SECOND LANGUAGE SKILLS US 12153 USE THE WRITING …

Human Resource Management & Practices Support NQF 4: SAQA ID 67463- Handbook

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Learner Guide –HR 4 – US 12153 Issue 3– 01-01-2020

SECOND LANGUAGE SKILLS

US 12153 USE THE WRITING PROCESS TO COMPOSE TEXTS REQUIRED IN THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT; NQF LEVEL 4

1. USE TEXTUAL FEATURES AND CONVENTIONS After completing this module, the learner will be able to use speaking use textual features and conventions specific to business texts for effective writing, by successfully completing the following: Identify texts specific to a particular function in a business environment and give an indication of industry specific and/or legislative requirements for each text Produce texts specific to a particular function in a business environment in response to defined requirements Explain the implications of not following the industry specific or legislative requirements for a specific type of text and give an indication of the possible consequences of non-compliance Use terminology and conventions specific to a particular function in a business environment appropriately Use textual features and conventions specific to business texts for effective writing Have you ever heard (or made) any of the following statements:

“I dread writing reports. I just don't know where to start."

"Report writing takes me so long to do."

"I want my reports to be clearer, more logical, and easier to read and understand. But I wasn't taught how to do that at university/college/school."

"I'm never sure if my report is good enough - will the manager like it?"

"My reports are so technical. I'm worried that no one will understand them - that is, if they even read them."

"I write procedures for people to follow. Often there are safety issues. How can I be sure that my procedures are clear and accurate, so people use them and no one gets hurt?"

"Is there an 'accepted' way to write this report? Will I look stupid if I don't follow the norm?"

"How do I make my reports look more professional?"

"English is my second language. I want to be more confident that my reports are well written and easy to understand."

There is a need for effective written communication skills in all aspects of our daily lives, whether in our private capacity when writing to our bank manager, or at work when we have to hand in our monthly report. We have all handed in a report at one time or another that wasn’t written as well as it could have been. Poor writing reflects badly on us, it limits the influence we can have on others, and it steals time away from those who read it when they try to decipher what we mean. Furthermore, there are legal implications when we cannot express ourselves clearly in policy documents or disciplinary reports. Even if we were taught how to write well at school or college, the focus of the type of writing we did was usually creative writing, rather than what we are required to do in the workplace, namely technical writing. In this Module we will look at how to create effective workplace writing. Texts specific to a particular function in a business environment Let’s first look at the type of writing you will be doing in your workplace, namely “technical” writing.


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Tec'hnĭcal in this context means “peculiar to a particular art or science or craft”1 and refers to the terminology and jargon and types of documents specific to a workplace, whether it is an engineering works or a scientific laboratory. Technical writing ability or the ability to write business texts, is a very important competence in today's fast growing technological society. The biggest complaints about technical writing are usually the following: Unclear purpose or context - "At the start, I don't know why I'm reading the report. I don't understand how the specific information I'm getting fits into a larger situation. Does the writer know why I requested this information?" Confusing organisation or logic - "I don't understand where the writer is going or why I am getting one piece of information before another. I can't figure out how idea A leads to B and how A and B relate to C or D." Lack of clear conclusions - "When I finish reading, I want to understand why the information is important to me. I want a good answer to my question, 'So What?'" Too much or not enough detail - "The writer spends too much time discussing unimportant aspects and not enough time on what is most significant to me. The emphasis is misplaced, maybe to hide what the writer doesn't know." Muddled sentences, garbled expression - "Individual sentences are difficult to untangle—wordy and ungrammatical. I resent spending time on this report." Sloppy or imprecise use of technical terms and concepts - "The writer does not understand the terminology, or misapplies it, or inappropriately addresses it to a reader who is not at this technical level." Faulty mechanics - "What a mess! The document has errors in format, spelling, punctuation, and units of measurement. Diagrams are labelled poorly or not at all." Your challenge, as a writer, is to anticipate such objections. You need good technical writing skills to communicate technical information to non-technical readers effectively. The key idea in technical writing is to look at things not from your own, but rather from the audience's perspective. If you want readers to understand and appreciate what you write, you need to make their job as easy as possible. Types of technical (business) writing The term “technical writing” refers to any writing that we do in the workplace, with the exception of our personal correspondence. Technical writing, therefore, ranges from e-mails to colleagues to formal management reports. Produce texts appropriate to a particular business function You may be required to write different types of correspondence in your workplace, depending on the objective and audience; for example:

Text type Description

Correspondence This includes emails, memos and letters- all forms of day-to-day business communication

Reports They share the information needed for a business to prosper

Proposals They discuss plans to meet the business’s needs- from developing a new market to solving a problem

Instructions They are the how-to documents that tell employees how to carry out their work

1 The Pocket Oxford Dictionary


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Technical documents also include user manuals, proposals, specifications, project status reports, problem-solving reports, business letters, résumés and cover letters to name but a few. To complicate matters for the would-be technical writer, each industry has its own writing requirements and uses texts specific to a particular function in the business context. These texts include sector specific documents, written comparisons of products, reports on specifics of products or services, historical reviews over a period of operation, claims reports, explanations of how changes in legislation will impact on the rules of the company fund or pension benefit, financial needs analyses, financial plans, reports to investors, reports to statutory bodies, customised documents, statistical reports, actuarial reports, promotional proposals and other texts used within the sector and field of operations. Always consult company templates or a style manual for your discipline for specific guidelines as to how to compose text. Industry specific and/or legislative requirements for text. Texts also have to adhere to certain legal requirements at times and non-compliance could have legal implications. For example, the Annual Report that listed companies need to provide to their shareholders, or financial statements that have to be submitted to SARS. Non-compliance could result in hefty penalties being imposed on an organisation. Here is a list of documents (texts) that are commonly used in most business environments. We can identify their function in a business environment, as well as the industry specific and/or legislative requirements for each text. As mentioned before, there could possibly be consequences for non-compliance:

Text Function: what it is used for Industry/ legislative requirements

Consequences of non-compliance

e-mail Own uses, e.g. quick messages to team members, or receiving instructions from manager

e.g. privacy of user/ company policy re use of co resources

e.g. immediate dismissal for child porn viewing

Business letter e.g. to clients, cover letter with CV, etc.

e.g. standard company document

e.g. leaves a bad impression; one has less credibility

Report e.g. monthly, projects, etc. e.g. standard company document

e.g. report can be sent back by manager to be redone

Memo e.g. shortened version of report, quick note left on desk, etc.

e.g. standard Memo note paper supplied

e.g. bad impression, less credibility/ wasteful/ waste of time if one uses scraps of own paper

Presentation e.g. to team, management, customers- to sell ideas, etc.

e.g. company format for slides, data projector and PowerPoint

e.g. leaves a bad impression; one has less credibility

Minutes e.g. record of team/ management meetings

Kept in a special book, or in particular format, etc.

e.g. no record of attendance/ decisions, etc. in case of queries or cases at the CCMA

Asking yourself the following questions will help you check your texts:

Am I using the correct information?

Is the information clear enough for the reader to understand?

Have I provided sufficient information, or do I need to add more?

Is the information relevant?

Have I complied with the relevant legislation?

1.2 TERMINOLOGY AND CONVENTIONS SPECIFIC TO A PARTICULAR FUNCTION As a representative of your company and its products and processes, you often need good technical writing skills to communicate technical information to non-technical readers effectively.


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When we refer to non-technical readers we actually mean anyone, no matter how highly qualified they are in their field, who is not familiar with your specific organisational terminology Technical writing has earned the reputation of being dense, difficult to read, and at times, incoherent. Jargon is responsible for some of the difficulty that readers have, but difficulty in reading can also happen when writing does not conform to standard rules of grammar for written English. Jargon Generally speaking, jargon2, in its most positive light, can be seen as professional, efficient shorthand. The word "jargon" can be traced to 14th century Old French, but the actual origin is unknown. “Jargon” is derived from the fourteenth century term for “twittering or warbling of birds,” which in turn has the root ‘garg’ from which also stem such words as “gargle,” and “gurgle.” The original meaning was “to make a twittering noise or sound,” but by modern standards, it has three derivations. One current or modern definition of jargon is “an outlandish, technical language of a particular profession, group, or trade.” Another meaning is “unintelligible writing or talk.” Yet another definition is “specific dialects resulting from a mixture of several languages.” Since the reoccurring problem with jargon is that only a few people may understand the actual terminology used by different groups, this may explain its origin from “twittering” which, of course, would be misunderstood by most people. However, someone who studies jargon may claim that jargon was invented simply as professional shorthand, developed out of convenience rather than intentional trickiness. Groups that have a similar interest, like trades and/or professions, commonly use jargon. However, it can also be used by people involved in sports or other casual groups, and is often difficult to distinguish from slang. Most people associate jargon with the medical or legal professions, rather than everyday conversations. People may use jargon to leave an impression of intelligence, or to confuse a person: Bilateral peri-orbital hematoma (JARGON from the medical profession) A “black eye”, or “shiner” (SLANG for the same thing) Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Jargon Using jargon can be advantageous. For instance, jargon can give a person a sense of belonging to a specific group. Jargon can also make it easier for a person to communicate with fellow employees and/or friends. For example, someone going for a job interview at a bank or financial institution would use banking terminology (banking jargon) to show his/her expertise in the field. Using jargon can also be a disadvantage. Jargon can leave someone feeling excluded from a conversation. The military, advertising, teachers, and politicians have all been criticised for using jargon, as it leaves people wondering if there is a hidden agenda. Types of jargon There are various types of jargon, such as: Doublespeak - Doublespeak is a form of jargon often used to mislead or confuse listeners. There are two main variations in doublespeak that relate to jargon: persuasive and inflated doublespeak. Both of these types of doublespeak misdirect intentionally, therefore leading to misconception. Some examples of persuasive and inflated doublespeak are seen in many professions. For example, a politician speaking to the voting public may use persuasive doublespeak in his/her campaign in an attempt to mislead the voters about certain issues.

