Section 1 for blog

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IntroductionIntroduction

Information and knowledge are so important nowadays Information and knowledge are so important nowadays that society can be divided up into two groups.that society can be divided up into two groups.

Information richInformation rich – those who have access to: – those who have access to: many TV and radio channelsmany TV and radio channels books, newspapers and journalsbooks, newspapers and journals computers and the World Wide Web.computers and the World Wide Web.

Information poor – Information poor – those who:those who: tend to not have access to the Web and tend to not have access to the Web and

probably find it difficult to access probably find it difficult to access relevant books and journals.relevant books and journals.

If you are following this course you will probably be If you are following this course you will probably be information rich.information rich.

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Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Throughout this unit we will learn about the Throughout this unit we will learn about the nature and uses of information by looking at:nature and uses of information by looking at:

Differences between Data and InformationDifferences between Data and Information Organisational Information SystemsOrganisational Information Systems Information Management SoftwareInformation Management Software Implications of Information and Communications Implications of Information and Communications

Technology.Technology.

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Learning IntentionsLearning Intentions

By the end of this topic you will know:By the end of this topic you will know:

The differences between The differences between datadata and and informationinformation

What What knowledgeknowledge is isWhat What metadatametadata is isHow information is How information is categorisedcategorisedCharacteristicsCharacteristics which affect the which affect the

qualityquality of information of information

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Data and InformationData and Information

DataData is raw unprocessed facts and is raw unprocessed facts and figures that have no context or figures that have no context or purposeful meaning.purposeful meaning.

InformationInformation is processed data that has is processed data that has meaning and a context. meaning and a context.

Data

36.41

Binary patterns on a disc

Information

£36.41 – bill for DVDs

Processed data – e.g. display on screen, icons, etc.

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Data and InformationData and Information

A single unit or item of data is called A single unit or item of data is called a a datumdatum

It is one or more symbols used to It is one or more symbols used to represent something.represent something.

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KnowledgeKnowledge

Knowledge is derived from Knowledge is derived from InformationInformationWe gain knowledge from information and we use We gain knowledge from information and we use that information to make decisions.that information to make decisions.

Explicit knowledgeExplicit knowledge is rules or processes or is rules or processes or decisions that can be recorded either on decisions that can be recorded either on paper or in an information system.paper or in an information system.

Tacit knowledgeTacit knowledge exists inside the minds of exists inside the minds of humans and is harder to record. It tends to be humans and is harder to record. It tends to be created from someone’s experiences, so created from someone’s experiences, so again is a set of rules or experiences.again is a set of rules or experiences.

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MetadataMetadata

Metadata Metadata can be thought of as data can be thought of as data that describes data. It is structured that describes data. It is structured information about a resource.information about a resource.

ExamplesExamplesa data dictionarya data dictionaryA meta tag in a web page contains A meta tag in a web page contains

information about the contents of the web information about the contents of the web page.page.

the card index system used by libraries the card index system used by libraries before computerisation, where each card before computerisation, where each card told you the author, title and where to find told you the author, title and where to find the bookthe book

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LI - Categorisation of LI - Categorisation of InformationInformation

Information can be categorised Information can be categorised under several headings that under several headings that allow us to determine its overall allow us to determine its overall usefulness.usefulness.

MMain categories ain categories SourceSourceNatureNatureLevelLevelTimeTime

Frequency Use Form Type.

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Source – Primary or SecondarySource – Primary or Secondary

Where statistical information is gathered, such as in surveys or polls, the survey data or polling data is the primary source and the conclusions reached from the survey or the results of the poll are secondary sources

A secondary source of information is one that provides information from a source other than the original.

A primary sourceA primary source provides the data to an information provides the data to an information system from an system from an originaloriginal source document. source document.

• e.g. an invoice sent to a business or a cheque received.

• sales figures for a range of goods for a tinned food manufacturer for one week or several weeks and one or several locations.

• e.g. an accounts book detailing invoices received, or a bank statement that shows details of cheques paid in.

