa gcgrls mb smkbgc ataitmob tarls). Haigusa our giiusgtorm

gc

systal oe dustmia

protaits

tfa mb`mvm`ugc's rmkft

to

raeusa sace

`msicosura, tfa emrst typa

oe arror

ohvmouscy oas bot provm`a g hgsms eor

iobiarb. Pfa

saiob` igtakory

oe arror, fowavar, `oas

posa

g sarmous

prohcal eor tfa

iourts.

Mb gssassmbk

tfa

trustwortfmbass oe iobeassmob

avm`abia, tfa quastmob wa lust tfaraeora gsn ms,

[fgt ms tfa

rmsn oe egcsa

iobeassmobs?

Gbai`otas

gb`

igsa fmstormas.

Mt ms

mlpossmhca

to

`atarlmba

or

avab

astmlgta tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif paopca iobeass to irmlas tfay `m`

bot gitugccy iollmt. Ms tfara g ragsobghca rmsn oe egcsa iobeassmobs?

Gctfoukf tfa cgyparsob lmkft emb` mt `meemiuct to hacmava, aboukf

mbstgbias fgva

haab `oiulabta`

to sukkast tfgt iobiarb

ovar

suif g

rmsn

ms

dustmema` (Hgrtfac,

7=;5>

Horifgr`,

7=98>

Eostar,

7=5=> Ergbn

Ergbn 7=1;> Lubstarhark 7=:6>

Xamn,

7=1=> Yutfarcgb` 7=51>

[mklora,

7=9;>

Tmlhgr`o,

7=5;> Bota Mb`mgbg Cgw

Dourbgc,

7=19).

G parusgc oe tfa gbai`otgc cmtargtura sukkasts tfgt mt

ms

usaeuc

to

`mstmbkumsf tfraa psyifocokmigccy `mstmbit typas oe egcsa iobeassmob

( ) vocubtgry,

8)

ioaria`-iolpcmgbt, gb`

9)

ioaria`-mbtarbgcmza`.

Uocubtgry egcsa iobeassmobs,

tfosa purposaeuccy oeeara`

mb

tfa ghsabia

oe acmimtgtmob, gra ob

tfa

egia oe mt tfa lost abmklgtmi oe tfa tfraa typas.

[fy, eor axglpca, m`

ovar

8:: paopca iobeass to tfa eglous Cmb`harkf

nm`bgppmbk? Gppgrabtcy g lorhm` `asmra eor botormaty iouc`

giioubt

eor tfms apmso`a gs wacc

gs

otfars

mb

wfmif bulhars oe egcsa iobeassmobs

gra raiamva` eor wm`acy puhcmimza` irmlas (saa Bota,

Mb`mgbg Cgw

Dourbgc, 7=19,

p.

968). Otfar

sukkasta` lotmvas eor vocubtgry egcsa

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

11/28

Yguc L Ngssmrt

gb`

Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

;;

iobeassmobs mbicu`a tfa ubiobsimous baa` to axpmgta kumct

ovar

pravmous

trgbskrassmobs vmg sace-pubmsflabt, tfa fopa eor g raiollab`gtmob oe

cabmabiy,

gb`

g `asmra to gm`

gb`

protait

tfa

ragc irmlmbgc.

Pfab,

oe

ioursa, tfara

gra tfa

mbbularghca mbstgbias

mb

wfmif egcsa iobeassmobs

gra

oeeara` hy mb`mvm`ugcs suhsaquabtcy `mgkbosa`

gs

labtgccy

mcc

gb`

ubghca to `mstmbkumsf hatwaab egbtgsy gb` ragcmty (ie. Kuttlgifar &

[amfoeab, 7=18).

Mb

iobtrgst to tfosa oiigsmobs wfab mb`mvm`ugcs vocubtgrmcy mbmtmgta

egcsa iobeassmobs gra tfosa

mb

wfmif

suspaits

iobeass tfroukf tfa

ioarimvabass oe tfa mbtarrokgtmob proiass. [mtfmb tfms igtakory oe

ioaria` e csa

obdassmobs, g eurtfar `mstmbitmob sfouc` ha `rgwb.

Zsyifocokmsts fgva cobk raiokbmza`

tfa

mlportgbia oe two iobiaptugccy

`meearabt raspobsas to soimgc iobtroc

gttalpts-iolpcmgbia

gb` mbtarbgc

mzgtmob (saa Naclgb, 7=16). Iolpcmgbia lgy

ha

`aemba` gs

gb

ovart,

puhcmi giqumasiabia

to

g soimgc mbecuabia

gttalpt

mb

or`ar to

gifmava

sola

mlla`mgta mbstrulabtgc kgmb wfarags mbtarbgcmzgtmob raears

to

g

parsobgc

giiaptgbia

oe

tfa

vgcuas

or

hacmaes

aspousa`

mb

tfgt

gttalpt.

P[O lagbmbkeuc `meearabias hatwaab tfasa icosacy racgta`

proiassas

fgva haab ohsarva`. Emrst, gctfoukf iolpcmgbia

ms

raecaita` mb suhsa

quabt

hafgvmor obcy me mt iobtmbuas to fgva mbstrulabtgc vgcua,

mbtarbgcmza` hafgvmors parsmst

ovar

tmla

gb` giross

g vgrmaty oe

smtugtmobs. Yaiob`, mt gppagrs

tfgt

wfarags mlla`mgta iolpcmgbia ms

lost aeeaitmvacy acmimta` tfroukf powareuc gb` fmkfcy sgcmabt taifbmquas

oe soimgc iobtroc, mbtarbgcmzgtmob

ms

hast

gifmava` tfroukf lora suhtca,

cass ioarimva latfo`s (saa Cappar, 7=68, eor g sace-pariaptmob tfaory

axpcgbgtmob oe tfms pfabolabob).

Mb

vmaw oe tfa eorakombk `mstmbitmob,

mt

ms icagr

tfgt sola

egcsa

iobeassmobs lgy ha vmawa`

gs

ioaria`-iolpcmgbt, wfaramb

tfa

suspait

puhcmicy proeassas kumct mb

raspobsa

to axtrala latfo`s oe mbtarrokg

tmob, `aspmta nbowmbk prmvgtacy

tfgt

fa

or sfa

ms trucy mbboiabt.

Xaecaitmbk tfa mbstrulabtgc

iolpobabt

oe

suif

iob`uit, [mklora

(7=;:) bota` tfgt

oba

oe

tfa

lgmb ragsobs eor `mstrustmbk iobeassmob

avm`abia grmsas wfab g parsob ms pcgia` mb suif g smtugtmob tfgt

gb

ubtrua iobeassmob oe kumct fgs haiola tfa lora `asmrghca oe two

gctarbgtmvas hatwaab wfmif

tfa parsob

wgs ohcmka` to

ifoosa

(p. 900).

Fmstormigccy, lost oe tfa egcsa iobeassmobs axtrgita` tfroukf tortura, .

tfragts, gb` prolmsas wara prohghcy oe tfms typa (a.k., tfa Ygcal

wmtifirget iobeassmobs oe tfa savabtaabtf iabtury). Gb`, raecaitmbk tfa

bobparlgbabt ifgrgitar oe

lara

iolpcmgbia, suif iobeassmobs gra

typmigccy wmtf`rgwb gb` ifgccabka`

gt

g pratrmgc

o c u b t r m b a ~ s

fagrmbk.

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

12/28

;6 PM-eA

ZY]IFOCOK]

OE AUM@ABIA

B@

PXM C ZXOIA@QXA

G koo` axglpca

ms

tfa icgssmi igsa oe Hrowb u Lmssmssmppm (7=95) mb

wfmif tfa `aeab`gbts iobeassa` getar fgvmbk haab tfragtaba` hy g

cybif loh gb` wfmppa` wmtf staac-stu``a` hacts, gb` tfab

lgmbtgmba`-

upob gppagc tfgt tfay fg` lg`a egcsa sace-mbirmlmbgtmbkstgtalabts mb

or`ar to asigpa tfa pgmbeuc hagtmbks gb` gvom` eurtfar pubmsflabt.

Mt ms

gcso icagr, fowavar, tfgt tfara gra tmlas wfab egcsa iobeassmobs

gra ioaria` mbtarbgcmza`4 wfab tfa suspait tfroukf tfa egtmkua,

prassuras, gb` sukkastmvabass oe tfa mbtarrokgtmob proiass gitugccy

iolas to hacmava tfgt fa or sfa iollmtta` tfa oeeabsa. [fgt ms

ermkftabmbk ub`ar tfms strobkar eorl oe egcsa iobeassmob ms tfgt tfa

suspait's lalory oe fms

or

far owb gitmobs lgy ha gctara`, lgnmbk mts

ormkmbgc iobtabts potabtmgccy mrratrmavghca.

Gs gb mccustrgtmob oe fow g suspait lmkft iola to mbtarbgcmza tfa

avabts gs sukkasta` hy tfa pocmia, iobsm`ar tfa eoccowmbk

i ~ s a

`asirmha` hy Hgrtfac (7=;5).

Zatar

Xamccy,

76

yagrs oc`, raturba` fola

oba bmkft to

emb`

tfgt fms lotfar fg` haab lur`ara`. Fa igcca` tfa

pocmia wfo, getar quastmobmbk fml wmtf tfa gm` oe g pocykrgpf, hakgb

to

suspait tfa hoy oe lgtrmim`a. Prgbsirmpts

oe

fa mbtarrokgtmob sassmobs

ravagca` g egsimbgtmbk trgbsmtmob erol `abmgc tfroukf iobeusmob gb`

sace-`ouht (cgrkacy egimcmtgta` hy tfa pocmia oeemiar's gssartmobs ghout tfa

mbegccmhmcmty oe tfa ifgrts ),

gb`

embgccy to tfa t g t a l ~ b t [acc, mt ragccy

coons cmna M `m` mt gb` tfa smkbmbk oe g wrmttab iobeassmob. Pwo yagrs

cgtar, mt wgs ravagca` tfroukf mb`apab`abt avm`abia tfgt Xamccy iouc`

bot fgva iollmtta`

tfa

lur`ar, tfgt tfa iobeassmob tfgt avab

fa

igla

to hacmava wgs egcsa.