2 Adapted from a study by Paula Caudle, Kim Courtney, Heather Guyton, Michelle Keller and Carol Kind. Students: The University of North Carolina at Pembroke


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Inflated doublespeak on the other hand, is quite different and the most widely used form of doublespeak. An example of inflated doublespeak would be calling a garbage collector a sanitation engineer. The changed name creates an entirely different image of the garbage collector by using inflated doublespeak. When comparing persuasive doublespeak to inflated doublespeak, one can clearly see that both types are altogether a big misconception of jargon usage. Doublespeak is used daily in various professions and often destroys the real intent of jargon usage. Doublespeak may lead to utter confusion, which is the opposite intent of effective jargon usage. Examples of doublespeak: Cost containment The firing of employees and/or the reduction of plant and equipment "Cost containment will lead to a profit" Put a spin on Modify a story to make it more favourable "How can we put a spin on that to make us look good" Right size The firing of employees and/or the reduction of plant and equipment "We must right size our operations" Take questions Listen to questions from one or more people Some response may be offered to each question but none is promised "I will now take questions" Circular reasoning - Circular reasoning3 is when a reason is the same as the object being explained. Thus, no explanation is offered. Example: We are giving small raises because we are not giving large raises. Empty Statements - Empty statements are descriptions which add little to understanding. Example: Our profits are better than they seem. I think - “I think” is used to state that the following is one's own opinion. The speaker protects the firm by stating something as his own opinion. Also, the opinion is accurately stated even if the opinion is poor. No promise or commitment has been made. The statement must be assumed to be an honest opinion. Few would disagree that it is an opinion. Example: I think raises will be good this year. Negative declaration - Negative declaration is when giving a statement about what is not the case. The statement that something is not the case does not say what is the case. Example: Our president will not be fired. This does not imply the president will not leave the firm. He may retire, quit, pursue a better offer, change careers or be forced out. Acronyms and abbreviations “Before the MD approves the proposed QMS, the H&S rep needs to check whether it meets all SHEQ requirements, and only then can the VP OK it.” An acronym is a word made up of the first letters of a series of words (phrase) and is pronounced like a word. In our example “SHEQ” is an acronym. Other examples are: AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), Unisa (University of South Africa) and PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique). In the case of “laser” and “Unisa”, these abbreviations have become true words and follow the capitalisation

3 From: What your boss meant to say by William Wieker


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rules for common and proper nouns. Other examples are: scuba (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) and Fiat (Fabbrica Italiana Automobili, Torino). Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases. The abbreviation is done by using the initial letters of the words in a phrase, or by selecting a key word or words from that phrase. Initialisms are sounded out letter by letter, e.g. MD (managing director for company exec’s, or medical doctor to others), VP and OK in our example. Other examples are SABC and AU. (By the way, abbreviations are dropping the full stops, which makes life a lot easier!) Terminology used in an industry or the organisation is often confusing and difficult to understand when presented to external customers and even staff from a different department. Avoid jargon and company specific phrases such as:

Difficult Clear

In future incendiary emergency exercise egress patterns cannot be disregarded by assigned marshals or the result may be ultimate loss of personnel.

Marshals must ensure that emergency exit routes are practiced in fire drills, or people may die.

Plain English While jargon is understood by those who know the terminology; plain English refers to common words everyone can understand. People who use plain English can easily converse with other people because they do not use exaggerated words, which may confuse the listener. The plain English movement is growing daily because people want jargon, doublespeak, and other professional terminology taken out of government, law and the medical field. People want to understand what they are reading and hearing without being undermined by ‘fancy’ terminology. Always consider your audience:

If you are writing for the general public, keep language simple and avoid abbreviations and acronyms that are particular to the organisation

If you are writing for your organisation, ensure that the jargon you are using is common usage in the organisation, and not just in your department.

If you feel the need to add a glossary of abbreviations and acronyms used in your report, it means that the jargon you have used is NOT common usage

If you are writing for an international audience, do not use abbreviations or local acronyms, unless they are a legal name or commonly used, e.g. IBM, Mon, Tue, St, Rd, etc.

Standard Modern Business Writing Conventions The following is a summary of the accepted business writing conventions that are used nowadays: Mailable copy - A mailable copy is correctly set out and correctly worded. There are no spelling mistakes or grammatical errors. It has been carefully proof-read. Once you have written your text, it’s time to go back over and edit it. Look for correctness and maximum effectiveness. All good writers write and re-write. You have the responsibility to make sure that every letter, fax, memo, email, etc. which you send out is a “mailable copy”. Readability - An English business document is only acceptable if it can be read quickly and easily by a reader, who is not a first-language English speaker. Block Layout - Nearly all typing begins against the left hand margin in today’s business world. There are obviously exceptions, such as bulleted or numbered text, tables, columns, etc. However, when in doubt, choose the left hand margin for everything, (including the date, salutation, close, etc) in any document. Justify the right-hand margin of your work. Studies have shown that right-justification makes text MUCH easier to read. It also makes the documents look more professional.


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Open punctuation - Open punctuation is now international practice. Letters, faxes, memos and emails have no old fashioned punctuation, including very few abbreviations outside the main body of the document. – see the business letter example later in this chapter. Writing voice - Everyone has a natural writing “voice” or style. If you ignore your own writing voice, e.g. to try to impress, intimidate or copy other people, you risk your writing sounding insincere, fake, pompous and affected. It will lose the freshness, sincerity and impact of personal writing.

Class Activity 1: Use textual features and conventions specific to business texts for effective writing Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

2. IDENTIFY AND COLLECT INFORMATION NEEDED TO WRITE A TEXT After completing this module, the learner will be able identify and collect information needed to write a text specific to a particular function, by successfully completing the following:

Identify the intended or incidental audience for whom the text is to be written, for a specific field or sub field in order to focus the information needs.

Identify the purpose of the text within a specific field or sub-field and according to the information.

Ask questions to help understand client needs and to focus information gathering.

Access the information required for the document from a variety of sources.

Check the information accessed for accuracy, bias, stereotypes, and other offensive details.

Define the focus of the proposed text and make a decision about what information should be included or omitted in order to ensure the focus.

Create a checklist to facilitate reflection and editing.

There are a number of documents you may be required to prepare during the course of your work day. Each has its own function and responds to a specific communication need. Before you can start writing, however, you need to collect the information needed in order to write a document that meets the requirements for effective communication. 2.1 IDENTIFY THE PURPOSE “I look at most scientific and technical writing as being either informational or instructional in purpose. A third category is documentation for legal purposes. Most writing can be organised in one of these three ways; for example, an informational purpose is frequently used to make decisions. Memos, in most circles, carry key information.” Don Zimmerman, Journalism and Technical Communication Department4 When we communicate with other people, we are usually guided by some purpose, goal, or aim. We may want to express our feelings. We may want simply to explore an idea or perhaps entertain or amuse our listeners or readers. We may wish to inform people or explain an idea. We may wish to argue for or against an idea in order to persuade others to believe or act in a certain way. We make special kinds of arguments when we are evaluating or problem solving. Finally, we may wish to mediate or negotiate a solution in a tense or difficult situation. Remember, however, that often writers combine purposes in a single piece of writing. Thus, we may, in a business report, begin by informing readers of the economic facts before we try to persuade them to take a certain course of action. Know the context in which your writing will be read and judged. Shape your writing to its purpose: Expressive: One may write simply to express one's feelings, attitudes, ideas, and so on. This type of writing doesn't take the reader into consideration; instead, it focuses on the writer's feelings, experience, and needs. Expressive writing may take the form of poetry, journals and letters.

4 Retrieved from: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/pop2b.cfm

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/pop2b.cfm


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Conative/ persuasive: Conative writing seeks to affect the reader. Persuasive writing is conative; so is writing intended to entertain the reader. Writing intended to arouse the reader's feelings is also conative. Informative/ expository: Informative writing refers to something external to the writing itself, with the purpose of informing the reader. For instance, this page is informative. When you write, define the purposes of your writing. Decide what your primary purpose is and subordinate the other purposes to it. If you have conflicting purposes, be aware of that, and try to resolve the conflict or exploit it to make the writing more intense. Once you have determined what type of purpose best conveys your motivations, you will then need to examine how this will affect your readers. Perhaps you are explaining your topic when you really should be convincing readers to see your point. Writers and readers may approach a topic with conflicting purposes. Your job, as a writer, is to make sure both are being met. 2.2 IDENTIFY THE AUDIENCE For all writers the most important people are their readers. If you keep your readers in mind when you write, it will help you use the right tone, appropriate language and include the right amount of detail. What do readers want from writing? They want relevant information, presented in a clear, easy-to-understand style. They don't want muddled thinking, background information they already know, business-speak and jargon or waffle. Above all, they want to get the point of your message in one reading—they don’t want to search for the meaning through long sentences and a boring style. So if you always keep your readers in mind, you will have to adapt your style and content to meet their needs. Getting a clear picture of your readers before you start to write helps to focus your writing and get your message across. The better the picture you have of your readers, the better you can direct your writing. Ask questions to get a clear picture of your readers:

Who are my readers?

What do they already know about the subject?

What do they need to know?

Will they understand technical terms?

What information do they want?

What do I want them to do?

What interests or motivates them?

What prejudices do they have?

What worries or reassures them?

What will bring them round to my view?

What other arguments do I need to present?

How are they likely to react to what I say?

Your audience may be internal and your document intended for use within the organisation, in which case you can use jargon and language specific to the organisation and position. However, your audience could be external and your document may be written for wider publication, for example for customers, the press, readers of company brochures, etc. In the latter instance, your language has to be simplified to reach as wide an audience as possible and must contain little or no jargon or company-specific abbreviations. Regardless of the type of message, it is very important to make sure that you use a writing strategy that will effectively reach your reader. You need to tailor your documents for a specific audience


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in order to convey your message clearly and convincingly. Considering your audience will help you to personalise the document and make it relevant to the reader. If you write without a specific audience in mind, the document might be far too general and vague, or it might include too much information. When you tailor a document to a specific audience, the document will have better “unity of purpose and style,” and it will make the reader feel more involved. Audience is important for all pieces of writing, and even more so for any technical document, because technical documents must be able to persuade the reader that what you are saying is true, in order to be effective. There are two main kinds of readers that a document should be tailored for:

Skimmers, and

Sceptics

Skimmers are readers that are typically very busy. Pressed for time, they often skim documents in a rather short period of time. Consequently, the documents you prepare for this particular reader should:

State the main point clearly and up front

Place the most important information at the beginning of paragraphs

Highlight key dates or figures.

Both of the following examples from a CV represent the same experiences. A skimmer would be able to understand Example 2 much more quickly, though.

Example 1 Example 2

Managed R10 000 in project accounts, compiled and published engineering reports as assistant to Vice President, coordinated registrations, payments, and literature for software training seminars.