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Source – InternalSource – Internal

All organisations generate a substantial amount of All organisations generate a substantial amount of internalinternal information relating to their operation. information relating to their operation. Examples of internal sources:Examples of internal sources:

Marketing and sales information on Marketing and sales information on performance, revenues, market share, performance, revenues, market share, distribution channels, etc.distribution channels, etc.

Production and operational information on Production and operational information on assets, quality, standards, etc.assets, quality, standards, etc.

Financial information on profits, costs, Financial information on profits, costs, margins, cash flows, investments, etc.margins, cash flows, investments, etc.

Internal documentation such as order forms, Internal documentation such as order forms, invoices, credit notes, procedural manuals.invoices, credit notes, procedural manuals.

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Source – ExternalSource – External

An An externalexternal source of information is source of information is concerned with what is happening beyond concerned with what is happening beyond the boundaries of the organisation. the boundaries of the organisation.

• census figures

• judgments on court cases

• legislation, e.g. the Data Protection Act

• trade journals

• professional publications

• industry standards

• telephone directories

• computer users’ yearbook

• gallup & national opinion polls

• Ordnance Survey maps

• Financial services agencies such as Dunn and Bradstreet

• the Internet

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NatureNature

Formal CommunicationFormal Communication information information presented presented in a structured in a structured

and consistent manner and consistent manner main methods main methods

the formal letter, properly structured the formal letter, properly structured reports, writing of training materials, etc. reports, writing of training materials, etc. in cogent, coherent, well-structured in cogent, coherent, well-structured language. language. 

Informal CommunicationInformal Communication less well-structured information less well-structured information

transmitted within an organisation or transmitted within an organisation or between individuals who usually know between individuals who usually know each other. each other.

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NatureNature

Quantitative InformationQuantitative Information information information thatthat is represented numerically. is represented numerically.

Qualitative InformationQualitative Information

information that is represented using words.information that is represented using words.

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Levels of Use of Levels of Use of InformationInformation

STRATEGIC

TACTICAL

OPERATIONAL

Long-term decisions - both internal & external sources

Top level of management

Medium-term decisions - mostly internal but some external sources

Middle management

Day-to-day decisions - largely internal sources

Lowest level of staff

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TimeTime

HistoricHistoric Information gathered and stored over a period of Information gathered and stored over a period of

time. time. It allows decision makers to draw comparisons It allows decision makers to draw comparisons

between previous and present activities. between previous and present activities. Historic information can be used to identify trends Historic information can be used to identify trends

over a period of time.over a period of time. PresentPresent

Information created Information created fromfrom activities during the current activities during the current work-window (day, week or month). work-window (day, week or month).

In real-time systems this information would be In real-time systems this information would be created instantly from the data gathered (e.g. the created instantly from the data gathered (e.g. the temperature in a nuclear power plant turbine) giving temperature in a nuclear power plant turbine) giving accurate and up-to-date information.accurate and up-to-date information.

FutureFuture Information that is created using present and historic Information that is created using present and historic

information to try to predict the future activities and information to try to predict the future activities and events relating to the operation of an organisation. events relating to the operation of an organisation.

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Frequency of Frequency of InformationInformation

ContinuousContinuous This is information created from data gathered several This is information created from data gathered several

times a second. It is the type of information created by a times a second. It is the type of information created by a real-time system.  real-time system.  

PeriodicPeriodic IInformation created at regular time intervals (hourly, nformation created at regular time intervals (hourly,

daily, monthly, annually).daily, monthly, annually). AnnuallyAnnually – On an annual basis a company must – On an annual basis a company must

submit its report and accounts to the shareholders.submit its report and accounts to the shareholders. MonthlyMonthly – Banks and credit card companies produce – Banks and credit card companies produce

monthly statements for the majority of their monthly statements for the majority of their customers.customers.

DailyDaily – A supermarket will make daily summaries of – A supermarket will make daily summaries of its sales and use the product information to update its sales and use the product information to update its stock levels and reorder stock automatically.its stock levels and reorder stock automatically.