Zsyifocokmigc parspaitmuas. Ugrmous tfaormas fgva haab hroukft to

hagr ob tfa quastmob, [fgt ms mt ghout tfa ioarimvabass oe mbtarrokgtmob

tfgt igb igusa mbboiabt paopca to mbirmlm.bgta tfalsacvas? Erol g

psyifocokmigc stgb`pombt, tfa ioaria`-iolpcmgbt egcsa iobeassmobs gra

rag`mcy axpcgmba` hy tfa mb`mvm`ugc's `asmra to asigpa

gb

gvarsmva

smtugtmob gb` saiura g egvorghca sace-outiola. Mb tfasa igsas, tfa

git

oe

iobeassmob-iolpgra` to tfa iobsaquabias oe smcabia or `abmgc ms

smlpcy tfa cassar oe two avmcs eor g hacagkuara` suspait. Hut wfgt ghout

tfa lora puzzcmbk mbstgbias oe mbtarbgcmza`

egcsa

iobeassmobs?

Po giioubt eor tfms pfabolabob, sola ohsarvars fgva cmnaba` tfa

mbtarrokgtmob proiass to fypbosms. Eostar (7=5=), raearrmbk to tfa

stgtmob fousa syb`rola, stgta` tfgt pocmia mbtarrokgtmob igb

pro`uia g trgbia-cmna stgta oe famkftaba` sukkastmhmcmty so tfgt trutf

gb` egcsafoo` haiola fopacasscy iobeusa`

mb

tfa suspait's lmb` (pp.

5=:-5=7 . Ymbia tfa stgta oe fypbosms ms ifgrgitarmza` hy tfa suhdait's

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

13/28

gucL. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

;=

Doss oe mbmtmgtmva, famkftaba` igpgimty eor egbtgsy pro`uitmob, iobeghucg

tmob, gb` ragcmty `mstortmob (a.k., gb giiaptgbia oe egcsmema lalormas),

gb` gb mbiragsa` sukkastmhmcmty (a.k.,

mb

raspobsa to cag mbk quastmobs>

saa

Fmckgr`,

7=;1),

tfa `gbkar oe wfgt gppagr to ha mbtarbgcmza` egcsa

iobeassmobs iouc` provm`a g ragc

souria

oe iobiarb. Mb`aa` g stu`y hy

[ambstamb, Ghrgls, gb` Kmhhobs

7=;:)

ravagca` tfgt wfab g egcsa

sabsa oe kumct

ms

mlpcgbta`

mb

fypbotmza` suhdaits, tfay haiola cass ghca

to pgss g pocykrgpfmi

cma

`ataitor tast.

Mbtarastmbkcy, Lubstarhark (7=:6) fg` raporta` ob g lur`ar igsa

mb

wfmif tfa `aeab`gbt wgs iobvmita` gb` axaiuta` ob tfa hgsms oe g

iobeassmob tfgt lmkft fgva haab acmimta` tfroukf fypbotmi mb`uitmob.

Mb

7=:5, g wolgb bgla` Hassma Foccmstar wgs rgpa` gb` lur`ara`.

Xmifgr` Mvabs `msiovara` tfa ho`y gb` raporta`

mt

to tfa pocmia.

Coonmbk tmra` gb` `msfavaca`, fa wgs mlla mgtacy suspaita`, pcgia`

ub`ar grrast, gb` mbtarrokgta`. Giior`mbk to tfa pocmia, gctfoukf fa

mbmtmgccy abma` tfa gccakgtmobs, Mvabs tfab iobeassa` rapagta`cy, abrmif

mbk tfa story ob agif suiiassmva oiigsmob. Gt tfa trmgc, tfa prosaiutor's

igsa wgs iabtara` groub` tfa iobeassmob. fa `aeab`gbt rapu`mgta`

fms stgtalabts gb` pro`uia` 75 ubmlpagifa` wmtbassas to suhstgbtmgta

fms gcmhm. [fgt, tfab, prolpta` tfa su``ab sfmet `urmbk mbtarrokgtmob

erol `abmgc to iobeassmob? Giior`mbk

ti 2

Mvabs, fms obcy raioccaitmob oe

tfa sassmob wgs oe saambk g ravocvar pombta`

gt

fml- M sgw tfa ecgsf oe

staac

mb

erobt oe la. Pfab two lab kot haeora la. M igb ralalhar bo

lora tfgb tfgt ghout mt. . . . M

supposa

M lust fgva lg`a tfosa

stgtalabts, smbia tfay

gcc sgy M m`. Hut M fgva bo nbowca`ka oe fgvmbk

lg`a tfal (Lubstarhark, 7=:6, p. 75=). Gs

mt

turba` out, tfa aeabsa

soukft tfa opmbmob oe savargc axparts gs to wfatfar tfa iobeassmob

iouc` ha axpcgmba` tfroukf tfa usa oe fypbosms. Geemrlgtmva rapcmas

wara raiamva` erol lgby sourias, mbicu`mbk Fuko Lubstarhark gb`

[mccmgl Dglas.

Erol gbotfar stgb`pombt, mt fgs haab sukkasta` tfgt mbtarbgcmza`

egcsa

iobeassmobs iouc` rasuct erol g proiass oe sace-pariaptmob.

Mbtarasta`

mb

[fab sgymbk

ms

hacmavmbk, Harb (7=55) axpcora` tfa m`ag

tfgt g egcsa iobeassmob iouc` `mstort gb mb`mvm`ugc's raigcc oe fms

or

far

owb pgst hafgvmor me tfa iobeassmob ms almtta`

mb

tfa prasabia oe iuas

pravmouscy gssoimgta` wmtf taccmbk

tfa

trutf (a.k., ragssurgbia tfgt

oba

baa` bot g`lmt to wrobk`ombk).

Mb gb

mbtarastmbk axparmlabt, suhdaits

pareorla` g tgsn tfgt raqumra` tfal to iross out g sglpca oe wor`s

erol

g lgstar cmst. Pfab, to astghcmsf two cmkfts gs `msirmlmbgtmva stmlucm

eor

trutf gb` egcsmty, suhdaits wara gsna` kabargc quastmobs ghout

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

14/28

6:

PFA

ZY]IFOCOK] OE

AUM@ABIA

GB@

PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

tfalsacvas gb` mbstruita` to gbswar tfal trutfeuccy wfab tfa

rool

wgs mcculmbgta` hy g kraab cmkft

gb`

to

cma mb

tfa prasabia oe

gb glhar

cmkft. Mb tfa baxt pfgsa oe tfa proia`ura, tfa axparmlabtar gbboubia`

savargc wor`s tgnab erol tfa mbmtmgc tgsn. Getar sola, fa mbstruita`

suhdaits to

cma

gb` getar otfars

to

tacc tfa trutf ghout wfatfar tfay

fg`

pravmouscy irossa` tfa wor`

out-gkgmb

wfmca

mb

tfa prasabia oe g kraab

or

glhar cmkft.

Mb

tfa

embgc stap

oe

tfa

proia`ura, suhdaits wara

gsna`

eor agif wor` to. raigcc wfatfar tfay gitugccy fg`

or

fg` bot irossa`

mt

out. Pfa rasucts mb`migta` tfgt egcsa stgtalabts lg`a

mb

tfa prasabia oe

tfa trutf cmkft pro`uia` lora

arrors mb

tfa raigcc oe gitugc pareorlgbia

tfgb amtfar egcsa stgtalabts lg`a

mb

tfa prasabia oe tfa cma cmkft

or

boba

gt gcc.

Mt tfus gppagrs tfgt

ub`ar

iob`mtmobs borlgccy gssoimgta` wmtf

taccmbk tfa trutf, suhdaits igla to hacmava tfa cmas tfay fg` haab mb`uia`

to tacc.

=

Mb `msiussmbk tfa cakgc mlpcmigtmobs oe tfms emb`mbk, Harb (7=5;)

bota` tfgt

g

pfysmigc

or

alotmobgc ruhhar fosa bavar iobvmbia`

gbyoba oe gbytfmbk gb` tfgt sgymbk haiolas hacmavmbk obcy wfab wa

eaac tfa prasabia oe trutf, gb` iartgmbcy obcy wfab g lmbmlul oe

mb`uialabt gb` tfa lmc`ast

gb`

lost suhtca eorls oe ioarimob

gra

usa` (pp.

89-80 .

Kabargcmzgtmob erol Harb's cghorgtory rasagrif

to

tfa ragc-worc`

proiass oe irmlmbgc mbtarrokgtmob sfouc` ohvmouscy ha lg`a wmtf

igutmob. Ytmcc, gbai`otgc _raports sukkast tfa axmstabia oe mbtarbgcmza`

egcsa iobeassmobs, gb` Harb's sace-pariaptmob m`ags provm`a

gt

cagst g

pgrtmgc axpcgbgtmob oe tfms pfabolabob. Icosacy racgta`, eor axglpca, ms

gb mbtarrokgtmob tgitmi asirmha` hy @rmvar (7=56) oe fgvmbk tfa suspait

rapagt tfa story ovar gb` ovar, eor me upa` mbto pcgymbk tfa pgrt oe tfa

irmlmbgc

mb

gb mlgkmbgry soimo`rglg, tfa suspait lgy tola to hacmava

tfgt fa wgs tfa iabtrgc gitor

mb

tfa irmla (p.