Managed R10 000 in project accounts. Compiled and published engineering reports as Assistant to Vice President Coordinated registrations, payments, and literature for software training seminars

The second type of reader is a Sceptic. A sceptic is a reader that is cautious and doubtful. Sceptical readers will tend to read a document carefully, questioning its validity. Ultimately, they will question the writer’s claims. In order to meet the needs of the sceptic, it is necessary to support your statements with sufficient details and evidence. Provide specific examples, numbers, dates, names and percentages to meet the needs of the sceptical reader. For example: NOT: I performed very well in my classes. But RATHER: I received the Honours Award for 7 out of 8 semesters and received a Women in Communications Scholarship in May 2003. 2.3 ASK QUESTIONS TO HELP UNDERSTAND CLIENT NEEDS AND TO FOCUS INFORMATION GATHERING “Readers and writers both have goals when they engage in reading and writing. Writers typically define their goals in several categories, namely to:

Inform

Persuade

Entertain

Explore

When writers and readers have mutually fulfilling goals-to inform and to look for information-then writing and reading are most efficient. At times, these goals overlap one another. Many readers of technical documents are looking for information when they often get philosophy. This mismatch


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of goals tends to leave readers frustrated, and if they communicate that frustration to the writer, then the writer feels misunderstood or unsuccessful.” Adapted from Kate Kiefer, English Department5 Receptiveness of audience and willingness of the writer As the sender of a message, what is your attitude to the task at hand, e.g. writing a report? Are you approaching it reluctantly, as a chore that you want to finish as quickly as possible, or do you see it as a meaningful document that can convey an important message and/or fulfil a persuasive function? Do you see its purpose? Perhaps the problem is not so much attitudinal as a matter of confidence: we really want to convey the message and we know that we have a good idea, but we are daunted by the prospect of writing a formal, technical document, especially when English is not our mother tongue. Alternatively, we could be unfamiliar with the jargon and layout of the type of technical documents required in our department or organisation. Technical information is not only encoded in words, but also in graphs, tables and equations, and this requires a certain amount of mathematical competency on the part of the writer, as well. Just as you, the sender of the message, have a certain attitude to the task at hand, namely writing the technical document, your audience may be just as reluctant to receive the message, as s/he may find such documents “boring”, or a “waste of time”, or an “interruption”. The receiver may also be hampered by distortions in the reception of the message: distractions and noise while reading, or a poor copy received via fax, for example. His or her linguistic ability could also hamper the decoding of the message into something that makes sense. Determine client/reader needs There are several different types of questions that you can use when trying to understand the needs and concerns of a client. Be careful not to start with closed ended questions. Closed ended questions can only be answered with a “yes” or “no”. Example: “Do you want me to explain the product to you?” “Yes/ no.” The following are the more productive types of questions to ask. When eliciting information, phrase your question to get a response that includes the information that you want to elicit from your customer. Example: “Which aspect of this product interests you most?” Open-ended questions These are the best sort of questions to start with, as they usually require detailed elaboration and cannot be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. They consist of using variations of who, what, where, when, why, and how. The respondent has no alternative but to elaborate: Examples: “How did you arrive at that particular price?” “What are your goals?” “Why is this your biggest challenge right now?” Open opportunity questions This form of question invites the client to participate and offer his/her personal view. Example: “What do you think of this option as a solution?”

5 Source: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/pop6a.cfm

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/pop6a.cfm


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Probing Questions When you need to gain a better insight into a person’s thought process to further illuminate their rationale or position. Examples: “Could you provide us with more detail in how you analysed the data?” “What path did you take to arrive at that solution?” 2.4 ACCESS INFORMATION You will often find yourself gathering information from people. This means that you must not only be able to interact with people, you must also understand people. Whether you're talking to subject matter experts or the public, you need to know the right questions to ask and the right way to ask them. Good interviewing techniques are therefore essential for successful research, especially when you're dealing with such a wide variety of people, from the subject matter expert to the general public. The people you’re interviewing may often not have the time, energy, or desire to provide you with the information you need. A bit of socialising, negotiation and even persuasion gives you the edge you need to get information from those reluctant people. Keyword-based searches This is a generic term for any type of search you perform using a word or phrase to locate information. You use keyword searches all of the time when you look for books in the library or use Internet search engines. As you get more practised at keyword searches, you'll build up a repertoire of phrases you can use to track down information. Web pages, brochures, textbooks, manuals, magazines, newspapers, and mail are just a few of the documents that we will consult while doing our research. Effective and efficient readers learn to use many styles of reading for different purposes. However, reading off a computer screen, which you will mainly be doing in the course of your work, has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have more difficulty reading off a computer screen than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend at the same rate as paper, skimming on the computer is much slower than on paper. Skimming, scanning and critical reading are different styles of reading and information processing. Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word, but just skimming the text. Skimming involves searching for the main ideas by reading the first and last paragraphs, noting other organisational cues, such as summaries, used by the author. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research. There are many strategies that can be used when skimming: Read the first and last paragraphs using headings, summaries and other organisers as you move down the page or screen. Read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. Scanning involves running your eyes down the page looking for specific facts or key words and phrases. Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking


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specific words and phrases. It works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts. Strategies that can be used when scanning: When scanning, look for the author's use of organisers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or colour. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin. Skimming and scanning are particularly valuable techniques for obtaining information from technical writing. Technical writers pack many facts and details closely together, and we often react by shifting our reading speeds to the lowest gear and crawling through the material. Notwithstanding the fact that technical writing is usually well-organised, with main points and sub-topics clearly delineated, the typical reader ignores these clues and plods through the chapter word-by-word, trying to cram it all in. It is precisely these characteristics (organisation and density of facts per page) that make it so vital that you employ skimming and scanning techniques when looking for information. 2.5 CHECK FOR ACCURACY, BIAS, STEREOTYPES AND OTHER OFFENSIVE DETAILS Check your text to ensure the information presented is accurate and does not contain any offensive details. Be aware of the difference between inclusive and discriminatory language: Inclusive language and presentation positively reflects the richness of the social and cultural diversity of South African society by acknowledging the lifestyles, experiences and values of a wide diversity of people. Discriminatory language and presentation devalues or demeans people or groups of people by harassing them, highlighting individual characteristics in an offensive or prejudicial manner, or by excluding them. Bias is defined as a preference or an inclination, especially one that inhibits impartial judgment. It also refers to an unfair act or policy stemming from prejudice. Stereotyping is a rigid attitude towards, or a belief about a group of people that ignores the individualism of a person; for example: blonde women are often stereotyped as being rather ignorant, accountants are stereotyped as highly intelligent and are believed to be boring and taxi drivers are stereotyped as reckless drivers with no concern for the safety of their passengers. Why do stereotypes exist? “Stereotypes are a product of the way the mind stores, organises and recalls information, and therefore, the use of stereotypes cannot be avoided. Stereotypes are used to describe differences among groups and to predict how others will behave. Stereotypes help reduce complexity, help us make quick decisions, fill in the gaps in what is known, help us to make sense of who we are and what is happening and help create and recognise the patterns needed to draw conclusions. Unfortunately, stereotypes can also support unfairness and injustice”.6 Example7: If you invite a Jewish guest to your home, you access information in your mind that tells you that Jewish people do not eat pork, or go out on a Friday night (as it is a religious and family evening) so that you would not act inappropriately. You have used stereotyping to prepare for your guest. However, as you get to know your friend better, you might find out that your guest does indeed

6 David W Johnson in Reaching Out, 2000. .

7 Inseta Generic Learning Material: 12153


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not eat pork but would be quite happy to visit your home on a Friday night. Your friend is an individual. Not all Jewish people are the same. Stereotyping becomes problematic when it is offensive, hurtful, or infringes people’s rights as laid out in the Constitution. 2.6 DEFINE THE FOCUS OF THE PROPOSED TEXT You have to identify the most important information that you need to communicate. In this stage of your writing process, try to write the crux of your message in a single paragraph. Once you have successfully captured the essence of your communication, you will have succeeded in focusing your thinking and ideas. Focus your information even more by asking yourself how your information contributes to your accomplishing the purpose of your text. By keeping the reason for your text firmly in mind, you are able to eliminate information that is not relevant or important. 2.7 CREATE A CHECKLIST TO FACILITATE REFLECTION AND EDITING Check the following to ensure that your writing meets the requirements of effective text: Focus and purpose:

What is your document intended to do or accomplish?

Will the purpose be clear to the reader?

Can you offer a one-sentence summary of the document’s purpose?

Is your main point stated early in the document?

Audience:

Do you have a specific and appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?

What is their position? What is your relationship with them?

How much do they already know about this topic?

Can you determine what their feelings toward your document will be?

Have you used language that they will be able to understand?

Is your tone appropriate for your audience?

Organisation:

Does your document proceed in a logical and organised way?

Is each paragraph organised around one main idea?

Can you identify the most important information in the message quickly?

Ask others to read your document and tell you what they think are your most important ideas.

Development:

Is the order of the points logical?

Did you include enough details and examples to support your main point?

Is it clear by the end of the message what you want the reader to do or know?

Do you provide enough context for the message, or is more background information required?

Do any paragraphs seem shorter and in need of more material than others?

Is all the information that you have included necessary?

Ask someone to read the document and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support. Formatting:


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Are all of the parts of the message included and in the correct position?

Does the document look attractive on the page?

Does your document conform to standard business writing convention?

Sentence structure, punctuation, choice of words and spelling: Are there problems that frequently occur in your writing? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those specifically. Read the document aloud to see and hear if there are any missing or wrong words, or other errors that you can spot. For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning. The following is an example that you may want to use and change to suit your individual needs: Checklist for Reflection and Editing

Identify the Intended or Incidental Audience

Who will read the text and why?

Identify the purpose of the text

To Inform – to give information that may have been requested or changes to a procedure, timetable, etc. Entertain – a company newsletter or letters to congratulate staff on various achievements. Persuade – writing to convince the reader to take a specific action or to persuade them that a particular course of action is recommended.

Identify any Industry specific or legislative requirements for a specific type of text needed

Company policies, legislation, industry specific requirements

Focus the Information Gathering

List the questions that you can ask to help you understand the reader’s needs and to focus the information gathering

Access the Information

Identify the sources of information that you can use to create your text

Check the Information

Is the information: accurate free of bias free of stereotypes free of offensive details

Define the Focus of the proposed text

Write down the most important message of your text – if you can, write it out in one sentence

List the information gathered in order of importance


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Create a numbered list of the main subjects of your text. List these subjects in the order that you will be writing about them – in other words, in order of their importance.