HourlyHourly – A busy call centre will often update totals – A busy call centre will often update totals for each operator on an hourly basis and give the top for each operator on an hourly basis and give the top employee for the hour some reward. employee for the hour some reward. 

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Uses of Information within Uses of Information within OrganisationsOrganisations

Planning Planning is the process of deciding, in advance, is the process of deciding, in advance, what has to be done and how it what has to be done and how it is to be done. is to be done.

Planning is decisions by management about:Planning is decisions by management about: What is to be done in the futureWhat is to be done in the future How to do itHow to do it When to do itWhen to do it Who is to do itWho is to do it

An An objectiveobjective is something that needs to is something that needs to be achieved. be achieved.

A A planplan describes the describes the activitiesactivities or or actionsactions required to achieve the required to achieve the objectiveobjective..

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Uses of Information within Uses of Information within OrganisationsOrganisations

ControlControl is the monitoring and evaluation of is the monitoring and evaluation of current progress against the steps of a pre-current progress against the steps of a pre-defined plan or standard.defined plan or standard.

Operational level Operational level the manager’s time will be spent on control the manager’s time will be spent on control

activities activities

At higher levelsAt higher levels planning and control are more closely linked, planning and control are more closely linked,

with management being concerned with the with management being concerned with the monitoring of progress against the plan, monitoring of progress against the plan, assessing the suitability of the plan itself, and assessing the suitability of the plan itself, and predicting future conditions. predicting future conditions.

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Uses of Information within Uses of Information within OrganisationsOrganisations

Decision-making – Decision-making – means selecting an action or actions from those means selecting an action or actions from those

possible based on the information available. possible based on the information available. involves determining and examining the available involves determining and examining the available

actions and then selecting the most appropriate actions and then selecting the most appropriate actions in order to achieve the required results.actions in order to achieve the required results.

is an essential part of management and is carried is an essential part of management and is carried out at all levels of management for all tasks.  out at all levels of management for all tasks.  

is made up of four phases:is made up of four phases:Finding occasions for decision makingFinding occasions for decision making Finding possible courses of action Finding possible courses of action Choosing among these courses of actionChoosing among these courses of action Evaluating past choices.Evaluating past choices.

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Forms of InformationForms of Information WrittenWritten

Hand-written, word-processed, e-mails.Hand-written, word-processed, e-mails. Reports from different classes of software.Reports from different classes of software. Reports, memos and tables, receipts, invoices, statements, Reports, memos and tables, receipts, invoices, statements,

summary accounting information.summary accounting information. AuralAural

SpeechSpeech, , formal meetingsformal meetings, , informal meetings, talking on the informal meetings, talking on the phone and voice-mail messages.phone and voice-mail messages.

Employee Employee presentationpresentationss to a group where there may be use to a group where there may be use made of music and sound effects as well as speech.made of music and sound effects as well as speech.

VisualVisual pictures, charts and graphs.pictures, charts and graphs. Presentations via data projects, DVDs, etc.Presentations via data projects, DVDs, etc.

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Types of InformationTypes of Information DetailedDetailed

An inventory list showing stock levelsAn inventory list showing stock levels Actual costs to the penny of goodsActual costs to the penny of goods Detailed operating instructions Detailed operating instructions Most often used at operational level Most often used at operational level 

SampledSampled SSelected records from a databaseelected records from a database PProduct and sales summaries roduct and sales summaries in a in a

supermarketsupermarket Often used at a tactical levelOften used at a tactical level (maybe (maybe

strategic) strategic)  AggregatedAggregated

Totals created when detailed information is Totals created when detailed information is summed together summed together

Details of purchases made by customers Details of purchases made by customers totalled each monthtotalled each month

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LI - Characteristics of LI - Characteristics of InformationInformation

There are 8 main There are 8 main characteristics of informationcharacteristics of information

Not all information has all the Not all information has all the characteristicscharacteristics