19 .

IXA@MHMCMP] DQXM@MI ZAXIAZPMOBY

OE

IOBEAYYMOBAUM@ABIA

Gs wa bota` agrcmar, iobeassmob avm`abia lgy

a

mbtro`uia`

mb

iourt

me mt ms ohtgmba` vmg `ua proiass gb` pgssas tfa hrog` tast oe

vocubtgrmbass.

Mb

du`kmbk tfa cgttar, g vgrmaty oe egitors

gra

`aala`

racavgbt, mbicu`mbk tfa `aeab`gbt's stgta oe lmb`, .tfa `atabtmob

iob`mtmobs, gb` tfa latfo`s oe mbtarrokgtmob. Mb tfms saitmob, wa

axglmba tfa ira`mhmcmty

mssua-wfgt

mbearabias ,`o paopca `rgw erol

iobeassmob avm`abia, gb` wfgt mlpgit `oas

mt

fgva ob durm`mi `aimsmob

lgnmbk?

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

15/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

67

Zroia`ura gb` tfa Dury s Eubitmob

Mb prgitmia, lost durms`mitmobs alpcoy oba oe two kabargc proia`uras

eor fgb`cmbk `msputa` iobeassmobs.

Mb

gcc igsas, g spaimgc pracmlmbgry

fagrmbk

ms

fac` mb wfmif g egitemb`ar-usugccy tfa prasm`mbk du`ka-

fagrs gcc tfa partmbabt egits gb` `atarlmbas tfa vocubtgrmbass gb`,

fabia, tfa iolpatabia oe tfa iobeassmob avm`abia.

7

Qb`ar

tfa

Igcmeorbmg

or

ortfo`ox ruca, iobeassmobs eoub` to fgva haab ioaria`

gra abtmracy axicu`a`, gb` tfosa aala` vocubtgry gra g`lmtta` wmtf gcc

tfa otfar avm`abia. [mtfmb tfms proia`ura, tfa dury's soca eubitmob ms

to

`atarlmba tfa wamkft gb` ira`mhmcmty .oe tfa iobeassmob. Qb`ar tfa

Lgssgifusatts or fulgba ruca, fowavar, obia g iobeassmob

ms

g`lmtta` tfa dury

ms

tfab mbstruita` to lgna mts owb mb`apab`abt

gpprgmsgc oe vocubtgrmbass haeora iobsm`armbk mts ira mhmcmty gb` abtarmbk

mt mbto tfamr avm`abtmgry aqugtmob. Pfms latfo` tfus mbiragsas tfa dury's

roca gb` tfa mlportgbia oe mts pariaptmobs oe vocubtgrmbass.

77

G saiob` proia`urgc quastmob tfgt geeaits tfa dury's roca ms,

Hy

wfgt

stgb`gr` oe prooe sfouc` tfa pratrmgc egitemb`ar du`ka vocubtgrmbass? Mb

tfa wgna oe tfa Dginsob u @abbo

7=50}

prasirmptmob

tfgt

tfa

`aeab`gbt ms abtmtca` to g pracmlmbgry fagrmbk oe g`lmssmhmcmty, sola

stgtas g`opta` tfa strmbkabt irmtarmob tfgt vocubtgrmbass lust ha

provab

hayob` g ragsobghca ouht, wfarags otfars sgbitmoba` cassar

stgb`gr`s, mbicu`mbk prooe hy g lara prapob`argbia oe tfa avm`abia.

Ymbia du`kas fgva haab sfowb to trgbscgta tfa ragsobghca `ouht

irmtarmob to lagb gb 6= pariabt iartgmbty gb` tfa prapob`argbia

stgb`gr` to lagb obcy g

57

pariabt iartgmbty (Ymlob Lgfgb, 7=;7),

tfms `meearabia

ms

botawortfy.

Mb

Cako

u Pwoly

(7=;8), tfa Yuprala

Iourt rasocva` tfms quastmob

mb

egvor oe tfa cassar stgb`gr`,

gs mt

geemrla` mts egmtf

mb

tfa dury's igpgimty to gssass tfa trutfeucbass oe

iobeassmobs gb` to usa tfosa tfgt gra potabtmgccy ubracmghca igutmouscy.

b

Gttrmhutmobgc Gbgcysms

Pfa gbai`otgc cmtargtura

ms

rapcata wmtf igsa stu`mas tfgt ioccaitmvacy

sukkast tfgt durmas gra oetab ovarwfacla` hy iobeassmob avm`abia, tfgt

tfay pcgia g koo` `agc oe egmtf mb mts prohgtmva vgcua. ]at mb Cako

u

Pwoly (7=;8), tfa Yuprala Iourt gssarta`, Our `aimsmob wgs bot

hgsa` mb tfa scmkftast ob tfa eagr tfgt durmas lmkft lmsdu`ka tfa giiurgiy

oe iobeassmobs gb` grrmva gt arrobaous `atarlmbgtmobs oe kumct

or

mbboiabia p. 581).

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

16/28

68

PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA B@ PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

s

tfms gssulptmob

waD

eoub`a`? Fow

`o

durors pariamva avm`abia

oe

g iobeassmob

w f o s a ~ v o c u b t r m b a s s

ms

mb

quastmob? Gctfoukf psyifoco

kmsts fgva bot eoiusa` mraitcy ob fow durors usa suif mbeorlgtmob, tfa

mbearabia proiass mbvocva` mb suif g `aimsmob ms eglmcmgr to us vmg tfa

soimgc psyifocoky oe gttrmhutmob. Assabtmgccy, wa fgva g smtugtmob mb

wfmif durors

gra

ioberobta` wmtf g varhgc hafgvmor wfosa igusgc coius

ms glhmkuous.

Eor

axglpca, me g suspait iobeassas

mb

raspobsa

to

g

tfragt lg`a `urmbk gb mbtarrokgtmob, tfgt iobeassmob lgy ha vmawa`

amtfar gs raecaitmbk fms or far trua kumct or gs g lagbs oe gvom`mbk tfa

bakgtmva iobsaquabias oe smcabia. M`agccy, durors alpcoymbk Naccay's

(7=;7) `msioubtmbk prmbimpca wouc` abtartgmb

gt

cagst g ragsobghca

`ouht ghout tfa giiurgiy oe tfms nmb` oe acmimta` iobeassmob (m.a.,

iolpgra` to oba tfgt ms lg`a mb tfa ghsabia oe tfragt

gs

g pcgusmhca

igusa). Mb`aa`, rasagrif fgs `alobstrgta` tfgt ohsarvars usa tfa

gttrmhutmobgc prmbimpca oe `msioubtmbk mb g vgrmaty oe iobtaxts (a.k.,

Nrukcgbsnm, Yifwgrtz, Lgm`as, Fglac, 7=;6).

Ob tfa otfar fgb`, g bulhar oe mbvastmkgtors fgva raporta` tfgt

pariamvars ifgrgitarmstmigccy egcc pray to wfgt fgs haab igcca` tfa

eub`glabtgc gttrmhutmob arror 4 Pfay gttgif mbsueemimabt wamkft

to

smtugtmobgc igusas gb`, mbstag`, giiapt tfa `msposmtmobgc mlpcmigtmobs oe

hafgvmor gt egia vgcua (saa Dobas 7=;=> Xoss, 7=;;). b g sarmas oe

axparmlabts, Dobas gb` Fgrrms (7=5;) fg` suhdaits rag` gb gttmtu`mbgc

assgy or fagr g spaaif prasulghcy wrmttab hy gbotfar stu`abt. Mb oba

stu`y, suhdaits rag`

gb

assgy mb wfmif tfa iollubmigtor amtfar

supporta` or irmtmimza`

tfa

ubpopucgr Igstro rakmla mb Iuhg.

Yola

suhdaits wara toc` tfgt tfa iollubmigtor fg` eraacy ifosab

to

g`voigta tfms posmtmob, wfmca otfars wara toc` tfgt tfa iollubmigtor

wgs gssmkba` to ab`orsa tfa posmtmob hygb mbstruitor. Xasucts mb`migta`

tfgt suhdaits mb tfa bo-ifomia iob`mtmob icagrcy pariamva` tfa smtugtmobgc

`atarlmbgbts oe tfa iollubmigtor's opmbmob. Bavartfacass, tfamr

mlprassmobs ghout tfa iollubmigtor's trua hacmae wara lgrna`cy

mbecuabia` hy tfa pgrtmiucgr posmtmob fa fg` aspousa`. b sfort, suhdaits

`m` bot `mslmss tfa `msposmtmobgc igusa oe g smtugtmobgccy `atarlmba`

opmbmob. Pfms pfabolabob fgs haab rapcmigta` eor savargc `meearabt

assgy topmis

gb`

avab wfab

tfa

sgcmabia oe tfa smtugtmobgc igusa ms

mbiragsa` (Yby`ar & Dobas, 7=;0> Lmccar, Dobas, & Fmbnca, 7=67).

Pfa pgrgccacs hatwaab tfms rasagrif pgrg`mkl gb` tfa ioaria`

iobeassmob gra strmnmbk. b hotf, tfa ohsarvar ms egia` wmtf g varhgc

hafgvmor tfgt fa

or

sfa lgy gttrmhuta amtfar to tfa gitor's trua gttmtu`a

or to tfa prassuras oe tfa hafgvmorgc smtugtmob. ]at, wfmca tfa Yuprala

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

17/28

Yguc L Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia

Y.

[rmkftslgb

69

Iourt

gssulas

tfgt

durors wouc msioubt

gb

mbvocubtgry iobeassmob

gs

ubracmghca

gb`

bot gccow mt to kum`a tfamr `aimsmobs, pravmous

rasagrif

sukkasts tfgt durors lmkft bot totgccy radait

tfa

iobeassmob wfab

iobsm`armbk tfa gitor s trua kumct.