Focus all information gathered and remove any unnecessary items

Make sure the information follows through in a logical pattern. Make a detailed check that you have not used stereotypes or biased language. Take out any superfluous information. That is, information that is not necessary and is not important for the audience to know

Be prepared to write the first draft:

You are now ready to create, in a rough format, the first draft of your text.

Class Activity 2: Identify and collect information needed to write a text specific to a particular function Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

3. COMPOSE A TEXT USING PLAIN LANGUAGE After completing this module, the learner will be able to compose a text using plain language for a specific function, by successfully completing the following: Select a format and structure for the text that is appropriate for the intended audience and function Identify the main points to be included in the text and add the necessary supporting details Write a first draft of the text that collates the necessary information in a rough framework Compose a text using plain language for a specific function. Now that you have collected and prepared your information, and checked it as outlined in Module 2, you are ready to write your first draft. The most important question to answer now is: “What type of text do I have to write?” The content, format, structure and style will all depend on the type of text. For example, how would the format and structure of a formal business report differ from an article in your company’s monthly newsletter? These are two different types of texts, and the format and structure implications of choosing either are clear. This module will help you to identify the standards and requirements that you need to apply to your texts. The standards and requirements that you need to research also include the format and structure of the text. You need to know how to answer these guiding questions: Layout of the document

What are the standards and requirements of my company with regard to this text?

What must I include? What may I include? What may I not include?

Are there standard templates I need to know of and apply?

May I design my own standard template?

Where do I get the information I need?

Can I use this information to improve the way we write texts in my company?

3.1 APPROPRIATE FORMAT AND STRUCTURE How do you adapt your writing to make it easy and interesting for a specific reader? What is your audience’s intellectual attention span and capacity to absorb the information? The intellectual span of attention is related not only to the expertise and intellectual qualities of the receiver, but also to the context in which the document is to be handled and to the physical limits of attention in the receiver


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Treat your reader with respect when writing for him/her. Don’t try to impress with your verbosity, but keep it simple and clear, with a well-organised structure. The reader should not have to work hard to receive your ideas. S/he is the reason why you are writing, and, therefore, you must work hard to make it easier for him/her. Use examples and case studies to illustrate difficult concepts. Remember, the higher the managerial level of the reader, the more his/her interests move from the technical how and why to the more commercial to what purpose and at what cost? Compare the following texts to see how writers can make reading easier for the reader: Text 1 Costing your time - finding out how much your time is worth The first part of your focus on results should be to work out how much your time costs. This helps you to see if you are spending your time profitably. If you work for an organisation, calculate how much you cost it each year. Include your salary, payroll taxes, the cost of office space you occupy, equipment and facilities you use, expenses, administrative support, etc. If you are self-employed, work out the annual running costs of your business. To this figure add a 'guesstimate' of the amount of profit you should generate by your activity. If you work normal hours, you will have approximately 200 productive days each year. If you work 7½ hours each day, this equates to 1,500 hours in a year. From these figures, calculate an hourly rate. This should give a reasonable estimate of how much your time is worth - this may be a surprisingly large amount! When you are deciding whether or not to take a task on, think about this value - are you wasting your or your organisation's resources on a low yield task? Calculating how much your time is worth helps you to work out how whether it is worth doing particular jobs. If you have to spend much of your time doing low-yield jobs, then you can make a good case for employing an assistant. Text 2 Costing your time - finding out how much your time is worth Introduction The first part of your focus on results should be to work out how much your time costs. This helps you to see if you are spending your time profitably. Organisation If you work for an organisation, calculate how much you cost it each year. Include: Your salary Payroll taxes The cost of office space you occupy Equipment and facilities you use Expenses Administrative support, etc. Self-employed If you are self-employed, work out the annual running costs of your business. To this figure add a 'guesstimate' of the amount of profit you should generate by your activity: If you work normal hours, you will have approximately 200 productive days each year. If you work 7½ hours each day, this equates to 1,500 hours in a year. From these figures, calculate an hourly rate. This should give a reasonable estimate of how much your time is worth - this may be a surprisingly large amount! Summary When you are deciding whether or not to take a task on, think about this value - are you wasting your or your organisation's resources on a low yield task? Calculating how much your time is worth helps you to work out how whether it is worth doing particular jobs. If you have to spend much of your time doing low-yield jobs, then you can make a good case for employing an assistant.


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3.2 MAIN POINTS AND SUPPORTING DETAILS All texts and even a single sentence have a main idea or purpose. The main idea tells us what message the person is trying to convey. The main idea, if stated, is often right at the beginning of the message and is emphasised by the way the person writes it, or repeats it. Sometimes the main idea is not stated, but implied, especially when people are hesitant to reveal too much about themselves or what they really want. Most men will tell you that when they ask a woman what’s wrong when they can patently see that something is amiss, she will invariably say “nothing”! Then you have to try and establish the main idea by looking at supporting detail, i.e. what else the person is saying to support that main idea. The other sentences will tell you more about the main idea. To find the main idea, you need to ask yourself, “What is this text mostly about?” How do you find the main idea8? When determining the main idea, the reader uses text details, in conjunction with their prior knowledge, to think about what the main message of the text might be. As they read, they begin to tentatively group related details, constantly asking themselves where the author is placing emphasis or value. At various stages throughout the reading the reader may decide to reject very small groups of related details as not being particularly valued by the author. These are the supporting details which tell us more about the main idea. However, as they read on, gathering and grouping more details, they may reverse such a decision. Finally, the reader combines all the evidence, including the prior knowledge, and decides what is most important and valued in the text.

1 Identify the important information.

2 Group the important information.

3 Combine the groups to get the main idea.

Defining the Focus of the Text You need to ensure that only information that is essential and relevant is used in creating the text. Once you have listed all the information received, you need to start narrowing it down to the essentials. The text must be to the point and easy to understand. Evaluate the information collected and ask the following:

Is this information necessary for the audience to gain full understanding of the text?

Is the information relevant?

Does the information add to the meaning and purpose of the text?

If, when examining the information, you have collected and you find that it is not really necessary to the focus of your text, take it out.

List the information in a logical sequence

Place the information in order of importance:

Accident Report Example: Checklist for Order of Information

Importance Information

1. Core: This is the information that is the central point of your text: The Accident

2. What happened? Generally, you would state that an employee was injured and what the injuries were.

3. Who else was involved? If there were other people involved, you would list them.

4. Where did it happen? Here you need to describe the area in which it happened.

5. How did it happen? You have done the investigation; you now state your findings.

8 Retrieved from: http://arb.nzcer.org.nz/comprehension/ideas.php


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6. Were there any witnesses?

7.

8.

Bring together all the information that you have by creating the required text. Remember to use simple language. Note: The content should be brief and written in a simple, easy to understand format. When business people had time to enjoy flowery prose, writing was judged on its artistry and the respectability of its phrasing: My dear sir, It is with the greatest deference to your esteemed character that I embark upon this bold plan of commandeering your attention for a moment . . . Today’s busy reader demands writing that get to the point. Writing must clearly convey the details and quickly state the desired result in easy to read and understandable language. A proficient writer can usually present the necessary information in a one-page business letter or memo that is courteous but still respects the reader’s time. 3.3 THE FIRST DRAFT OF BUSINESS TEXTS We have already seen that there are various texts that you would create in the business environment. We will now explore the format of some of these texts: 1. E-mail E-mail is the most commonly-used (and abused) form of office communication today. When I quickly want to ask a colleague something, I drop him/her a line, especially if it’s something difficult or embarrassing, or perhaps I don’t have time to have a polite telephone conversation. I don’t have to pay too much attention to what and how I say things, as it’s like having a conversation, right? Wrong! We forget that an e-mail is a legal document that can be used as evidence against us and, just like any other piece of writing, conveys a particular image of who we are. So, what must I remember when I compose an e-mail in the workplace? What is e-mail etiquette?9 E-mail etiquette refers to a set of do’s and don’ts that are recommended by business and communication experts in response to the growing concern that people are not using their e-mail effectively or appropriately. Since e-mail is part of the virtual world of communication, many people communicate in their e-mail messages the same way they do in virtual chat rooms: with much less formality and sometimes too aggressively. E-mail etiquette offers some guidelines that all writers can use to facilitate better communication between themselves and their readers. One overall point to remember is that an e-mail message does not have non-verbal expression to supplement what we are “saying.” Most of the time we make judgments about a person’s motives and intentions based on their tone of voice, gestures, and their proximity to us. When those are absent, it becomes more difficult to figure out what the message sender means. It is much easier to offend or hurt someone in e-mail and that is why it is important to be as clear and concise as possible. How should I format my e-mail? You are probably familiar with the general rules about formatting e-mail, but here are some tips to keep in mind10: Try to keep the e-mail brief (preferably to one page), so that readers do not have to scroll Return e-mails in the same day that you would a phone call Use capitalisation and punctuation in the same way that you would in any other document

9Article from: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html 10Retrieved from : http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html


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Format your e-mail to be sent in plain text rather than HTML because some e-mail clients may not read HTML Write a salutation or greeting for each new subject e-mail. However, if you exchange several e-mails over the same topic (for example, a meeting day and time), it is not necessary to include a greeting, because it is as though you are carrying on a conversation. When we carry on conversations, we do not say hello each time we speak. Be sure to write an appropriate and specific subject in the subject line so that the recipient knows what to expect. For example: "April 22 production team meeting agenda" instead of "meeting." To whom am I sending my e-mail? It is always important to know who will receive your e-mail, including the number of people you have on the mailing list. This helps you in two ways: Firstly, it helps you think about the tone of your writing. For example, while you still want to follow the traditional rules of writing, e-mails that you send to your manager may be more formal than to a colleague or team member. You will need to decide whether you need to use a person’s title, or if writing the first name is appropriate. Secondly, if you send an e-mail to more than four people regularly, you should create mailing groups, so that the recipients do not need to scroll through names before they can get to the content of the e-mail. It also helps to keep some e-mail addresses anonymous, as some perceive it as rude for their names and e-mail addresses to be posted for strangers to see. You will need to talk with the technical support in your office, or use the "help" option on your computer, if you do not know how to create a mailing group. A mailing group is a list of e-mail addresses assigned to one name (like, [email protected]). Remember to use names that make sense to you so that you can remember them. This is especially helpful when you are managing several mailing group lists. E-mails are public documents, despite the fact that you may send an e-mail to someone privately. Therefore, only include those statements in e-mail that you can openly defend should your message be circulated or shown to other parties. Using emoticons (smiley faces, winks, etc.), and other virtual gestures may be appropriate in some cases, but not in all cases! It is always essential to consider the type of relationship you have with the receiver of your message before including virtual non-verbal. If your relationship is more casual, then using the symbols is fine. If your relationship is more formal, then it is best to refrain from using them. Can I send attachments? Yes, as long as you are sure that your recipient can receive them. Sending attachments is a normal practice when you are submitting documents for review or exchanging information in the workplace. Here are some tips to consider before attaching a document: Title the document that you are attaching in a way that is easy for the recipient to find once he or she downloads it to his or her files. For example, if you are sending a document that is a goal statement then title it "goalstatement.doc." In the content of your e-mail, tell your recipient what type of software was used to create the document, the year/version, and the title of the attachment. For example: "The file attached is called ‘goalstatement.doc’ and it is in MSWord 2007." Make sure that you do not send overly large attachments unless you are sure that your recipient's Internet connection and e-mail client can handle them. For example, a user on a 56K dialup would have to spend a long time downloading a 5Mb PowerPoint file, whereas a co-worker on a fast work connection would have no problem.