Always use the example given Always use the example given when answeringwhen answering

You may have to make You may have to make assumptions when answering assumptions when answering questionsquestions

CompletenesCompletenesss

AccuracyAccuracy TimingTiming ConcisenessConciseness ReliabilityReliability RelevanceRelevance AvailabilityAvailability PresentationPresentation

Use CATCRRAP mnemonic

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Availability / AccessibilityAvailability / Accessibility

Information should be easy to obtain or access Information should be easy to obtain or access for use when requiredfor use when required

How to write about it:How to write about it: state the information itemstate the information item state whether the info is available/accessible or notstate whether the info is available/accessible or not give your reason whygive your reason why eg. if on-line it is very accessible, but need hardwareeg. if on-line it is very accessible, but need hardware

if on paper, only accessible to those who have the if on paper, only accessible to those who have the

paper copy.paper copy.

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AccuracyAccuracy

Information needs to be accurate enough for Information needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it is going to be put. the use to which it is going to be put.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is Accurate or notstate whether the info is Accurate or notGenerally professional/Government bodies Generally professional/Government bodies

provide accurate infoprovide accurate infoAdverts are supposed to be accurateAdverts are supposed to be accurateInternally created info is open to debateInternally created info is open to debateWebsites must be treated with cautionWebsites must be treated with caution

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Reliability or ObjectivityReliability or Objectivity

Reliability deals with the truth of the Reliability deals with the truth of the information or the objectivity with which it information or the objectivity with which it is presented. is presented.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is reliable or notstate whether the info is reliable or nota trusted source will usually provide reliable infoa trusted source will usually provide reliable infointernal info ie. e-mails are usually reliableinternal info ie. e-mails are usually reliableWebsites must be treated with cautionWebsites must be treated with caution

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Relevance / AppropriatenessRelevance / Appropriateness

Information should be relevant to the Information should be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It must purpose for which it is required. It must be suitable.be suitable.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is relevant to the state whether the info is relevant to the

purpose it is intended or notpurpose it is intended or not

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CompletenessCompleteness

Information should contain all details Information should contain all details required by the user.required by the user.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is complete or notstate whether the info is complete or notif not state what might be missing and the if not state what might be missing and the

problems this would cause to the user of the problems this would cause to the user of the infoinfo

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Level of Detail / ConcisenessLevel of Detail / Conciseness

Information should be in a form that is short Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use. enough to allow for its examination and use. There should be no extraneous information.There should be no extraneous information.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is concise or notstate whether the info is concise or notif not describe the amount of time that would be if not describe the amount of time that would be

wasted reading irrelevant infowasted reading irrelevant infoIf it is describe the info that is needed for the If it is describe the info that is needed for the

tasktask

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PresentationPresentation

Information can be more easily Information can be more easily assimilated if it is assimilated if it is aestheticallyaesthetically pleasing. pleasing.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is well presented or notstate whether the info is well presented or notif it is well presented describe how this will aid if it is well presented describe how this will aid

the user in digesting the infothe user in digesting the infoIf not, describe how this will cause difficulty in If not, describe how this will cause difficulty in

reading and digesting the inforeading and digesting the info

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TimingTiming

Information must be on time for the Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required. purpose for which it is required. Information received too late will be Information received too late will be irrelevant.irrelevant.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is on time or notstate whether the info is on time or notGive reasons for your answerGive reasons for your answer

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Value and CostValue and Cost

ValueValue The relative importance of information for decision-The relative importance of information for decision-

making can increase or decrease its value to an making can increase or decrease its value to an organisation.organisation.

CostCost Information should be available within set cost levels Information should be available within set cost levels

that may vary dependent on situation.that may vary dependent on situation.

The difference between value and costThe difference between value and cost Valuable information need not cost much.Valuable information need not cost much. Information costly to obtain may not have much Information costly to obtain may not have much

value.value.