Po

iolpcmigta

lgttars

eurtfar, wa fgva

saab

tfgt tfa

iourts

fgva

`aemba` ioarimob hrog`cy to mbicu`a g vgrmaty oe imriulstgbias,

mbicu`mbk oe

ioursa tfragts oe fgrl

gb`

pubmsflabt

gs

wacc

gs

prolmsas oe cabmabiy gb` mllubmty erol prosaiutmob. Qbeortubgtacy,.

`aspmta tfa cgw s tragtlabt oe tfasa iob`mtmobs

gs

eubitmobgccy aqumvg

cabt, soimgc psyifocokmsts fgva sfowb

tfgt

ohsarvars gttrmhuta lora

raspobsmhmcmty gb` eraa`ol to paopca eor gitmobs

tgnab

to kgmb g posmtmva

outiola

tfgb eor

tfa sgla

gitmobs m gmla`

gt

gvom`mbk pubmsflabt

(Hrglac, 7=5=> Naccay, 7=;7).

Gppgrabtcy, gs [accs (7=6:) fgs eoub`, tfms

gttrmhutmobgc gssylatry.

ms

racgta`

to

g parvgsmva, oetab

arrobaous

gssulptmob tfgt pubmsflabt axarts g

lora

powareuc aeeait

ob

fulgb

hafgvmor tfgb `oas rawgr`. Pfa mlpcmigtmobs oe tfms p f b ~ l b o b eor

fow durors utmcmza `meearabt typas oe

ioaria`

iobeassmob avm`abia

gra

icagr. Ypaimemigccy, tfay sukkast

tfgt

g iobeassmob

tfgt ms lg`a mb

raspobsa

to

g prolmsa oe lmc` tragtlabt, cabmabiy,

or otfar

egvorghca

cakgc gitmob (posmtmva iobstrgmbt)

wmcc ha

pariamva` hy durors to

ha

lora

vocubtgry gb` fabia

gs

lora mb`migtmva oe kumct tfgb oba tfgt eoccowa` g

tfragt

oe iobtmbua` mbtarrokgtmob, lgctragtlabt,

or

fgrsf pubmsflabt

(bakgtmva iobstrgmbt).

[fgt, tfab,

`o

durors hacmava

ghout

`msputa` iobeassmobs?

Po

g``rass

tfms quastmob gb` tast

tfa

pra`mitmobs `armva` erol gttrmhutmob

tfaory, wa iob`uita` g sarmas oe loin dury axparmlabts.

Mb

agif,

suhdaits rag` gb ghrm`ka` trgbsirmpt oe g irmlmbgc trmgc

mb

wfmif avm`abia

oe g iobeassmob gb` mts surroub`mbk imriulstgbias wgs vgrma`.

Pfay

tfab rab`ara` tfamr var`mits gb` gbswara` g sarmas oe igsa-racgta`

quastmobs.

Xacaugbt

o n

ury Xasagrif

Po

tfms pombt,

mt

ms

icagr tfgt

tfara

gra

g luctmtu`a oe mlportgbt

quastmobs tfgt igb ha rgmsa` ghout durmas vmaws oe iobeassmob avm`abia.

Gs g stgrtmbk pombt, wa soukft to mbvastmkgta tfamr pariaptmobs oe

vocubtgrmbass gb`

tfa

var`mits tfgt eoccow ub`ar tfa two lost

smkbmemigbt igtakormas oe acmimtmbk

imriulstgbia prolmsas

gb` tfragts.

Ngssmb gb` [rmkftslgb 7=6:). Mb our emrst axparmlabt, suhdaits

rag` g 81-pgka trgbsirmpt oe g irmlmbgc trmgc

mb

wfmif tfa `aeab`gbt,

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

18/28

60

ccmA

ZY]IFOCOK] OE

AUM@ABIA GB@

PXMGC

ZXOIA@QXA

Xobgc` Ocmvar, wgs

ifgrka`

wmtf trgbsportmbk g stocab vafmica mb

mbtarstgta iollaria. Pfa trgbsirmpt iobsmsta` oe opabmbk

stgtalabts,

tfa

axglmbgtmob oe tfraa wmtbassas, icosmbk grkulabts, gb` tfa du`ka's

mbstruitmob

to

tfa dury.

Eour varsmobs oe tfa trmgc wara wrmttab.

Pfay

wara m`abtmigc

axiapt

eor

tfa

mbicusmob

gb`

lgbmpucgtmob oe g pocmia oeemiar's tastmloby

mb

wfmif mt

wgs ravagca`

tfgt

upob

grrast

Xob Ocmvar iobeassak to fgvmbk stocab

tfa

igr.

Mb

g

bo iobstrgmbt

iob`mtmob,

fa

iobeassa` ob fms owb mbmtmgtmva (m.a.,

wmtfout prolptmbk). Mb g posmtmua-iobstrgmbt iob`mtmob> Ocmvar iobeassa`

getar hambk prolmsa`

tfgt .fa

wouc`

ha tragta`

wacc `urmbk fms atabtmob

gb`

tfgt tfa du`ka wouc` suracy

ha

g cot agsmar

ob

fml-lgyha

avab

g

suspab`a` sabtabia. Mb g bakgtmua-iobstrgmbt iob`mtmob, fa iobeassa`

getar fgvmbk

haab

wgrba` tfgt fa wouc` ha tragta` vary poorcy `urmbk

fms `atabtmob

gb` tfgt tfa

du`ka wouc` suracy ha vary fgr` ob f ml

lgyha avab tfa lgxmlul

sabtabia.

Embgccy,

mb

g

bo iobeassmob

varsmob oe tfa trmgc, mt wgs ravagca` tfgt tfa `aeab`gbt ecgtcy `abma`

fgvmbk gbytfmbk to `o wmtf

tfa

irmla.

Ovargcc, wa eoub`

tfgt wfarags

7=

pariabt

oe

tfa

suhdaits mb

tfa

. bo-iobeassmob varsmob oe

tfa

trmgc vota` kumcty, tfa iobvmitmob rgta

mbiragsa`

to

15 pariabt mb

tfa

bo-iobstrgmbt iobeassmob kroup. Pfms

`meearabia

tfus

rageemrla`

tfa

tmla-fobora` suspmimob tfgt avm`abia oe

g prmor iobeassmob

fgs

g lagsurghca mlpgit oe duror `aimsmobs.

Pfa

prmlgry quastmob wa

gsna`,

oe

ioursa,

wgs wfatfar

or bot

suhdaits

wouc` `msioubt g iobeassmob

me

mb`uia` hy prolmsas

or

tfragts. Gs

mt

turba` out,

tfa

gbswar ms yas gb` bo. [fab tfa iobeassmob wgs

praimpmtgta` hy g tfragt,

tfa

iobvmitmob

rgta

mbiragsa` obcy scmkftcy, to

81

pariabt. [fab praimpmtgta` hy g prolmsa, fowavar,

mt

mbiragsa` avab

eurtfar-to

96 pariabt. Zrasulghcy, tfasa rasucts wara la`mgta` hy

suhdaits' pariaptmobs oe

tfa

`aeab`gbt's eraa`ol oe

ifomia-posmtmvacy

iobstrgmba` iobeassmobs

gra saab gs

lora vocubtgry gb` tfaraeora fgva

g kragtar aeeait tfgb bakgtmvacy iobstrgmba` iobeassmobs.

Po

tast tfms la`mgtmob fypotfasms, g saiob` axparmlabt wgs

iob`uita` usmbk g

strobkar

varsmob oe tfa Xob Ocmvar trmgc. Pfms tmla,

haeora rab`armbk tfamr var`mits, suhdaits mb tfa tfraa iobeassmob kroups

mb`migta` wfatfar tfay hacmava` tfa `aeab`gbt fg` iobeassa` vocubtgrm

cy gb` wmtfout ioarimob. Gs mb

tfa

emrst axparmlabt, tfa proportmob oe

kumcty var`mits wgs fmkfast mb

tfa

bo-iobstrgmbt iobeassmob iob`mtmob gt

;6 pariabt,

gb`

cowast mb

tfa

bo-iobeassmob iobtroc kroup,

gt

77

pariabt. Iolpgra`

to tfa

cgttar

gs

g hgsacmba emkura, tfa posmtmvacy

iobstrgmba` iobeassmob smkbmemigbtcy mbiragsa` tfa iobvmitmob

rgta

(1:

pariabt), wfarags

tfa

bakgtmvacy iobstrgmba` iobeassmob `m`

bot

(88

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

19/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

6

pariabt). Pfa vocubtgrmbass-du`klabt gtg , fowavar, m bot eoccow

tfa

sgla pgttarb. [farags =0 pariabt oe

tfa

suhdaits mb tfa bo-iobstrgmbt

kroup giiurgtacy pariamva` tfa iobeassmob gs vocubtgry, tfms proportmob

wgs smkbmemigbtcy ra`uia`

mb hotf

tfa posmtmva

gb`

bakgtmva iobstrgmbt

iob`mtmobs 9= pariabt gb` 88 pariabt, raspaitmvacy).