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Don't send unnecessary attachments -- if you've already presented all of the relevant information in an e-mail message, don't attach a Word document repeating the same information. How long should my e-mail be? In general, the e-mail should be approximately one page when printed, or the length of your computer screen before scrolling. However, there are times when e-mail messages need to be longer to convey important information. Often organisations seeking to reduce their paper costs will use e-mail as their primary source of communication. Longer e-mails generally consist of: Operational schedules and information Memos Conference or meeting information Newsletters Policy changes. When you need to write a long e-mail, try to include three essential elements at the top of the e-mail: an executive summary at the top of the document, how soon a response is required from the recipient(s), and a table of contents. Executive summary This is a short summary of everything in the e-mail document, including the main goal of the e-mail or the "bottom line." For example: "Welcome to ZDF Company. This e-mail contains important information about your induction week. You will find the five-day schedule, names of the speakers, the menu, hotel arrangements, and testimonials from employees who previously participated." Required response Your reader is most likely going to read the first few lines of your document thoroughly and browse through the rest; therefore, if you need him or her to respond by a certain time with certain information, that should be stated in the executive summary. For example: "Please let me know by Wednesday whether you are attending the meeting. "Table of contents A table of contents allows the reader to pick and choose what sections of the e-mail are most relevant to him or her. A person is most likely to comply with your requests when you make it easy for him or her to navigate your materials. For example:

Table of Contents:

Five Day Schedule

Speaker List

Menu

Registration Form

Hotel Arrangements

Travel Reimbursement Policy

Am I upsetting someone? What you say in an e-mail cannot be taken back. We have already seen that misinterpretations happen very easily in neutral e-mails, because there is a lack of nonverbal expression to cue the recipient about your motives and intentions. You can imagine how much misinterpretation can occur when you are expressing frustration and/or anger. Things to consider before venting your anger in e-mail:


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Would I say this to this person’s face?

Am I putting the receiver in an awkward position?

How would I feel if I got this e-mail message?

Usually, by the time you have considered the above questions, you will be calm enough to write your message with a different approach. Here are some examples of inappropriate messages and then some suggestions on ways to re-word them in more sensitive and thoughtful ways: Inappropriate message Appropriate message

“This project really sucks and I cannot believe that he is making us do this. I’m sick and tired of all these stupid orders. He needs to get a life!”

“This project has come at a tough time. I wasn’t expecting so much work. I am concerned that I might not be able to cope.”

“If you don’t fix this problem, I am going to quit TOMORROW!!!!!!!! I am sick and tired of Martha’s incompetence!!!”

“I’m growing increasingly frustrated by the current situation. Can we set up a time to talk about this more?”

When should I NOT send an e-mail? There are many subjects that are too sensitive to discuss over e-mail, mainly because misinterpretation could have serious consequences. Some topics that should generally be resolved outside of e-mail are:

Disciplinary action

Conflicts about performance reviews or personal information

Concerns about peers or workmates

Complaints

When it appears that a dialogue has turned into a conflict, it is best to suggest an end to the swapping of e-mail and for you to talk or meet in person. If you receive an angry e-mail, try to respond in a short and simple response. If that does not calm the writer down, make contact with him or her outside the virtual realm. 2. Memo When you think of a memo11, what do you think of? Is it a little piece of paper with a letterhead that says something like: "From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..." The message itself may be very simple--something like: "Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're out of milk." While these memos are informative or persuasive, and may serve their simple purposes, more complex memos are often needed in an office setting. But don't let that worry you. Even though business memos may be more formal and complicated the intention in writing one is still the same. You want to achieve your purpose with your reader effectively. Basic Memo Plans Standard office memos can be approached in different ways to suit your purpose. Here are three basic plans: The direct plan, which is the most common, starts out by stating the most important points first and then moves to supporting details. This plan is useful for routine information and for relaying news.

11 Article from: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_memo.html


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The indirect plan makes an appeal or states evidence first and arrives at a conclusion based on these facts. This plan is best used when you need to arouse your reader's interest before describing some action that you want taken. A combination approach can be used for the balanced plan. This plan is particularly useful when relaying bad news, as it combines information and persuasion. Parts of a Memo Standard memos are divided into segments to organise the information and to help achieve the writer's purpose. Heading Segment The heading segment follows this general format: TO: (readers' names and job titles) FROM: (your name and job title) DATE: (complete and current date) SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way) Troubleshooting hints: Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call the company MD "Maxi" on the golf course, or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, Managing Director" would be more appropriate for a formal memo. Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats" as a subject line could mean anything from a production problem to a personal frustration. Instead use something like, "Curtailing Rat Extremity Parts in our Product." Opening Segment The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is presented in three parts: the context and problem, the specific assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph to establish the background and state the problem or simply the opening of a sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat parts in our product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear. In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence opening like, "You asked that I look at...." If you want to explain your intentions, you might say, "To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of rat extremities, I will...." Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for writing it and forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. This is not the time to be shy. You want to come right out and tell your reader the kind of information that's in store. For example, you might say: "This memo presents a description of the current situation, some proposed alternatives, and my recommendations." If you plan to use headings for your memo segments, you can refer to your major headings in this forecast statement to provide a better guide for your reader. Troubleshooting hints: Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but be convincing that a real problem exists. Do not ramble on with insignificant details. If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to do more planning before you're ready to write your memo. Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.


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Summary Segment If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment. This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have used in your research, but remember to keep it brief. You can help your reader understand your memo better by using headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Try to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try "New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more specific. The major headings you choose here are the ones that will appear in your purpose-statement forecast. Discussion Segments The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the details that support your ideas. Keep these two things in mind: Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations. Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest weakest.) Troubleshooting hints: For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible. Closing Segment After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what action you want him/her to take. Make sure you consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For example, you might say, “I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday meeting and follow through on any decisions you make.” Necessary Attachments Make sure you document your findings, or provide detailed information whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing, like this: Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January – June 2009 3. Report Generally, your report will include the following sections:

Title page

Table of contents

Heading

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

Recommendations

References

However, it's always best to consult a style manual for your discipline, to talk to other people in your discipline who have written reports, and to look at similar reports that have been published in order to more fully understand the expectations for reports in your field.


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Introduction The introduction prepares readers for the discussion that follows by introducing the purpose, scope, and background of the report. The audience for your report largely determines the length of the introduction and the amount of detail included in it. You should include enough detail so that someone knowledgeable in your field can understand the subject and your research. You should begin your introduction at the top of a new page, preceded on the page only by the report’s full title. The title is followed by the word Introduction, which can be either a centre or side heading. Most introductions contain three parts to provide context for the research done: purpose, scope, and background information. These parts often overlap one another, and sometimes one of them may be omitted simply because there is no reason for it to be included. It is very important to consider the purpose of your research and your report in the introduction. If you do not completely understand what the purpose is, there is little chance that the reader will understand your purpose either. The following questions will help you to think about the purpose of your research and your reason for writing a report: What kind of problem did you work on? Why did you work on this problem? If the problem was assigned, try to imagine why the facilitator assigned this particular problem; what were you supposed to learn from working on it? Why are you writing this report? What should the reader know or understand when he/she has finished reading the report? Scope refers to the ground covered by the report and will outline the method of investigation used in the project. Considering the scope of your project in the introduction will help readers to understand the parameters of your research and your report. Scope may also include defining important terms. These questions will help you to think about the scope of both your research and your report: How did you work on the research problem? Why did you work on the problem the way you did? Were there other obvious approaches you could have taken to this problem? What were the limitations you faced that prevented your trying other approaches? What factors contributed to the way you worked on this problem? What factor was most important in deciding how to approach the problem? Background Information includes facts that the reader must know in order to understand the discussion that follows. These facts may include descriptions of conditions or events that caused the project to be authorised or assigned and details of previous work and reports on the problem or closely related problems. You might also want to review theories that have a bearing on the project and references to other documents although if you need to include a lengthy review of other theories or documents, these should be placed in an appendix. Ask yourself:

What facts does the reader need to know in order to understand the discussion that follows?

Why was the project authorised or assigned?

Who has done previous work on this problem?

What facts are already known that support the theory?

What will the reader know about the subject already and what will you need to tell them so they can understand the significance of your work?


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Body The body is usually the longest part of the research report, and it includes all of the evidence that readers need to have in order to understand the subject. This evidence includes details, data, results of tests, facts, and conclusions. Exactly what you include in the body and how it is organised will be determined by the context in which you are writing. Be sure to check the specific guidelines under which you are working to see if your readers are expecting you to organise the body in a particular way. However, bear in mind that all the techniques for clear, accurate, objective writing apply, no matter what the format chosen. Conclusion The conclusion of a research report is usually a very short section that introduces no new ideas. You may ask, then, why include conclusions? The conclusion is important because it is your last chance to convey the significance and meaning of your research to your reader by concisely summarising your findings and generalising their importance. It is also a place to raise questions that remain unanswered and to discuss ambiguous data. The conclusions you draw are opinions, based on the evidence presented in the body of your report. Recommendations You may or may not need to include a section titled “Recommendations.” This section appears in a report when the results and conclusions indicate that further work needs to be done or when you have considered several ways to resolve a problem or improve a situation and want to determine which one is best. You should not introduce new ideas in the recommendations section, but rely on the evidence presented in the results and conclusions sections. The style of the report should be concise, formal, and written in the past tense. This is the style most appropriate to written reports in any scientific or technical environment. Your sentences should present ideas in a logical sequence. Do not give instructions (e.g. write ‘A was connected to B’ rather than ‘Connect A to B’). Paragraphs should be used to introduce new topics. You are also expected to write legibly, with good grammar, and spell accurately. You should proof read reports. Diagrams, charts and graphs should only be computer generated if the detail can be as complete as those drawn neatly by hand. Elaborate presentation is neither required nor encouraged, clarity in your writing and presentation is your main aim. Where a report is short, it is acceptable to combine two or more sections under one heading, e.g. Results and Discussion.

