CHAPTER 1: Introducing Psychology and its Methods Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

CHAPTER 1:Introducing Psychology and its

Methods

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What Is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and the mind.

Historical Roots

Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons

A Diversity of Perspectives

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Historical Roots

Dualism The assumption that the body and mind are

separate, though perhaps interacting, entities.

René Descartes (1596-1650) was a dualist, and believed that the mind could not be studied scientifically.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Historical Roots

Pioneers in the Study of the Mind Wilhelm Wundt

• Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 and developed introspection.

– Wundt’s method of having trained observers report on their conscious, moment-to-moment reactions.

William James• Published Principles of Psychology, 1890.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Historical Roots

Pioneers in the Study of the Mind, continued Sigmund Freud

• Introduced psychoanalysis in The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900.

• Psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, both of which assume the importance of unconscious processes.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Historical RootsThe Behaviorist Alternative

In 1913, John B. Watson defined psychology as the study of behavior, offering an alternative to mentalistic approaches and marking the start of behaviorism in the United States.

Behaviorism• A school of thought that defines psychology as the

scientific study of observable behavior Focus on environmental influences Dominated psychology from the 1920’s to the 1960’s

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Historical Roots

The “Cognitive Revolution” Many types of evidence suggested that

behaviorism was too restrictive.• These included studies of child development,

animal behavior, and brain studies Cognition

• A general term that refers to mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and remembering.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons

Basic Research “Pure science” research that tests theories and

builds a foundation of knowledge.

Applied Research Research that aims to solve practical human

problems.

• Examples of applied research areas include health, education, business, law, etc.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons

In addition to psychology branching out in basic and applied areas of research (as seen in this graph of the dramatic increase in the number of published articles in psychology), it has become more diverse, including more female and minority psychologists and more psychologists from other parts of the world.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons

Psychology as a Basic Science Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives Cognitive Perspectives Developmental Perspectives Social Psychological Perspectives Clinical Psychology

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons

Psychology as a Responsive Science Health Education Psychology in the Workplace Consumer Behavior The Environment The Legal System Sports, Politics, etc.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?A Diversity of Perspectives

Discrimination impeded women and minorities. Some did succeed. Harvard refused to grant the Ph.D. to Mary Whiton

Calkins (1890’s) who became the first female APA President in 1905.

The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology was Francis Sumner from Clark University in 1920.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

What is Psychology?A Diversity of Perspectives

Although psychology has faced a history of discrimination in recruitment, today it is more diverse.

Diversity considerations are important for both the areas of research and mental health.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods

The Research Process

Research Settings

Psychological Measurements

Research Designs

Ethical Considerations

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods

Scientific methods unify the discipline of psychology

A basic goal in science is critical thinking An approach to information that involves

• challenging assumptions• systematic observations• a reliance on evidence• a careful scrutiny of the methods used to derive

evidence

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods The Research Process

The first step is to develop a theory. An organized set of principles that describes,

predicts, and explains some phenomenon.

The second step is to form a hypothesis. A specific testable prediction, often derived from

a theory that provides operational definitions.• An operational definition defines a research

variable in terms of the procedures needed to control and measure it.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods The Research Process

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research Settings

Laboratory research Research conducted in an environment that

can be regulated and in which participants can be carefully observed.

Field research Research that is conducted in real-world

locations.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Psychological Measurements

Self-Report A method of observation that involves asking people

to describe their own thoughts, feelings, or behavior.

Behavioral Observation A form of research that is based on the firsthand

observation of a subject’s behavior.

Archival Records A form of research that relies on existing records of

past behavior.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research Designs

No matter which research design is used in a study, researchers rely on statistics to analyze the results they collect. Statistics is a branch of mathematics that is

used for analyzing research data.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research Designs

Descriptive ResearchCase studies

A type of research that involves making in-depth observations of individual persons.

Survey A research method that involves interviewing or

giving questionnaires to a large number of people.

Naturalistic observation The observation of behavior as it occurs naturally in

real-world settings

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research DesignsCorrelation

A statistical measure of how closely two variables are associated.

A correlation can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research Designs

Explaining a CorrelationStart with 3 variables,

(X, Y, & Z) where X and Y are correlated:

X may cause Y Y may cause X Z may cause X and Y

Correlations indicate relationship patterns, not causes

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research DesignsExperiments I

A research method in which the investigator varies some factors, keeps others constant, and measures the effects on randomly assigned subjects.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research DesignsExperiments II Independent Variable

Any variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment.

The proposed cause of change in the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable A variable that is being measured in an

experiment. Proposed to be affected by the independent variable.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Research DesignsExperiments III

Experimental Group Any condition of an experiment in which

participants are exposed to an independent variable.

Control Group The condition of an experiment in which

participants are not exposed to the independent variable.

Random Assignment The procedure of assigning subjects to groups.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Ethics Considerations in Human ResearchDeception

A research procedure used to mislead participants about the true purpose of the study

If deception is used, debriefing is necessary.

Informed Consent The ethical requirement that prospective participants

receive enough information to decide freely whether to participate in a study

And, data must be kept confidential, discomfort must be minimized, and one must be free to withdraw at any time.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Scientific Methods Ethics Considerations in Animal Research

Animal Welfare Minimization of pain and stress and humane

treatment are universally supported. Allegations of mistreatment in laboratories are

rarely supported by facts. Animal Rights

There is no consensus over whether animals have similar rights as humans.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Psychology Today Psychology as a Profession

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Psychology Today Where New Psychologists Are Getting Jobs

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Psychology Today Biological Perspectives

Evolutionary Psychology A subfield that uses the principles of evolution to

understand human social behavior. Behavioral Genetics

A subfield that examines the role of genetic factors on behavior.

Behavioral Neuroscience A subfield that studies the links among the brain,

nervous system, and behavior.

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

Psychology Today Sociocultural Perspectives

Cross-Cultural Research A body of studies designed to compare and

contrast people of different cultures.

Multicultural Research A body of studies designed to compare and

contrast of racial and ethnic minority groups within cultures.