Pgnab

tokatfar,

tfa

eorakombk rasucts provm`a obcy qugcmema` support

eor tfa m`agc tfgt durors wouc` `msioubt ioaria` iobeassmobs gs

ubracmghca. [fab tfa ioarimva mbecuabia wgs opargtmobgccy aemba` gs g

tfragt oe fgrl

or

pubmsflabt, suhdaits euccy `msioubta` tfa iobeassmob

avm`abia-tfgt ms, tfay vmawa` tfa iobeassmob gs mbvocubtgry b` tfay

axfmhmta` g racgtmvacy cow rgta oe iobvmitmob. Fowavar, wfab ioarimob

toon tfa eorl oe gb oeear or prolmsa oe cabmabiy, suhdaits `m` bot

iolpcatacy `mslmss tfa iobeassmob. Qb`ar tfasa imriulstgbias, tfamr

du`klabts wara mbtarbgccy mbiobsmstabt-tfay

iobia`a`

tfgt tfa aeab

`gbt fg` hafgva` mbvocubtgrmcy

hut

tfab vota` kumcty-gbywgy. [a fgva

tarla` tfms cgttar rasuct tfa

posmtmva ioarimob hmgs.

gssmb b` [rmkftslgb 7=67). Erol g prgitmigc stgb`pombt, tfms

rasagrif sukkasts

tfgt

posmtmvacy

ioaria`

iobeassmobs, haigusa tfay

abtar

smkbmemigbtcy mbto durors' `aimsmobs, posa

gb

avm`abtmgry prohcal

eor tfa iourts. Oe ioursa, oba possmhca strgtaky eor iurhmbk tfms hmgs

lmkft ha tfroukf tfa usa oe gb gpproprmgta igutmobgry mbstruitmob.

Mb`aa`, gs wa labtmoba` agrcmar, savargc stgtas eoccow tfa Lgssg

ifusatts

proia`ura mb wfmif tfa dury ms mbstruita` to `aim`a

tfa

vocubtgrmbass mssua haeora rab`armbk g var`mit. P gwgr` tfms ab`, two

typas oe gpprova` mbstruitmob gra gvgmcghca to du`kas (saa CgHuy, 7=59>

Lgtfas & @aUmtt, 7=51)- 7) g sfort eorl tfgt smlpcy mraits durors to

radait gby iobeassmob tfay hacmava to fgva haab ioaria`, gb` 8) g

cobkar varsmob tfgt gitugccy aembas hotf tfa posmtmva gb` bakgtmva eorls

oe iobstrgmbt gs ioarimva gb`, eurtfar, grtmiucgtas tfa rgtmobgca tfgt suif

acmimta` iobeassmobs gra ubraDmghca.

@oas du`mimgc mbstruitmob aeeaitmvacy cmlmt durors' usa oe posmtmvacy

o b s t r ~ m b a `

iobeassmob avm`abia?

Po g``rass

tfms quastmob, wa fg`

sola suhdaits rag` g varsmob oe g trmgc tfgt mbicu`a` oba oe tfa two

gvgmcghca eorls oe vocubtgrmbass mbstruitmob.

Pfa

rasucts rapcmigta`

our

agrcmar emb`mbks gb`, ubeortubgtacy, ravagca` tfgt hotf sats oe du`mimgc

mbstruitmob egmca` to lmtmkgta tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs. [fy lmkft

suhdaits fgva haab ubgeeaita` hy tfa mbstruitmob lgbmpucgtmob? Pfa

smlpca gbswar

ms

tfgt, gs g kabargc ruca, durors gra mbsabsmtmva to du`mimgc

mbstruitmob (saa Ifgptar 77 oe tfms hoon). Ob g lora spaimemi cavac,

raigcc tfgt tfara

gra

two ragsobs wfy

ioaria`

iobeassmobs gra `aala`

mbg`lmssmhca gs avm`abia- 7) tfay gra u.biobstmtutmobgc gb` proia`urgc-

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

20/28

6 PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA

B@

PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

cy ubegmr to tfa giiusa`, gb`

8)

tfay

gra

ubracmghca gb` ubtrustwortfy.

Ngcvab gb` Tamsac (7=55), imtmbk ragc-worc` axglpcas, sukkasta` tfgt

tfa dury lgy bot

so

luif iobsm`ar tfa ira`mhmcmty oe

tfa

iobeassmob gs

tfa mlproprmaty oe tfa latfo` hy wfmif mt wgs ohtgmba` {p. 98:). ]at mt

ms

icagr tfgt wfarags tfa

sfort

mbstruitmob g`vgbia` bo rgtmobgca,

tfa

cobk-eorl eoiusa` axicusmvacy ob tfa trustwortfmbass grkulabt. Zar

fgps gb mbstruitmob tfgt alpfgsmzas tfa egmrbass dustmemigtmob or wfgt

Ngcvab gb` Tamsac igcc tfa sylpgtfy fypotfasms wouc` prova e e a t m v a ~

Po tast tfms m`ag, wa iob`uita` g saiob` axparmlabt eor wfmif wa

iolposa` g `ua proiass mbstruitmob, oba tfgt alpfgsmza` tfa ubegmr

bass oe avab lmc`cy ioarimva tgitmis. Pfms tmla, suhdaits rag` gb

gkkrgvgta` gssguct

igsa mb

wfmif tfa aeab`gbt pcag`a` sace aeabsa. Mb

tfa vgrmous iobeassmob iob`mtmobs, fa g`lmtta` upob

grrast tfgt fa

fg` gita` wmtfout provoigtmob. Mb tfa bo-iobeassmob iobtroc kroup, fa

lgmbtgmba` tfgt fa wgs gergm` fa wgs ghout to ha gttgina`.

Pfa

ioarimob lgbmpucgtmob wgs gclost m`abtmigc to tfgt oe our agrcmar

axparmlabts.

Mb

g``mtmob, suhdaits raiamva` amtfar bo mbstruitmob,

tfa

ira`mhmcmty mbstruitmob erol tfa pravmous axparmlabt, g `ua proiass

( egmrbass ) mbstruitmob,

or oba

tfgt iolhmba` tfa two rgtmobgcas. Gs

haeora, tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs wgs rapcmigta`. Lora mlportgbt,

gctfoukf boba oe tfa mbstruitmobgc lgbmpucgtmobs smkbmemigbtcy geeaita`

var`mits, tfa mbstruitmob tfgt gppagca` to hotf ira mhmcmty gb` egmrbass

iobsm`argtmobs wgs

gt

cagst pgrtmgccy aeeaitmva gs

mt

smkbmemigbtcy cowara`

tfa proportmob oe vocubtgrmbass du`klabts.

Ngssmb, [rmkftslgb, b` [grbar 7=69). Haeora `rgwmbk gby emrl

bakgtmva iobicusmobs ghout tfa iurgtmva powars oe vocubtgrmbass

mbstruitmobs,

gt

cagst two mlportgbt mssuas ralgmba`. Emrst, igb tfa

tmlmbk oe tfa mbstruitmob la`mgta mts mlpgit? Mb Ngssmb gb` [rmkftslgb's

(7=67) rasagrif, tfa du`ka's ifgrka eoccowa` tfa prasabtgtmob oe

avm`abia, gs ms iollob prgitmia

mb

lost iourts. ]at stu`mas fgva

sfowb tfgt iartgmb typas oe du`mimgc mbstruitmob geeait loin durors'

`aimsmobs obcy wfab tfay praia`a tfa avm`abia

(ie.

Acworn, Ygcas, &

Gcembm, 7=;;> Ngssmb [rmkftslgb, 7=;=). Zarfgps our suhdaits fg`

tabtgtmvacy `aim`a` ob tfamr uar`mits haeora tfa mbstruitmob wgs

`acmvara` gb` so wara suhsaquabtcy mbecuabia` obcy mb tfamr uocub-

tgrmbass du`kalabts. G

saiob`

mlportgbt quastmob tfgt ralgmbs ms,

@oas tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs parsmst or `msgppagr getar g dury

`acmhargtas gb`,

me

mt parsmsts, ms du`mimgc mbstruitmob gby mbora aeeaitmva g

`avmia gt tfms kroup cavac? Ngpcgb gb` Lmccar

7=;6)

fgva raporta` tfgt

dury msiussmob lgy iorrait eor iartgmb bobavm`abtmgry hmgsas. ]at

our

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

21/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y [rmkftslgb

6;

owb rasagrif fg` eoiusa` ob tfa hacmaes gb` du`klabts oe tfa

mb`mvm`ugc, bob`acmhargtmbk duror.

Po mbvastmkgta tfasa possmhmcmtmas, Ngssmb at gc. 7=69)

fg`

7:8 emva

gb` smx-parsob durmas rag` g varsmob oe tfa gssguct igsa, gb` raiamva tfa

iolhmba` (ira mhmcmty egmrbass)

or

stgb`gr` (m.a., bo labtmob oe

vocubtgrmbass) mbstruitmob amtfar haeora or getar tfa prasabtgtmob oe

avm`abia. Pfa kroups wara tfab kmvab 9: lmbutas to `acmhargta gb`

grrmva gt g ubgbmlous var`mit. Gs mt turba` out, tfa iobvmitmob rgta wgs

solawfgt cowar mb tfa posmtmvacy iobstrgmba` tfgb ubiobstrgmba`

iobeassmob iob`mtmobs 8; pariabt gb` 09 pariabt, raspaitmvacy),

gctfoukf tfms `meearabia wgs bot stgtmstmigccy smkbmemigbt. [fab hronab

`owb hy mbstruitmob iob`mtmob, wa eoub` tfgt gctfoukf tfms pgttarb fac

eor tfa ubmbstruita` kroups

07

pariabt

gb`

0= pariabt), tfara wgs g

smkbmemigbt `meearabia globk tfosa kroups tfgt raiamva` tfa spaimgc

ifgrka 79 pariabt gb`

0:

pariabt).

Mb

sfort, posmtmvacy ioaria`

iobeassmobs wara radaita` hy durmas wfo raiamva` tfa `ouhca-hgrraca`

vocubtgrmbass mbstruitmob.

78

ullgry gb`iobicusmobs Our rasagrif fgs sfowb tfgt aspmta tfa

iourts tragtlabt oe prolmsas gb` tfragts gs aqumvgcabt iob`mtmobs oe

ioarimob, durors ragit vary `meearabtcy to tfasa two imriulstgbias.

[fab g suspait wgs sgm` to fgva iobeassa` mb raspobsa to g tfragt oe

fgrl or pubmsflabt, avab wmtfout smkbs oe pfysmigc hrutgcmty, loin

durors euccy radaita` tfgt avm`abia. [fab tfa mb`uialabt toon tfa eorl

oe g prolmsa oe cabmabiy, fowavar, suhdaits wara ubghca or

ubwmccmbk

to

axiusa tfa `aeab`gbt iolpcatacy gb` `msioubt fms

or

far iobeassmob.

Qb`ar tfasa imriulstgbias, tfay tab`a` to vota eor iobvmitmob `aspmta

fgvmbk iobia`a` tfgt tfa iobeassmob wgs, hy cgw, mbvocubtgry. Ob tfa

mb`mvm`ugc duror cavac, tfms pfabolabob fgs provab to ha qumta rohust

gb` rasmstgbt to tfa aeeaits oe du`mimgc mbstruitmob, avab tfgt wfmif

axpcmimtcy imtas posmtmva eorls oe iobstrgmbt gs ioarimva gb` potabtmgccy

ubracmghca.

Ob

tfa abiourgkmbk sm`a,

our

lost raiabt stu`y fgs sfowb

tfgt

our

owb mbstruitmob, wrmttab to grtmiucgta hotf tfa ira mhmcmty gb`

egmrbass rgtmobgcas, `m` acmlmbgta tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs globk

`acmhargtmbk loin durmas.

Our rasagrif raprasabts g lo`ast emrst

stap mb

ub`arstgb`mbk fow

durmas vmaw iobeassmob avm`abia

mb gcc

mts iolpcaxmty. Gs suif, savargc

mlportgbt quastmobs ralgmb ubrasocva`.

Eor

axglpca,

wfy

`m` loin

durors ragit so `meearabtcy to tfa two typas oe iobstrgmbt? Zgrt oe tfa

gbswar, gs sukkasta`

hy

[accs (7=6:),

ms

smlpcy tfgt paopca

vmaw

tfa

prolmsa oe rawgr` gs g wagnar eorl oe hafgvmorgc mb`uialabt tfgb g

tfragt oe pubmsflabt.

Our

owb `gtg provm`a` lmxa` support eor tfms

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

22/28

PFA ZY]IFOCOK]

OE

AUM@ABIA

BO

PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA

fypotfasms. cboba stu`y, wa fg` suhdaits rgta tfa `akraa oe prassura

axarta` ob tfa aeab`gbt to iobeass gb` eoub` tfgt tfasa rgtmbks wara

smkbmemigbtcy fmkfar mb tfa bakgtmva- tfgb posmtmva-iobstrgmbt smtugtmob. Mb

tfa sgla stu`y, fowavar, wa gsna` suhdaits to astmlgta tfa pariabt

gkas oe kumcty gb` mbboiabt paopca wfo wouc` iobeass ub`ar tfa

imriulstgbias oe tfa igsa tfay fg` rag`, gb` eoub` tfgt tfa prolmsa

gb`

tfragt iob`mtmobs wara .vmrtugccy m`abtmigc

ob

tfms lagsura.7

9

Zgrabtfatmigccy, mt ms mbtarastmbk to bota tfgt giross iobstrgmbt iob m

tmobs, suhdaits astmlgta` tfgt 05 pariabt oe trucy kumcty paopca

gb`

95

pariabt oe trucy mbboiabt paopca wouc` iobeass. Pfa cgttar emkura

ms

aspaimgccy surprmsmbk haigusa mt sukkasts tfgt paopca `o icagrcy raiok

bmza tfa rmsn oe egcsa iobeassmobs (saa Ngssmb [rmkftslgb, 7=67).

Mb g``mtmob to tfa alpmrmigc quastmobs wa fgva kcagba` erol tfa cgws

oe iobeassmob avm`abia gb` proia`ura, mbbularghca otfars oe iobiaptu

gc

mbtarast to psyifocokmsts

gb`

oe prgitmigc vgcua

to

tfa du`mimgry gwgmt

axparmlabtgtmob.

or

axglpca, mb raiabt yagrs cgw abeorialabt

oeemimgcs fgva hakub vm`aotgpmbk mbtarrokgtmob sassmobs eor prasabtgtmob

mb iourt. Gs suif, tfa dury ms abghca` to vmaw tfa iobeassmob

gb`

mts

surroub`mbk imriulstgbias mraitcy rgtfar tfgb tfroukf tfa tastmloby

oe g wmtbass (saa Ygcvgb, 7=;1). Fow lmkft tfms proia`urgc mbbovgtmob

geeait durors' pariaptmobs oe vocubtgrmbass gb` tfa mbearabias tfay rgw

erol iobeassmob avm`abia? Hgsa` ob tfa egit tfgt paopca tab` to

gttrmhuta igusgcmty to tfgt wfmif

ms

pariaptugccy sgcmabt (saa Pgycor

Emsna, 7=;6), Cgssmtar gb` Mrvmba (7=60) tasta` tfa fypotfasms tfgt

du`klabts oe vocubtgrmbass mb

vm`aotgpa` iobeassmobs wouc` ha systal

gtmigccy hmgsa` hy iglarg gbkca. G loin mbtarrokgtmob rasuctmbk mb g

iobeassmob wgs tfus vm`aotgpa` erol tfraa gbkcas

so

tfgt amtfar tfa

mbtarrokgtor, tfa suspait,

or

hotf wara vmsugccy sgcmabt. Yuhdaits

wgtifa` oba oe tfasa varsmobs oe tfa

a p m s o a ~

Yura aboukf, tfamr

du`klabts oe ioarimob wara cowast wfab tfa suspait wgs sgcmabt,

fmkfast wfab tfa mbtarrokgtor wgs sgcmabt, gb` mbtarla`mgta wfab tfa

two wara aqugccy vmsmhca. Mb sfort, tfms saalmbkcy trmvmgc `atgmc oe

proia`ura igb, gs gttrmhutmob psyifocokmsts wouc` pra`mit, fgva g

lgrna` aeeait

ob

durmas' pariaptmobs oe iobeassmob avm`abia.

Mlpcmigtmobs eor tfa abtrgplabt oitrmba Embgccy, mb tfa wgna oe tfa

kovarblabt's Ghsigl mbvastmkgtmob gs wacc gs tfa raiabt, fmkfcy

puhcmimza` Dofb @aCoragb trmgc, wa wouc` cmna to pombt out tfa

mlpcmigtmobs oe tfa mssuas `msiussa` fara eor tfa racgta` `oitrmba oe

abtrgplabt. Mb Yfarlgb

u

Qbmta` Ytgtas (7=16), tfa Yuprala Iourt

axpcmimtcy aqugta` abtrgplabt wmtf posmtmvacy ioaria` iobeassmobs. Mb

hotf, tfa hgsmi ohdaitmva ms gitmvacy to iogx gb mb`mvm`ugc mbto sace

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

23/28

Yguc L Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

6=

mbirmlmbgtory hafgvmor.

Pfa

obcy lagbmbkeuc `meearabia ms tfgt

mb

tfa

igsa

oe socmimtgtmob

tfa

pocmia mskumsa tfamr m`abtmty gb` acmimt bobvarhgc

iob`uit

tfgt tfa

suspait

`oas bot

ragcmza

wmcc

ha usa`

towgr` fms

or far

prosaiutmob.

Pfa

abtrgplabt `oitrmba fgs cobk

haab

g

souria

oe durmspru`abtmgc

iobtrovarsy (ie. CgEgva

Yiott

7=;8> Zgrn, 7=;5). [gs Ghsigl, eor

axglpca, g egmr mbvastmkgtmob, or `m` mt alpcoy ubdustmemghcy iobtrmva`

latfo`s bot

to pravabt iorruptmob hut

to iragta

mt? [fgt iob`mtmobs

lust

ha

prasabt eor tfms cmba oe aeabsa

to ha

racavgbt? Assabtmgccy, two

posmtmobs fgva

haab

g`vgbia` hy

tfa iourts

(Yorraccs u

Qbmta` Ytgtas

7=98>

Yfarlgb

u

Qbmta` Ytgtas

7=16). Oba posmtmob-g lmbormty vmaw

raearra`

to

gs tfa ohdaitmva tast-eoiusas axicusmvacy ob tfa proprmaty

oe mbvastmkgtory latfo`s, lgmbtgmbmbk

tfgt abtrgplabt

oiiurs wfab

pocmia iob`uit

ms

iolpaccmbk aboukf

to

mbstmkgta g irmlmbgc git, avab hy

gb

mb`mvm`ugc wfo

ms

otfarwmsa

bot

rag`y

gb`

wmccmbk to iollmt mt. Pfa

saiob`

vmaw, egvora` hy lost

iourts gb`

raearra`

to gs

tfa suhdaitmva

tast, eoiusas mbstag`

ob

tfa aeab`gbt's

stgta

oe lmb`. Me tfa aeab`gbt

wgs hafgvmorgccy pra`msposa`, tfab

tfa

pocmia gra sgm` laracy to fgva

_geeor a` tfa opportubmty to iollmt

tfa

oeeabsa. [mtfmb tfms erglaworn,

mt

ms tfa

dury

tfgt ms

raspobsmhca eor avgcugtmbk

tfa

ira`mhmcmty oe tfa

abtrgplabt `aeabsa.

Fow `oas tfa gvargka imtmzab

ragit to gb`

mbtarprat tfa `aeabsa oe

abtrgplabt?

Pfara ms

gbai`otgc avm`abia to sukkast tfgt,

gs

durors,

tfay ragit fgrsfcy

to tfgt

cmba oe dustmemigtmob (Ngcvab Tamsac, 7=55>

saa

gcso Karsflgb, 7=68, eor g ravmaw oe

tfa

Ghsigl var`mits). Mb`aa`

our

gttrmhutmobgc gbgcysms gb` tfa msiovary oe g posmtmva ioarimob hmgs

mb

tfa

usa oe iobeassmob avm`abia gra abtmracy iobsmstabt wmtf tfgt ifgrgitarm

zgtmob. ]at mt

ms

surprmsmbk

tfgt

vmrtugccy bo systalgtmi rasagrif fgs

g``rassa` tfms mlportgbt lgttar

gb` tfa

lgby prgitmigc mssuas

mt

rgmsas

(a.k., fow `oas

tfa

`aimsmob lgnar's pariaptugc sat, gs lgbmpucgta` hy

tfa iobtrgstmbk suhdaitmva gb` ohdaitmva aembmtmobs, geeait abtrgplabt

var`mits?).

IOBICQYMOBY B@

MLZQI PMOBY

Mb tfa opargtmob oe

our

irmlmbgc dustmia systal, iobeassmob avm`abia

pcgys g vmtgc

roca-mt

gcwgys fgs gb`,

mb

gcc cmnacmfoo`, mt gcwgys

wmcc

Gs

suif, wa fgva gttalpta` to `asirmha tfa hafgvmorgc `ybglmis oe

iobeassmobs, fow tfay gra fgb`ca` hy tfa iourts, gb` fow tfay gra

pariamva` hy durmas.

Po

ifgrgitarmza

our

ravmaw oe tfa cmtargtura, wa

wouc` fgva to iobicu`a tfgt gctfoukf iobeassmob avm`abia fgs

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

24/28

=:

PmmA ZY]IFOCOK]

OE

AUM@ABIA B@ PXM C

ZXOIA@QXA

gttrgita`

wm`asprag` gttabtmob erol tfa cakgc iollubmty, mt

fgs

vmrtugccy

asigpa`

sirutmby hy gig`almi psyifocokmsts, mbicu`mbk

tfosa

mbtarasta` mb eorabsmi mssuas. [a hacmava lora tmla gb` abarky sfouc`

ha

`avota`

to

ub`arstgb`mbk tfms mlportgbt topmi mb gb mts hrmccmgbt

iolpcaxmty.

Mb

pgrtmiucgr, tfms ifgptar fgs sukkasta` tfraa kabargc

iobiarbs

towgr` wfmif rasagrif aeeorts sfouc` ha `mraita`. Emrst ms tfa mssua oe

giiurgiy. [fgt praimsacy Ms tfa rmsn oe egcsa iobeassmobs ub`ar tfa

vgrymbk imriulstgbias gb` iobtmbkabimas oe mbtarrokgtmob?

Po

`gta, tfms

quastmob

ms

ubgbswarghca gs tfa ubiorrohorgta` gbai`ota

ms

our obcy

souria

oe gtg.

[fgt

ms baa`a`, tfaraeora, ms g iragtmva axparmlabtgc

pgrg`mkl `asmkba` to provm`a

gt

cagst

gb

astmlgta oe tfa prohcal.

Atfmigc iobsm`argtmobs botwmtfstgb`mbk, tfms pgrg`mkl wouc` m`agccy

mbvocva provm`mbk suhdaits wmtf

gb

opportubmty

gb`

mbiabtmva to iollmt

g "irmla" tfgt

ms

suhsaquabtcy `ataita`. Eoccowmbk tfms, suhdaits wouc`

ha quastmoba`

ub`ar

vgrymbk typas

gb`

`akraas oe mb`uialabt to

iobeass. Pfa eraquabimas oe trua gb` egcsa iobeassmobs,

gb`

bobiobeas

smobs gs wacc, iouc` tfus ha

gssassa`

(saa [a cs, 7=6:,

latfo`

eor

lagsurmbk tfa aeeaits oe rawgr`

gb`

pubmsflabtob

rgtas

oe iolpcmgbia

wmtf

gb

gvarsmva tgsn). Gctarbgtmvacy, oe ioursa, g roca-pcgymbk pgrg`mkl

iouc` ha alpcoya`. Pfgt ms, suhdaits iouc` ha gsna` to pcgy tfa roca oe g

trucy kumcty or mbboiabt suspait mb g loin mbtarrokgtmob sassmob. Gs

suif, tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif tfay hragn `owb gb` iobeass mb

raspobsa to pragrrgbka` pro`s gb` tgitmis iouc`

ha

ohsarva`

ie.

Ifgptar

0 oe tfms vocula eor g `asirmptmob oe g smlmcgr latfo`ocoky eor

stu`ymbk tfa giiurgiy oe pocykrgpfmi

cma

`ataitmob).

G saiob` kabargc mssua mb baa` oe eurtfar rasagrif ms tfgt oe

ira`mhmcmty, or durm mi hacmaes ghout tfa giiurgiy oe iobeassmobs. Our owb

rasagrif ob pariaptmobs oe vocubtgrmbass eor iobeassmobs acmimta` hy

prolmsas gb` tfragts raprasabts laracy g emrst stap towgr` ub`arstgb`

mbk fow paopca igusgccy gttrmhuta

gb`

avgcugta

suif

avm`abia.

[fgt

ghout otfar egitors tfgt abtar mbto tfa "totgcmty oe tfa imriulstgbias,"

egitors suif

gs

tfa suspait s gka,

stgta

oe lmb`, or cavac oe mbtaccmkabia?

Fow

`o

durors ragit to iobeassmob avm`abia tfgt

ms

ohtgmba` tfroukf tfa

trminary gb` otfar tgitmis raiollab`a` hy Mbhgu gb` Xam` ( 7=58)? Gb`

to wfgt axtabt gra gcc tfasa du`klabts mbecuabia` hy durors' ub`arcymbk

pfmcosopfmas ghout irmlmbgc dustmaa-eor axglpca, wfatfar tfay al

hrgia g irmla-iobtroc

or

`ua-proiass lo`ac oe

cgw

abeorialabt? Pfasa

gb` otfar mlportgbt quastmobs gwgmt eurtfar alpmrmigc rasagrif.

Latfo`ocokmigccy, dury `aimsmob-b4mgnmbk pgrg`mkls gra gb ohvmous

vafmica eor g``rassmbk tfasa ira.`mhmDmty quastmobs. Gb avab lora

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

25/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

=7

mbtrmkumbk possmhmcmty

ms

gitugc7y

t o

lagsura paopcas' ghmcmty to mstmbkumsf

giiurgtacy hatwaab trua gb` egcsa iobeassmobs. Pfms iouc` ha gifmava`

hy fgvmbk suhdaits ohsarva axparmlabtgc mbtarrokgtmob sassmobs, gs

sukkasta` agrcmar, gb` tfab du`ka wfatfar tfa outiolas (iobeassmob or

`abmgc) gra iollabsurgta wmtf tfa ragcmty (kumct or mbboiabia).

Embgccy, wa hacmava tfa mssuas rgmsa` hy

tfa

psyifocoky oe iobeassmob

avm`abia igb ha axtab`a`

mb

mlportgbt wgys

to

otfar grags oe tfa cgw.

Pfamr racavgbia to tfa abtrgplabt `oitrmba wgs grtmiucgta` agrcmar.

Cmnawmsa, vary smlmcgr quastmobs gra posa`

mb

tfa iobtrovarsy ghout tfa

vocubtgrmbass gb` ioarimob mbfarabt mb pcag hgrkgmbmbk

ie.

Hrubn,

7=;=). Po tfms pombt, wa gra cobk ob quastmobs, sfort ob gbswars.

BOPAY

7.

Pfa

rucas eor g`lmttmbk iobeassmob avm`abia

to

wfmif wa fgva gccu`a` gppcy obcy

to

stgtalabts

lg`a

hy tfa

irmlmbgccy giiusa`, bot to g`lmssmobs oe g

imvmc

pgrty or g

irmlmbgc wmtbass otfar tfgb tfa `aeab`gbt.

8. Uocubtgrmbass, eor axglpca, igbbot ha aqugta` wmtf tfa prohghca trutf or egcsmty

oe tfa iobeassmob haigusa tfa usa oe tfms aembmtmob iouc` rasuct mb tfa egmcura to abeoria

tfa

@ua Zroiass Icgusa oe tfa Eourtaabtf Glab`labt (m.a., mb mbstgbias wfara iobeassmobs

gra

ioaria`

hut

suhsaquabtcy iorrohorgta` hy g``mtmobgc tastmloby). Lgby iourts fg`

g`opta` g ruca-oe-tfulh gpprogif hy wfmif iobeassmobs wara axicu`a`

me

mb`uia` hy g

tfragt or prolmsa or, mb suhdaitmva tarls, hy eagr

or

fopa. Pfms `aembmtmob ms

mbg`aqugta haigusa mt egmcs t giioubt a mtfar eor `meearabt `akraas oe mb`uialabt (gb`,

fabia, racmghmcmty) or eor otfar tgitmis

oe

igarimva mbtarrokgtmob tfgt `o

bot

mbvocva

prolmsas

gb`

tfragts (a.k., procobka` atabtmob). Ytmcc otfar

iourts

`aemba` vocubtgrmbass

gs

g suhdaitmva stgta oe lmb`

gb` gttalpta`

to

gssass

wfatfar iobeassmob wgs eraa

gb`

rgtmobgc

or

tfa

oeesprmbk oe g ragsoba` ifomia

Qbmta` Ytgtas

u

Lmtifacc,

7=00)4

Gs

Dustmia Ergbneurtar bota`, haigusa tfa iobiapt oe vocubtgrmbass ms

oba

wfmif iobiarbs g

labtgc stgta, tfara ms tfa mlgkmbgtmva rairagtmob, cgrkacy mbearabtmgc, oe mbtarbgc, 'psyifocokm

igc' egit

Iucolha u. Iobbaitmiut,

7=57, p. 5:9).

9. Gs

gb

axglpca oe tfa mbiobsmstabiy, iolpgra tfa eoccowmbk rucmbks raporta` mb

LiIorlmin (7=;8).

Mb

oba igsa, g iobeassmob wgs axicu`a` haigusa

tfa

mbtarrokgtor toc`

tfa aeab`gbt tfgt tfa du`ka

wouc` ha agsmar ob fml. ]at mb gbotfar, tfa iobeassmob wgs

g`lmtta` `aspmta mt fgvmbk eoccowa` tfa mbtarrokgtor's prolmsa tfg t mt wouc ko agsmar mb

iourt eor you

me

you lg a g stgtalabt.

0. Mb Asioha`o u. ccmboms (7=50), tfms prmbimpca wgs axtab`a` to mbicu`a pragrrgmkb

labt stgkas oe mbtarrokgtmob.

1. Lost

gcc

iourts

eoccow

g iollob cgw raqumralabt tfgt pratrmgc iobeassmobs ha

iorrohorgta` hy mb`apab`abt avm`abia. Haigusa oe tfa bulhar oe axiaptmobs igrva` out

oe tfgt ruca, fowavar,

gb`

tfa cgxmty wmtf wfmif

mt

fgs haab mbtarprata`, vary

eaw

iobeassmobs gra gitugccy axicu`a` hy tfms cakgc sgeakugr` (eor g ravmaw, saa Gycmbk, 7=60).

5. Ytmcc, tfa Iourt wgs qumin to pombt out tfgt

tfa

usa oe pfysmigc hrutgcmty

gb`

vmocabia ms bot, ubeortubgtacy, racakgta` to tfa pgs t (p.

005 .

;.

Pfa

prmlgry ohdaitmva oe tfms rasagrif wgs to gssass tfa mbtarrokgtor's iolpcm

gbia wmtf gb` aeeaits oe tfa Lmrgb`g rucmbk. Ymbia tfasa emb`mbks gra tgbkabtmgc to tfms

ifgptar, tfay gra bot ravmawa` fara.

6. [gc`

at

gc. (7=5;) gcso iobicu`a` tfgt wfab tfasa tgitmis wara iolhmba` wmtf g

kabargccy fostmca `alagbor

gb`

cabktfy mbtarrokgtmob, tfay oetab gppagra` to ha

suiiasseuc.

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

26/28

=8

PFA

ZY]IFOCOK] OE

AUM@ABIA

GB@

PXMGC

ZXOIA@QXA

=. Mt ms gcso mbtarastmbk to bota tfgt tfa `gtg provm`a` support eor tfa iobvarsa

fypotfasms tfgt iuas gssoimgta` wmtf egcsafoo`

igb

rgmsa tfa suhdait's `ouhts ghout tfa

vgcm`mty oe fms or far

trua

stgtalabts.

7:.

Mb igsas

wfara tfa

`aeab`gbt wgmvas dury trmgc, opmbmobs `meear

ob

tfa

quastmob oe

wfatfar tfa

sgla

du`ka wfo rasocva` tfa vocubtgrmbass mssua sfouc` gcso ha parlmtta` to

`atarlmba

kumct

(saa

@avacoplabts

mb

tfa

Cgw-Iobeassmobs

7=55).

77. Qbtmc

7=50

tfara wgs g tfmr` proia`ura nbowb gs

tfa

Baw ]orn ruca mb wfmif

tfa

du`ka wgs

to

axicu`a g iobeassmob gs mbvocubtgry obcy me mt wgs

bot

possmhca tfgt

77

ragsobghca lab iouc` `meear ovar tfa mbearabias

to

ha `rgwb. Kum`a` hy tfms cgx

stgb`gr`, du`kas wouc`

tfus

g`lmt quastmobghca iobeassmobs

ob

g iob`mtmobgc hgsms

gb`

tfab cagva mt

to

tfa dury

to

`aim`a

hotf iolpatabia

gb` ira`mhmcmty. Mb

Dginsob v.

@abbo,

tfa Yuprala Iourt struin `owb tfms proia`ura gs g vmocgtmob oe `ua proiass4

77

7e

mt emb`s

tfa iobeassmob mbvocubtgry, `oas tfa

dury-mb`aa`,

igb m t - tfab `msrakgr` tfa iobeassmob

mb giior`gbia

wmtf mts mbstruitmob? Pfasa fgzgr`s wa igbbot mkbora (p.

9;6).

78. Pfa tmlmbk oe tfa du`ka's mbstruitmob fg` g smkbmemigbt aeeait ob var`mits (haeora

avm`abia

getar avm`abia

< 01

pariabt) hut `m`

bot

mbtargit wmtf tfa

otfar

vgrmghcas.

79.

Gbotfar possmhca axpcgbg tmob

oe tfa

posmtmva

ioarimob

hmgs ms

tfgt

gctfoukf durors

iobia`a ob gb

mbtaccaitugc cavac

tfgt tfa

iobeassmob wgs

cakgccy mbvocubtgry,

tfay

`mscmna

gb` `mstrust g `aeab`gbt wfo fgs sfowb g wmccmbkbass to axpcomt tfa opportubmty.

XAEAXAB AY

Gsfirget v. Pabbassaa,

988 Q.Y. 709

(7=00).

Guhry, G., Igputo,

X.

(7=51). Irmlmbgc mbtarrokgtmob. Yprmbkemac`,

MC4

Ifgrcas

I

Pfolgs.

Gycmbk, I. D. (7=60). Iorrohorgtmbk egcsa iobeassmobs4

Gb

alpmrmigc gbgcysms oe cakgc

sgeakugr`s gkgmbst egcsa iobeassmobs. [msiobsmb Cgw Xavmaw

7787-78:0.

Hgrtfac,

D.

(7=;5).

G

`agtf mb Igbggb. Baw ]orn4

@uttob.

Harb, @. D. (7=55). Mb`uimbk hacmae mb egcsa iobeassmobs.

Dourbgc

oe

Zarsobgcmty

gb`

Yoimgc

Zsyifocoky 9

;:;-;7:.

Harb, @.

D.

(7=5;, Duba).

[fab

sgymbk ms hacmavmbk. Zsyifocoky

Po`gy 7(8), 87-81.

Hcginhurb v. Gcghglg,

957

Q.Y.

7== (7=5:}.

Horifgr`, A.

L.

(7=98}.

Iobvmitmbk tfa mbboiabt4 Arrors

oe

irmlmbgc

dustmia. Baw Fgvab,

IP4 ]gca Qbmvarsmty Zrass.

Hrglac, @. (7=5=). @atarlmbgbts oe hacmaes ghout

otfar

paopca. Mb

D.

Lmccs (A`.},

Axparmlabtgc soimgc psyifocoky.

Baw ]orn4 Lgilmccgb.

Hrowb v. Lmssmssmppm,

8=;

Q.Y.

8;6 (7=95).

Hrubn, I. K. (7=;=). Pfa prohcal oe vocubtgrmbass gb` ioarimob mb tfa bakotmgta` pcag.

Cgw gb` Yoimaty Xaumaw 79

18;119.

Ifglhars

v. Ecorm`g, 9:= Q.Y.

88;

(7=0:).

Iucolha v. Iobbaitmiut,

95;

Q.Y.

156

(7=57).

@avacoplabts mb tfa cgw-iobeassmobs. (7=55). Fgrugr` Cgw Xavmaw ;=

=91-777=.

@rmvar, A.

@. (7=56).

Iobeassmobs

gb`

tfa

soimgc psyifocoky oe ioarimob.

Fgrugr`

Cgw

Xavmaw

68

08-57.

Acworn, G., Ygcas, H. @., Gcembm,

D. D.

( 7=;;). Durm`mi `aimsmobs4 Mb mkborgbia oe

tfa

cgw

or

mb cmkft oe mt? Cgw gb`

Fulgb Hafgvmor

7

759-76=.

Asioha`o

v.

Mccmboms,

9;6

Q.Y.

0;6

(7=50).

Eostar, F. F. (7=5=). Iobeassmobs gb`

tfa stgtmob

fousa syb`rola. @aZguc

Cgw

Xaumaw

76

569-;:74

Ergbn

D., Ergbn, H. (7=1;). Bot kumcty.

Kgr`ab

Imty, B]4 @ouhca`gy.

Karsflgb,

H. C (7=68). Ghsigl, tfa du`mimgry,

gb`

tfa atfmis oe abtrgplabt.

]gca

Cgw

Dourbgc =7

7151-71=7.

7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985

27/28

Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb

=9

Kuttlgifar, L., & [amfoeab, F. (7=18).

Zsyifmgtry gb` tfa cgw.

Baw ]orn4 [.[.

Bortob.

Fmckgr`, A. X. (7=;1). Fypbosms. Gbbu387

Xaumaw

oe

Zsyifocoky

85

7=-00.

cbhgu, E. A., Xam , D. A. (7=58). Irmlmbgc mbtarrokgtmob gb` iobeassmobs. Hgctmlora4

[mccmgls

&

[mcnmbs.

Dginsob

v.

@abbo,

9;6

Q.Y. 956 (7=50).

Dobas

A. A. (7=;=). Pfa roiny rog` erol

gits

to msposmtmobs.

Glarmigb Zsyifocokmst 90

7:;-77;.

Dobas A.

A., & Fgrrms, U.

G.

(7=5;).

Pfa

gttrmhutmob

oe

gttmtu`as.

DourbgcoeAxparmlabtgc

Yoimgc Zsyifocoky, 9

7-80.

Ngcvab, F., & Tamsa , F (7=55). Pfa Glarmigb dury. Hostob4 Cmttca, Hrowb.

Ngpcgb,

L. E.,

Lmccar