Layout for a Project Report: TITLE Your Name Date(s): duration of project from start to implementation 1. Summary or Abstract A summary is not absolutely essential, but certainly desirable, especially when we bear in mind that the average reader does not have the time or inclination to read attentively right to the last detail. This is usually the last section written, but should head the report. It should briefly explain what the project is about, and give a concise summary of the results and their significance. As it will probably be the only section read by most readers, it must be clear. 2. Introduction This contains the statement of the problem, and aim of the project. The introduction should normally be no more than 20% of the total report in length. 3. Solutions identified Describe the process you and your team followed to identify possible solutions to the problem. 4. Solution chosen Briefly state which solution you decided upon and give the reasons why: cost, labour, time, etc. 5. Implementation


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This is where you say how you went about implementing the identified solution. This is also where you put your data, without any significant analysis. Data should not normally be put in an appendix. Graphs and charts should be clearly labelled. State results for quantities measured and refer to budgets if applicable. 6. Results Analyse, interpret and discuss each result in some detail. This should include a discussion and sensible analysis of the new problems arising during implementation and how you intend addressing them. 7. Conclusion This is not just a rehash of the summary. Try to take an overview of the project, where you've succeeded, and where further investigation might be warranted. 8. Acknowledgements and references Those who have contributed to the work deserve to be acknowledged. Give full details of references used and referred to in preparing your report.

4. Meeting Agenda An agenda is a written list of issues to be discussed at a meeting. Members of the meeting are usually asked in advance to place the matters they wish to discuss at the meeting on the agenda. The secretary and chairperson discuss the notice and the agenda. When they are satisfied, the final agenda is compiled, typed and sent out to members in time for their perusal. The order in which the items appear on the agenda determines the order in which they will be discussed. An agenda is an order list. It might be necessary to get a mandate from members to place an item on the agenda first, before the final agenda is compiled and sent out. This could be in the case of sensitive issues, or matters requiring certain prior or expert input. An agenda is also a useful tool for preparing the post-meeting follow up. The chair makes brief notes on the agenda as the meeting progresses and this serves as a basis for the summary, which s/he will send to all the participants. Example of an agenda:

F1 Management Team Monthly management meeting- 24 October 2004 Agenda Welcome Attendance Apologies Approval of Minutes from meeting held on 17 September 2004 Announcements Issues arising from Minutes of 17 September 2004: Item 4.3 2004/2005 budget Item 5.6 Theft of materials Item 8.6 Task team report back Report: Executive committee meeting Administrative issues Increases Annual sports day General Date of next meeting

5. Minutes of a meeting Minutes are an exact record of what was discussed and decided at a meeting. They are the written and official report of a meeting held by management. The constitution of a business usually determines the format of the Minutes. The Minutes must always be accurate and objective so that matters are presented in the correct perspective. The Minutes indicate who was present and who was absent and whether it was with or without apology. Bear the following in mind when taking down Minutes:


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Must be an accurate record of decisions and discussions

Must be recorded in a clear, unbiased and objective manner

Must be brief, to the point and give only necessary information

Must be complete so that those who did not attend the meeting receive the right information

Must be written in the 3rd person: Mr Jonas replied…

Must be written in the past tense: The chairman announced…

Rules regarding Minutes:

Minutes should be taken down in a special book with numbered pages

The date, time and venue of the meeting must be recorded in the Minutes

The exact words of a suggestion or motion must be written down

Names, dates and figures must be correct

The number of votes for and against a motion must be recorded

No blank lines may be left in a Minutes book. Matters which were not discussed at the meeting may not be added afterwards

Remember: Minutes are always read at the next meeting. Copies must be sent to attendees before the meeting. After Minutes are read, they must be approved to confirm that they are an accurate record of the previous meeting. Two people second the minutes. The Minutes are dated and signed by the chairperson and secretary. If there are errors in the Minutes, these are corrected with the meeting’s approval. Thereafter the Minutes can be approved and signed. Minutes of a meeting must be checked for accuracy and completeness. Example:

Minutes of Project Committee meeting held at Randline Mews on 25 June 2010 at 10:00 Present: Chair: R.D. (Operations Manager) J. G. (Treasurer) B. M. (Secretary) B. J.

H. S. Objectives: To inform and create awareness of ……………….. To obtain buy-in from members as to their role in the process Welcome: R.D. welcomed everyone present and explained the purpose of the meeting (as stated above). Each member received a copy of the ………… brochure. Minutes of previous meeting: The Minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved by all present. The process: R.D. handed over the chair to H.S., who took the members through the flow chart depicting the support process, from the pre-implementation meeting to the final start-up and emphasised the crucial role members play in the whole process. Points arising from the discussion:


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Members requested a standardised form Members would prefer ……… Members want to be given guidance in the form of templates and/or a “ghost pack” It was suggested that each member….. Additional points arising: Members wanted clarity on the following: 1. At what point do they start receiving compensation for hours spent ….. 2. What is the situation regarding kilometres travelled? H.S. undertook to discuss the points arising with L.M. (Manager: Finance) Date of next meeting: 6 July 2010 Meeting adjourned at 12:00

6. Business letter Each company has its own preferred format for business letters12, so make sure that you find out which format your company wants you to use. Letters mostly consist of three parts; each of which has an important function in making sure the reader receives a clear message: The Opening Paragraph: The intention of the opening is to make a focused start to the letter. A subject heading tells the reader exactly what subject matter the letter contains. The paragraph should give the reader the purpose of the letter. The reason for your letter should be established directly in this paragraph. The Middle Paragraph/s: These will contain the main weight of the letter passing on the real meaning of the information, requesting the details required or carrying out in some other way the letters main aim. The exact nature of this central passage will depend on the purpose of the letter. The Closing Paragraph: The closing paragraph should prompt your reader into future action. A suggestion of what you or the reader will or should do to further the business under discussion. It is important that you do not do this at great length; one sentence will often be adequate. Layout: The date can be placed on the right-hand side or the left-hand side in the form of “day, month and year”. The month should be written in full and not as a number. The receiver’s address must be placed on the left-hand side without punctuation, remembering the postal code. Addressing the receiver: If possible address the letter to an individual using their name or title If you have an informal or personal relationship with the receiver the letter the receiver’s first name may be used e.g. Dear Janet. The word Dear should only be used if you have established a good relationship with the person. If you have a formal relationship with the recipient or you do not know the recipient, the title Ms Jones or Mr Jones should be used. If you do not know the name of the recipient, Sir is used to address the letter. Madam should only be used if you are certain that the receiver is female. Sirs is used if you are writing to a company or partnership The Signing off the letter depends on the formality of the letter and how you have addressed the recipient. An informal letter should be signed off – ‘Regards’.

12 Free advice from: The "how to write" writers website ring; [email protected]


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If you have addressed the recipient by name, ‘Yours sincerely’. All others should be signed off with ‘Yours faithfully’. Normally, you would use company paper, with the company letterhead and logo, and it would be written in block format, as in the following examples:

Salutation

Dear Personnel Director,

Dear Sir or Madam (use if you don't know who you are writing to)

Dear Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with - use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)

Dear Frank (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)

Reference

With reference to your advertisement in The Sunday Times / your letter of 23 March / your phone call today

Thank you for your letter of March 5

Your reason for writing

I am writing to enquire about / apologise for / confirm that

Requesting

Could you possibly?

I would be grateful if you could

Agreeing to Requests

I would be delighted to

Giving Bad News

Unfortunately

I am afraid that

Enclosing Documents

I am enclosing

Please find enclosed

Enclosed you will find

Closing Remarks Your last paragraph should summarise the key points or repeat the key message. If some action is needed, explain what you want the reader to do or what you will do. Use positive words such as when not if. Examples of good closing sentences for business letters:

Your address

Recipient address Salutation

Reference

Reason for writing

Closing remarks

http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000155.ht











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I would again like to apologise for the delay in replying and I trust that this has clarified the points you have raised; however, if you wish to discuss any points I have not

clarified, or need any further information, you may telephone or contact me via e-mail.

I look forward to hearing from you and in the meantime, should you have any queries, please do not hesitate to contact me.

I regret that I cannot be of more assistance in this matter, and should you have any further queries, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Thanking you for your...

Hoping for a prompt reply...

Thanking you in advance for your assistance...

Trusting this answers your questions...

Please do not hesitate to contact me

I trust this clarifies the situation

End your letter positively and politely. Don’t leave your reader in mid-air, but use the final paragraph to explain or repeat what you want your reader to do.

Please contact us again if we can help in any way/ if there are any problems/ if you have any questions.

Reference to Future Contact

I look forward to ... hearing from you soon/ meeting you next Tuesday/ seeing you next Thursday.

The Finish

Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to)

Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)

Best wishes/ Best regards, (If the person is a close business contact or friend)

When you write a business letter, use this checklist to remind you of the key principles of effective letter writing:

Keep it Short

Cut needless words and needless information.

Cut stale phrases and redundant statements.

Cut the first paragraph if it refers to previous correspondence.

Cut the last paragraph if it asks for future correspondence.

Keep it Simple

Use familiar words, short sentences and short paragraphs.

Keep your subject matter as simple as possible.

Keep related information together.

Use a conversational style.

Keep it Strong

Answer the reader's question in the first paragraph.

Give your answer and then explain why.

Use concrete words and examples.

Keep to the subject.

Keep it Sincere

Answer promptly.

Be human and as friendly as possible.

Write as if you were talking to your reader.