You need to know:You need to know: There are 8 main There are 8 main

characteristics of informationcharacteristics of information

Not all information has all the Not all information has all the characteristicscharacteristics

Always use the example Always use the example given when answeringgiven when answering

You may have to make You may have to make assumptions when answering assumptions when answering questionsquestions

CompleteneCompletenessss

AccuracyAccuracy TimingTiming ConcisenessConciseness ReliabilityReliability RelevanceRelevance AvailabilityAvailability PresentationPresentation

Use CATCRRAP mnemonic

Availability / AccessibilityAvailability / Accessibility

Information should be easy to obtain or access Information should be easy to obtain or access for use when requiredfor use when required

How to write about it:How to write about it: state the information itemstate the information item state whether the info is available/accessible or notstate whether the info is available/accessible or not give your reason whygive your reason why eg. if on-line it is very accessible, but need hardwareeg. if on-line it is very accessible, but need hardware

if on paper, only accessible to those who have the if on paper, only accessible to those who have the

paper copy.paper copy.

AccuracyAccuracy

Information needs to be accurate enough for Information needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it is going to be put. the use to which it is going to be put.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is Accurate or notstate whether the info is Accurate or notGenerally professional/Government bodies Generally professional/Government bodies

provide accurate infoprovide accurate infoAdverts are supposed to be accurateAdverts are supposed to be accurateInternally created info is open to debateInternally created info is open to debateWebsites must be treated with cautionWebsites must be treated with caution

Reliability or ObjectivityReliability or Objectivity

Reliability deals with the truth of the Reliability deals with the truth of the information or the objectivity with which it information or the objectivity with which it is presented. is presented.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is reliable or notstate whether the info is reliable or nota trusted source will usually provide reliable infoa trusted source will usually provide reliable infointernal info ie. e-mails are usually reliableinternal info ie. e-mails are usually reliableWebsites must be treated with cautionWebsites must be treated with caution

Relevance / Relevance / AppropriatenessAppropriateness

Information should be relevant to the Information should be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It must purpose for which it is required. It must be suitable.be suitable.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is relevant to the state whether the info is relevant to the

purpose it is intended or notpurpose it is intended or not

CompletenessCompleteness

Information should contain all details Information should contain all details required by the user.required by the user.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is complete or notstate whether the info is complete or notif not state what might be missing and the if not state what might be missing and the

problems this would cause to the user of the problems this would cause to the user of the infoinfo

Level of Detail / Level of Detail / ConcisenessConciseness

Information should be in a form that is short Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use. enough to allow for its examination and use. There should be no extraneous information.There should be no extraneous information.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is concise or notstate whether the info is concise or notif not describe the amount of time that would be if not describe the amount of time that would be

wasted reading irrelevant infowasted reading irrelevant infoIf it is describe the info that is needed for the If it is describe the info that is needed for the

tasktask

PresentationPresentation

Information can be more easily Information can be more easily assimilated if it is assimilated if it is aestheticallyaesthetically pleasing. pleasing.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is well presented or notstate whether the info is well presented or notif it is well presented describe how this will aid if it is well presented describe how this will aid

the user in digesting the infothe user in digesting the infoIf not, describe how this will cause difficulty in If not, describe how this will cause difficulty in

reading and digesting the inforeading and digesting the info

TimingTiming

Information must be on time for the Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required. purpose for which it is required. Information received too late will be Information received too late will be irrelevant.irrelevant.

How to write about it:How to write about it:state the information itemstate the information itemstate whether the info is on time or notstate whether the info is on time or notGive reasons for your answerGive reasons for your answer

Value and CostValue and Cost

ValueValue The relative importance of information for The relative importance of information for

decision-making can increase or decrease its decision-making can increase or decrease its value to an organisation.value to an organisation.

CostCost Information should be available within set cost Information should be available within set cost

levels that may vary dependent on situation.levels that may vary dependent on situation.

The difference between value and costThe difference between value and cost Valuable information need not cost much.Valuable information need not cost much. Information costly to obtain may not have much Information costly to obtain may not have much

value.value.