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Example: Keith's Kitchen Installations 34 Short Street Florida 1709 Tel: (206) 456 8967 Fax: (206) 456 6745 Email: [email protected] Sean Franklin Sales Manager Cupboard Specialists Inc. 456 Waste Road Roodepoort 1710 Dear Mr Franklin With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for 120 x hinges Deluxe, Ref. No. 856 The order will be shipped within three days via Skyways and should arrive at your store in about 4 days. Please contact us again if we can help in any way. Yours sincerely Keith Cross Director: Keith’s Kitchen Installations

7. Curriculum Vitae Audience Ask, "Who am I writing to and what is her or his position in the organisation?" You can gain a surprising amount of information about your reader simply from carefully reading job ads. Example: John Doe is an Advertising Director at a city newspaper. This may clue you in to the fact that he is a sales-oriented individual, highly motivated and creative. Jane Smith is a Pharmacist. You might assume simply from the position she holds that she is very customer oriented and skilled in the area of pharmaceutical sciences. In some cases, you may not know who to write to if a name or title is not listed in an ad. Take the time to contact the organisation and ask for this specific information. However, you may at times run across a blind ad, which means that there is no contact information other than an address available. When this happens, specifically mention in your cover letter where you saw the job advertisement and tailor your document to meet the needs of the position. You may address these documents to the Human Resource Manager. In any case, it is necessary to consider your reader, his/her background, and what he/she may expect from the employees he/she decides to hire. Research and analyse the organisation. What are their objectives, values, etc.? This can be discovered by reading and evaluating company literature and profiles. This research will give you some background information about the organisation and any current issues they are facing. When you find out what is relevant to the company, you can tailor your document accordingly. Consider these points as guides: Determine what qualifications the employer is likely to look for in a job applicant by asking yourself what qualifications you would look for if you were the employer.


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Visit the company's website, if they have one, to become aware of current events and news releases that pertain to the company's mission, goals, and objectives. Read the company’s mission statement; it will illustrate the goals and objectives of the organisation. Fully research the company so you can adequately address your reader and assume a more knowledgeable base for your statements. Ultimately, if you know the company well, you can make sure that you illustrate how you can meet and surpass their expectations. Example: You are writing a resume to apply for a customer service position at Joe’s Grocery Store. On their website, the job description stated: "Looking for a highly motivated, customer-oriented individual to work full-time at the customer service desk." You could then tailor your objective statement to use key words that the company included in its own profile and utilise them in a way that accurately reflects their requirements. Objective: To obtain a customer service position at Joe’s Grocery Store, where I may apply interpersonal and customer service skills, to create friendly and productive interaction between the store and its customers. In this case, the writer used key words that the company included in its own profile and utilised them in a way that accurately reflects their requirements. Recognise and utilise key words Key words are words that stand out as especially significant within the text. When you are reading job ads, key words are those words that signal what an employer considers important or essential in hiring for a position. Consider the previous example again. On their website, the job description stated: "Looking for a highly motivated, customer-oriented individual to work full-time at the customer service desk." The key words have been underlined. It is necessary to read for keywords, and you should keep these in mind as you research and prepare your business or employment documents. Words Every Resume Should Include13 Every word on your resume counts in today's competitive job market. But some words count more than others - especially those that refer to soft skills. Soft skills are increasingly important in the workplace. In fact, 86 percent of employers considered soft skills to be among their most important hiring criteria in a recent survey by two University of Massachusetts economists. Example: 'Teamwork' Teamwork is more important than ever in the workplace. The ability to work well with others to accomplish a common goal is vital for a harmonious workplace. Employees are often organised into teams to manage projects. And many employers believe collaboration increases the quality of work and improves productivity. A team player is an attentive listener, a cooperative colleague and is willing to help others. 'Flexibility' Employers value workers who are flexible and able to juggle multiple tasks simultaneously. In other words, it's sometimes just as important to be a jack-of-all-trades as a master of “one”. You can show that you're flexible by demonstrating a willingness to take on new and varied projects and an ability to handle changing priorities and deadlines.

13 From: Yahoo! HotJobs By Caroline Levchuck


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Ultimately, being flexible doesn't only increase the odds that you'll get a job - it also improves your chances of keeping it should layoffs occur. 'Detail-Oriented' Employers want to know that they can trust workers to handle a project down to the last detail. Being "detail-oriented" means being organised and meticulous about your work. It also implies that you can work without constant supervision and act independently. 'Self-Motivated' Employers value employees who are self-starters. These workers can generate their own ideas and follow them through to fruition. A self-motivated worker goes the extra mile. S/he regularly takes on tasks that may not be part of her job description. S/ he's inspired to work hard not just to reap rewards but also for personal satisfaction. 8. CV cover letters Cover letters14 are an important part of a job search. Over 80 percent of recruiters surveyed by the Society for Human Resources Management said cover letters are a "necessity." Doing a cover letter poorly, however, is worse than not doing one at all. A whopping 76 percent of recruiters surveyed said they would not consider applicants who had errors in their cover letters. How can you make sure your cover letter helps more than hurts? Follow these basic tips: Customise Your Cover Letter Contrary to popular thought, your cover letter is less about you than how you match up with the job being advertised. Before you sit down to write your cover letter, get a copy of the job profile you're applying for. If you found the job online, the job profile is usually the job ad itself. If you found the job in a newspaper, it's unlikely that the job ad contains the full job profile, so you'll either have to go with the information you have in the brief ad, or write to the employer and request a job profile. Read the job profile carefully a couple of times. Then, note parallels between your own skills and those required for the position. Many job profiles also mention software that applicants should be familiar with. Be sure to take an inventory of your own software skills and note which of these match up with the job profile. These notes will make up the body of your cover letter. The Outline and Header You may find that you have a lot to include in your cover letter. That, by the way, is a good sign that you're a strong candidate for the job. Pick out the strongest parallels, using the job profile as your guide. Ask yourself: What does the job profile prioritise as the primary responsibilities? Once you've decided what to include, decide the order in which you'll address the parallels by laying them out in a brief outline. It is important to feature only the strongest points in your cover letter, as the letter should be no longer than one page. Almost one quarter of recruiters surveyed by the Society for Human Resources Management said they would not consider applicants who submitted cover letters that exceeded a page. The Header Here's the basic format for the header of a cover letter: 50 Short Street Benoni 1699 11 March 2018

14 From: Yahoo! HotJobs By Christopher Jones


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Mr John Smith Human Resources Manager Privateco PO Box 30 Villeria 3103 Dear Mr Smith The header includes your address, the date, the recipient's name and address and a brief salutation. The Body Begin the body of the letter by expressing your interest in the position, the title of the position (and any identifying code listed in the job ad) and where you saw the position advertised. (The last point is very important. Many job ads insist on this information -- and for good reason. Recruiters want to know which advertising vehicles are showing good returns, so they can optimise their spending.) After this brief intro, begin a new paragraph and spell out in clear, simple and brief sentences how your experience parallels that of the job profile. As you're doing this, be sure to refer to your CV. Here is a fictional example illustrating where we are in the process: Dear Mr Smith I am writing to express my interest in the editorial position (reference code RIP13) as advertised on your homepage. As my attached resume notes, I have six years of editorial experience... The Closing Closing the body of your letter is standard. Give your phone number, including the area code, and thank the recruiter for his/her time: ... If you have any questions or would like to schedule an interview, I can be reached at (011) 555-5555. Thank you for your time. Yours faithfully Chris Jones Summary You have all the necessary information in front of you. You have checked and double checked that you have everything you need. Now start writing the report. In order to write an effective text, you need to create a first draft of the text that collates the necessary information in a rough framework. This document can then be checked and edited to ensure that you create an effective text. Tick off each heading in your checklist/table as you finish writing the information needed. This will help you ensure that you have included all the necessary details. You should now have a text in a rough framework that includes all the relevant and necessary information. The language is simple and easily understood and the appropriate grammar is used.

Class Activity 3: Compose a text using plain language for a specific function Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook


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4. ORGANISE AND STRUCTURE A TEXT After completing this module, the learner will be able to organise and structure a text appropriately for a business function, by successfully completing the following: Check the first draft to ensure that appropriate grammar has been used and where necessary the draft is rewritten in plain language using clear accessible language that avoids over-complex syntax Consider different ways of presenting the same information and use it where these enhance the meaning of the text Interpret technical or marketing terms and jargon and rephrase it in plain language or use it appropriately in the correct context where the terminology is essential to the understanding of the text Check all information for accuracy, and factual correctness Order the document to ensure that the sequence is logical and meaningful 4.1 CHECKING THE FIRST DRAFT The first draft is checked to ensure that appropriate grammar has been used and where necessary, the draft is rewritten in plain language using clear accessible language that avoids over-complex syntax. Over-complex syntax refers to long sentence constructions and inappropriate use of the passive voice. Using Plain Language People only speak the same language if they use the same words with the same meaning. Concrete terms such as ‘table’, ‘book’ or ‘cat’ are easy to use. Though we cannot communicate without them, there are dangers in the use of abstract terms which may mean different things to different people. Be direct, simple, brief, forceful and lucid. This general principle means: Use the familiar word rather than the obscure e.g. ‘mean’ not ‘parsimonious’ Use the concrete word rather than the abstract e.g. ‘letter’ not ‘communication’ Use the single word rather than the round-about e.g. ‘scarce’, not ‘in short supply’ Use the short word rather than the long e.g. ‘go’ not ‘proceed’ Although simplicity is stressed here, this does not mean that you must limit yourself to words of only one or two syllables. If you use less familiar words when you need impact, you can be sure they will carry their weight. Many writers add unnecessary words; some examples are listed below:

Unnecessary To the point

With this in mind, it is clear that… Therefore

During the year of 2012… During 2012

We deem it advisable…. We suggest

During the time that…… While

Despite the fact that….. Although

In the event that…. If

Preparatory to….. Before

Use Active Voice The active voice leads to writing which is clear and generally more emphatic (forceful). The active voice forces us to say exactly what we mean. We have to clarify who took, or who should take the action. The active voice leaves the reader with complete understanding and steers clear of ambiguity and vagueness. The passive voice is used to avoid being specific. Inappropriate use of the passive voice is the most common fault in writing and leads to lack of directness, more words being used and confused and heavy reading.


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Passive

Active

It was noticed by members of management that employee absenteeism is increasing.

Members of management noticed that employee absenteeism is increasing.

The report was read by all the employees. All the employees read the report.

When to use the Passive Voice: To avoid the impression of being critical of people “The accounts have been completed” To emphasise something “Standards of safety have been allowed to deteriorate” To avoid conflict “The accounts were not paid in July” Using Punctuation Correct punctuation plays an important role in business letters, memos and reports. It can turn a good copy into a better copy and in the absence of punctuation it is sometimes very difficult to follow the meaning of what is being written. The object of punctuation is to help the reader grasp the meaning of what the writer is trying to convey. In your writing you should aim to be clear and logical because the quality of all good writing is clarity, accuracy and effectiveness. Try to be as brief as you can without letting go these other characteristics. 4.2 PRESENTING THE SAME INFORMATION IN DIFFERENT WAYS It is often quite useful to consider different ways of presenting the same information. This often allows you to enhance the meaning of the text or to present it in a simpler, less complex way. The use of pictures, symbols, diagrams and tables is a means of putting across ideas and information instantly and forcefully. Graphs and diagrams used in combination with passages of text ensure the reader receives both a verbal and pictorial message. The combination of a graphic and text work together to make sure the reader fully understands the message. Certain information in your text may give the reader a better understanding if displayed in a table or pie chart. There is a large variety of ways to present your information, some of which include Graphs, Tables, Charts, Diagrams, Bulleted lists, Headings and Pictures. Tables, diagrams, charts and graphs are used more frequently and the actual form the illustration takes will depend on the nature of the information, who is going to use it and the function for which it is going to be used.

Reading through the information that you have for your text, decide which type of graphic would be best suited for your audience. Ask yourself if your reader would better understand your message if you put the information in a bulleted list format or graph format or would a flow chart be the answer? 4.3 INTERPRETING AND REPHRASING TECHNICAL OR MARKETING TERMS AND JARGON

Whi t e Col l a r

M a nua l

S upe r v i sor s

S e ni or

M a na ge r s

Ot he r

0

20

40

60

80

2000 2003 2005

Student %


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You have already asked the necessary questions to establish exactly who your audience will be. Unless you are certain that your audience will understand, it is advisable that technical terms and jargon are left out of your text. You may, on the other hand, be writing a text for a highly technical purpose, in which case the language will, of necessity be technical. It is also possible that you are writing for a particular purpose in the workplace where the jargon of the industry is well understood and accepted in the internal documents. 4.4 CHECKING TEXT FOR ACCURACY, FACTUAL CORRECTNESS AND LOGICAL SEQUENCE Now that you have completed your text, it is necessary for you to check that you have not left any information out or made any mistakes. Most importantly, does the text flow in logical order? Make certain that your audience will understand the sequence. Accident Report Example:

Items to check: Yes? No?

Does the information flow in a logical, easy to understand order?

Have I included all the necessary information in my text?

Have I made use of any graphics in my text?

Have I checked for stereotype & bias language?

Have I used plain & simple language in my text?

Have I checked my spelling?

Notes: You have used and created a number of checklists during this chapter; continue to use them to make sure you have accurate and factually correct information. Ask yourself if you have used fact or opinions? Ask one or more people to proof read your text. When you work with a text often, you tend to lose your sensitivity for its accuracy and correctness. A fresh pair of eyes will spot any mistakes and incorrect information. Does your index, if you have one, match the headings in your text? Did you date your document? If you have answered “No” to any questions on your checklist, you will need to go back to your text and correct these errors.

Class Activity 4: Organise and structure a text appropriately for a business function Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

5. PRESENT A WRITTEN TEXT After completing this module, the learner will be able to present a written text for a particular function in a business environment, by successfully completing the following: Select a text type, format and layout that is appropriate for the audience and purpose Use layout and formatting techniques correctly to enhance the readability of the text Evaluate information in the document in terms of its appropriateness for the intended audience and business function Proofread the final draft to check that it is completely correct Self-assess the final copy using a rubric or checklist based on the requirements of the writing task and the items on the checklist created in Specific Outcome to Identify and collect information needed to write a text specific to a particular function 5.1 SELECT APPROPRIATE TEXT TYPE, FORMAT AND LAYOUT


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A text type, format and layout should be selected that is appropriate for the audience and purpose of the specific text that you are creating. In previous modules we have examined the ways in which we can identify our audience when writing a text for a business environment. The text type and format depend on who you have identified as the audience and naturally the purpose of the text, such as:

Business Letter

Formal or informal memorandum

E-mail

Meeting agenda or action minutes

Progress report In Module 3 the layout of various texts was explained. Remember the layout of your text, be it a report, letter or memo will have an effect on your image, the audience’s perception of you. Not only that, if the report or letter is being sent out to other organisations, the image of your company is on the line. It would not be appropriate, for instance, to write an e-mail roughly outlining the new products your company has launched in the last couple of days! The layout of your text should create an “I want to read this” attitude in your reader. It must look professional, neat and eye-catching. Your text should include graphics that enhance the readability and understanding of your message. The language used in your text should be simple and again, easy for the reader to understand. 5.2 ENHANCE THE READABILITY OF THE TEXT All technical writing needs good organisation. For example, a well-organised resume or report allows recruiters/ managers to quickly find what they're looking for. Layout and formatting techniques are used to enhance the text. They need to be used consistently so that you do not confuse the reader of your text.

Headings Heading 1 Subheading

Bullets ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~

Numbering ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~

Use the Primacy Effect Use Bullets Bullet points help organise information and make information more manageable. Put Success Before the Rest You'll probably spend more time reading this section than the average recruiter will spend reading a resume. The majority of recruiters spend less than three minutes reviewing a resume, according to a survey conducted by the Society for Human Resource Management, so make every word count! Prioritising the order of your bullets is critical. Why? It's called "the primacy effect" -- whatever people see first, they remember best. So for your resume to be truly memorable, your strongest qualifications and achievements should go in the top bullets. Don't bury your best as this job seeker did: Assisted customers Put out inventory


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In charge of floor changes Recipient of "Top Twenty Salesperson of the Month" Award The first thing to do is move the award to the top of the list - it's this candidate's most impressive (and unique) achievement. Then, work on the other bullets, focusing more on specific achievements than day-to-day responsibilities. "Assisted customers" is not terribly informative. A sentence on how the job seeker "boosted sales 10 percent" -- or some other tangible example of success -- would be better. The final result? A stronger resume: Recipient of "Top Twenty Salesperson of the Month" Award Boosted sales 10 percent within three months Coordinated and maintained 30 floor changes, all while continuing with daily customer assistance and presentation duties Be consistent in your writing Another point to remember is to maintain the same format throughout for consistency. For example, make sure that you keep to the same sentence structure and layout format throughout in your bulleted list. If you start in a particular tense, all the sentences must be in that same tense. Incorrect:

Prepared weekly field payroll

Material purchasing, expediting, and returning

Recording OSHA regulated documentation

Change orders

Maintained hard copies of field documentation

Correct:

Prepared weekly field payroll

Handled material purchasing, expediting, and returning

Recorded OSHA regulated documentation

Processed change orders

Maintained hard copies of field documentation

Therefore, in our example above, the candidate would improve his/her bulleted list even more by changing the first point to: Received "Top Twenty Salesperson of the Month" Award Avoid Repetition It can be hard to avoid repeating words in bullets, but consider what would happen if you didn't:


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Wrote project documentation

Wrote procedural and reference documents

Wrote Quick Reference Guides

Wrote documents for end users

The writer sampled above could have condensed these into one bullet:

Wrote project documentation, Quick Reference Guides, conceptual, procedural and reference documents.

Or used words other than "wrote":

Wrote project documentation

Developed conceptual, procedural and reference documents

Created and implemented Quick Reference Guides

Produced documents for end users

Accentuate the Positives Your letters and reports will be more successful if you focus on positive15 wording rather than negative, simply because most people respond more favourably to positive ideas than negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively are likely to produce the response you desire. A positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In contrast, negative words may generate resistance and other unfavourable reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with negative connotations. These words either deny, for example: NO, DO NOT, REFUSE, and STOP, or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations, for example: UNFORTUNATELY, UNABLE TO, CANNOT, MISTAKE, PROBLEM, ERROR, DAMAGE, LOSS, and FAILURE. When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by superimposing a positive picture on a negative one: Emphasise what something IS rather than what it IS NOT Emphasise what you, the company or product CAN and WILL DO rather than what you/ it CANNOT Open with ACTION rather than APOLOGY or EXPLANATION Avoid words which convey UNPLEASANT FACTS In addition, you should emphasise the positive through embedded position and effective use of space: Embedded Position Place GOOD NEWS in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and endings of paragraphs, letters, and even sentences. Place BAD NEWS in secondary positions: in the centre of paragraphs, letters, and, if possible, sentences. Effective Use Of Space Give more space to GOOD NEWS and less to BAD NEWS. 5.3 EVALUATING INFORMATION IN THE DOCUMENT Evaluating your own text is seldom an easy task. You need to evaluate the information in the document in terms of its appropriateness for the intended audience and business function of the text. To help you, use the following guidelines for evaluation: Write out the core message of your text

15 Purdue University Online Writing Lab


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List the reasons why the text is necessary State the desired end result State who your intended audience is Write the answers under each of the above and then read your draft text through critically. Remove any inappropriate information from the text. 5.4 PROOFREADING AND REORGANISING YOUR WRITING Within sections: Start from the end of your document and read the sections from acknowledgements to introduction. This will take the writing out of context so that you can see how cohesive each section is by itself. Ask whether the information in each section flows logically with the purpose of the section. For example, are the Methods presented chronologically? Are the Results ordered from most important to least important? Experiment with changing the order of things that do not make sense the way they are. The entire document: Read the document through, paying close attention to each section. Underline or circle any information that does not belong in a given section. Write in the margins which section it should be moved to. Check consistency Read the entire document through, checking for cohesion and consistency. Ask yourself these questions: Is anything mentioned in the Abstract/ Summary that is not in the rest of the paper? If so, throw it out or add it to the paper. Is the question or hypothesis posed in the introduction answered or addressed by the conclusion? If the implementation did not prove the hypothesis true, you should explain why. Cut for density Read the document backwards sentence by sentence. Cut out any superfluous words and phrases that do not contribute to your readers’ understanding. Rearrange whole sentences so that you can phrase them using as few words as possible. The final copy is self-assessed In order for you to be completely comfortable with the text that you created, you need to assess the final copy of your document. Use the checklist you created in Module 2 to check whether you have met the requirements of the writing task.

Class Activity 5: Present a written text for a particular function in a business environment Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook