Sand Mining Management and Its Environmental Impact in Cauvery and Kabini River Basins of Mysore District Karnataka

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print),

ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online), Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 169-180 © IAEME

169

SAND MINING, MANAGEMENT AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN

CAUVERY AND KABINI RIVER BASINS OF MYSORE DISTRICT,

KARNATAKA, INDIA USING GEOMATICS TECHNIQUES

Basavarajappa H.T, Manjunatha M.C, Jeevan L

Department of Studies in Earth Science, Centre for Advanced Studies in Precambrian Geology,

University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore-570006, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT

Sand is one of the most important non-living resource/mineral formations on the earth’s

surface. The sand formation is recorded only in the recent ages of the earth’s history. Sand has

become a very important mineral resource in our society due to its applications in various fields.

Sands of river streams have no substitute for use as building material in reinforced concrete cement.

It can be used for making concrete, filling roads, building sites, brick-making, glass industries,

sandpapers, reclamations to replace eroded coastline etc. Efforts have been made to evaluate IRS-1D,

PAN+LISS-III of False Color Composite (FCC) through Visual Image Interpretation Techniques

(VIIT) using GIS software’s. The whole study area is drained by Cauvery and Kabini river basins

that carry sand from different locations and deposits largely at meandering. Especially, Talakadu

area has massive deposits of sands on the windward side of river. It covers sand dunes in the river

bank by the fault running through the river Cauvery. Rapid urbanization is the major cause for sand

demand and is responsible for unsustainable extraction of sand from dried river paths. Currently sand

extraction is permitted up to three feet, but it is being dug up even up to 25-30 ft which later fails the

possessing irrigation wells. Production of adulterated sand is a mixture of sand from estuary and

coastal land that are gradually increased due to high cost of sand. It is a growing imbalance as

prevailing uncontrolled sand mining and its adulteration continues to cause significant environmental

damage and socio-economic problems. A complex interaction between economic, demographic,

social and political encouragement are required to avoid the adverse effects of sand mining on

riverbed environments. The final results highlight the impacts of environment and its management in

Cauvery and Kabini river basins of Mysore District, Karnataka, which is a suitable model in similar

geological conditions.

Keywords: Sand mining, Impact on Environment, Management, River basins and Geomatics.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY (IJCIET)

ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print)

ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online)

Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 169-180

© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/Ijciet.asp

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1. INTRODUCTION

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral

particles under the influence of weathering and abrasion. Sand accumulation as layers in river

courses is a dynamic phenomenon. Sand is vital for the existence of the rivers. Riverbeds, streams,

channels, beaches are excellent sources of sand. As a resource, sand by definition is ‘a loose,

incoherent mass of mineral materials and is a product of natural processes. River sand is one of the

world’s most plentiful resources (perhaps as much as 20% of the Earth’s crust is sand). When sand is

freshly formed; the particles are usually angular and sharply pointed but they form gradually smaller

and more rounded as they become constantly worn down by the wind or water. Sand has become a

very important mineral for the expansion of society. The most common natural process of sand

formation is weathering which involves chemical, mechanical and biological process in breakdown

of rock masses. The process can take more than thousand years or even more that depends on other

factors like temperature, pressure, rainfall, wind, parent material etc. Sand is indispensable

reinforced concrete cement for modern construction sector. Sand mining activity involves scooping,

moving, carrying and transporting sand and pebbles increases the number of physical, socio-

economic and environmental problems including land use. Another reason for sand mining is for the

extraction of minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, zircon which contain titanium and zirconium are the

industrially useful elements. The fertile soils of the Cauvery basin seemed to have become fine

particles of soft sand. Large trenches are being dug up in the middle of the riverbed to extract sand

that later could alter the river course. Mining had to be done in a conservative manner without

affecting the river and its ecosystem; but the possible ecological impact owing to indiscriminate

illegal sand mining in 40 acres of area in the banks of river Cauvery. Many people do not understand

the close ties between human activities and the environment because they have inaccurate or

insufficient information (Keating, 1994). Geomatics techniques encompasses Survey of India (SoI)

toposheet, Satellite Remote Sensing data (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global

Positioning System (GPS) in mapping of geomorphology, litholody, soil, drainage, lineament and

other related features in assessing the environmental impacts and its management of a region

(Basavarajappa et al, 2014). The main purpose of the Geomatic techniques is to provide

environmental quality in planning and decision making processes.

2. STUDY AREA

It lies in between 750

59’- 790 05’ E Longitude and 11

0 45’- 12

0 40’ N Latitude with an aerial

extent of 6,854 Km2 of which 1,145 Km

2 is covered by forest area. It includes 7 taluks namely

Krishna Raja Nagar, Periyapatna, Hunsuru, Heggadadevana Kote, Mysore, Nanjungudu and

Tirumalakudu Narasipura with the general elevation of 700-800 m above MSL. The net cultivable

land is 4,86,410 hectares and irrigated land is 1,14,010 hectares. The study area can be divided into 3

physiographic regions. Firstly, north to eastern portions are riverine plains of river Cauvery and

South easterly flowing river Kabini and both joins at T.Narasipura. Secondly, the central part is of

gentle slopes towards eastern sides at Hunsur, Heggadadevana Kote, Krishnaraja Nagara,

Nanjungudu and Mysore plains with both irrigated and dry seasonal crops. Western Ghats of

Hunsuru and Periyapatna with thick natural forest is the third physiographic region.



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3. CLIMATE & RAINFALL

The temperature varies from 160C to 27

0C in winter and 27

0C to 35

0C in hot summer. The

average annual rainfall is 866.5mm (2012) recorded from 11 rain gauging stations in the district

(Central Ground water Board-2008; Basavarajappa et al, 2013a).The summer season starts from

March to June, followed by the monsoon season from July to November and the winter season from

December to February (Basavarajappa et al., 2012).

4. METHODS & MATERIALS

i. Topomaps - TIFF Images of 48P/15, 57D/2, 57D/3, 57D/4, 57D/5, 57D/6, 57D/7, 57D/8, 57D/11,

57D/12, 58A/1, 58A/5 and 58A/9 of scale-1:50,000 (Survey of India, Bangalore).

ii. Satellite Imagery: IRS-1D, PAN (5.8 m Resolution) +LISS-III (23.5m Resolution) of the year -

2000, of Path-99 & Row 64. (NRSC, Hyderabad).

iii. GIS Tools - Erdas imagine v2013, PCI Geomatica v2012 & Arc GIS v10.

iv. GPS - A field survey using GPS (Garmin-12) is conducted to check the exact locations during

sample collection.



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5. GEOMORPHOLOGY

Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms. The geomorphology layer is digitized

using IRS-1D, PAN+LISS-III and toposheets as base map through ArcGIS v10. It represents almost

all types of variation in the topography and classifications of the upland areas falling under semi-

malnad category. Ridges and valleys are mainly restricted to Nanjungud, H.D Kote taluk and north

western parts of the study area. The general elevation ranges from 700-800 m above MSL except for

the denudational hills and ridges; while the southern parts H.D Kote taluk has higher elevation

ranging from 2200-3150 m above MSL. The Mullur Betta Naganpur Reserved Forest, the Shigebetta

(3231 m above MSL) of the Bedrampadi Reserved Forest mark the water divide making the southern

boundary of H. D. Kote taluk and also of the district. The thematic map of geomorphology helps in

identification and mapping of various landforms such as hills & plateaus, piedmont zone, plains,

reservoir, reservoir islands, river/stream and settlements etc (Pushpavathi and Basavarajappa 2009,

Basavarajappa et al., 2008). The average elevation of the Chamundi hill is about 1,000 m above

MSL.

6. LITHOLOGY

The lithology of study area is largely consists of igneous and metamorphic rocks. The

lithology map incorporates the rock succession of the study area which gives an idea about the host/

parent rock that are responsible for sand formation. The study area is characterized by the



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occurrences of gneisses, pink and grey granite, meta-ultramafites, limestone and dolomite,

granodiorite and granite, Charnockite, Chamundi granite, amphibolites schist and hornblende schist.



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7. SOIL TYPES

Soils are essential units in controlling the infiltration of rainwater and surface flow patterns

(Basavarajappa et al, 2013b). The thematic layer helps in the classification of soils and further

identification of sand deposits. The soil types identified in the study area are red sandy soil, red

loamy soil and deep black soil. Almost entire district is covered by red sandy soil except in small

parts of T. Narasipura taluk, characterized by clayey mixed sand which is less permeable compare to

sandy soil having good moisture capacity, water holding capacity and is fertile. The thickness varies

from less than 1 m to 16 m. These 3 types of soils are having high permeability and nearly neutral

with a pH of 7 (Nelson, 1993; Meador and Layher, 1998).

8. DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The drainage map is digitized from IRS-1D, PAN+LISS-III data that helps in study of surface

water runoff and transportation of sediments in water. The study area includes number of major

perennial and non-perennial rivers with an elevation of 3150 ft above MSL. River Cauvery flow

from north-west to eastern parts along with tributaries; Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Nugu, Gundal and

Laxmanthirtha. The Cauvery rises at Thala Kaveri at Kodagu district flowing along the boundary of

Periyapatna taluk, K. R. Nagara taluk further flows into T. Narasipura. River Kabini is the major

tributary of river Cauvery that rise at waynad in Kerala state, enters into the Karnataka state at

Siddapur in Kodagu district. Kabini flows diagonally from south western parts to north east before

joining the river Cauvery at T. Narasipura. Both Cauvery and Kabini river carries the finely

decomposed rocks and mineral particles from north west and south west parts respectively and

deposits most at meanders of various riverbeds.



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9. LINEAMENT

A lineament is a linear feature of structural, lithological, vegetational, drainage anomalies

which represents the underlying geological structure (Basavarajappa et al., 2012). Fracture and shear

zones will comprise a series of fault or fold-aligned hills, an igneous intrusions such as dykes. The

direction of most of the lineaments is from north-west and south-east parts of the study area.

Lineaments are often appears as abducted/subducted line features in geological or topographic maps

as well as on aerial/satellite imagery (Basavarajappa et al., 2008, 2009; Dinakar., 2007). The number

of major and minor lineaments is recorded based on their length and width. The lineament map of the

study area is delineated from IRS-1D PAN+LISS-III through Visual Image Interpretation

Techniques (VIIT) using PCI Geomatica v2012. A large part of Talakadu is covered by sand dunes

in the river bank due to fault running through the river Cauvery (Valdiya, 2008).



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11. OCCURRENCES OF SAND IN THE STUDY AREA

Generally the occurrence of sand is of alluvial type where the river has its influence on sand

deposition. The deposition is mainly due to minor fault zones all along the river path; later this leads

to upliftment and shifting of river courses by forming the meandering at many places along the river

path particularly helps in accumulation of sand. The host/parent rock of sand is mainly composed of

igneous and metamorphic bodies which are of granitic and granulitic in composition. These sands are

carried by the wind from the dry bed of river Cauvery. Clean sand is indeed a rare commodity on

land that is common in sand dunes, sand bars and riverbeds. The area has massive deposits of sands

on the windward side of river. The sand dunes get inundated with sand over the years. The eastward

flowing river Cauvery changes its course and seem magnificently spreads over a wide area. There are

huge mounds of sand by the banks of the river, like a beach and identified as small hillocks as even

15 meters.

Sand deposits of Cauvery river basin are recorded at many locations in the study area such as;

Sosale, Yeddore, Gargeshwari, Hakkuru, Thirumalakudalu, Nilasoge, S.Megahalli, Somanathapura,

Tumbla, Rangasamudra, Hole salu, Hembige, Hosapura, Doddebagalu, Hambige, Madawadi etc.;

while the sand deposits of Kabini river are located at Sargur, Chakkur, Madapura, kalihundi,

Tumbasoge, Hampapura, Yechagalli, Nanjangud, Hejjige, Basavanapura, Kullankanahundi,

Doddanayakana pura, Bokahalli, Sutturu etc.

12. CONSTITUENTS OF SAND

In geological terms; is defined as “rock particles that range in diameter from 0.0625 to 2.0

mm and the individual particle known as sand grain”. Silica is the most common/basic constituent of

sand which is usually in the form of quartz having chemical composition (SiO2) along with the traces

of feldspar. Quartz is usually colorless or slightly pink with chemical inertness, considerable

hardness and resistant to weathering, while feldspar is pink/amber in color. The composition of sand

is highly variable from nearly pure silicon, feldspar and gypsum to varying degrees of impurity from

mixture with other sediments. This variation is due to local mineral/rock sources and geological

conditions of the area. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content derived from



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weathering and erosion of a granitic rock outcrop. Some of the heavy mineral assemblages are

noticed from the collected sand samples from Talakadu area such as magnetite, ilmenite, limonite,

zircon, rutile, biotite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. tourmaline etc. Some of the light minerals are

also identified as quartz, feldspar, mica etc.

13. IMPACT OF SAND MINING

Sand has become a very important mineral for our society due to its many uses. As

communities grow, construction requires less wood and more concrete that increases the sand

demand. In addition, sand has industrial use as raw material in glass making. Due to its increasing

effective demand, sand is being over extracted at different depths varying from three to forty feet,

from different river streams and basins. These effects directly on the riverine habitats such as, the

riverbed lose its ability to hold water and affects groundwater recharge threat to river banks & nearby

structures and premature failure of irrigation wells associated in farming causes erosion or

degradation of the rivers or nearby environment (Rinaldi et al., 2005). If sand is extracted in

quantities higher than the capacity of river to replenish them; that directly impacts on velocity, flow

regime, river bed level, bank erosion, eco-system, migratory system, extinction of species, fish

breeding etc. The environmental impact of sand mining may vary depending upon geologic and

geomorphic settings, river sizes, resource availability, climatic conditions, etc in order to mitigate the

impact. The River basins are seriously threatened due to excessive sand extraction which in turn

affects the groundwater recharge. The continuous mining of sand leads to the depletion of sand

resources. Sand mining is the actual removal of sand from the foreshore including rivers, streams and

lakes. Sand acts like a sponge which helps in groundwater recharge; but the progressive depletion in

riverbed is accompanied by sinking water tables in nearby areas that adversely affecting the people’s

daily lives, even their livelihood. Stream mining resulted in channel degradation & erosion, head

cutting, increased turbidity, stream bank erosion and sedimentation of riffle areas (Kondolf, 1997).

Sand mining is regulated by law at many places, but is still often done illegally. Increase in sand

demand has placed immense pressure on sand resources which is one of the major environmental

issues. Sand mining is a direct and obvious cause of erosion and also impacts the local wildlife.

Since the extraction of sand is a simple process, the people carry out the sand mining in huge

quantity without considering their adverse effect on environment (Basher, 2006). The water table

depressed by several meters due to deepening of the channel, several water wells are being dried up

throughout the year and even affects the water quality. Uncontrolled and unscientific way of sand

mining implies increase in velocity of the water, erosion & loss of land, loss in groundwater level,

vegetation eco system, migratory system, extinction of species, fish breeding etc. and adversely

affecting the aquatic life & marine environment (Collins et al, 1990). This immediately affects the

scarcity of surface water as well as groundwater resources and its taste. Scarcity of water sharply

declines the agricultural practices, landslides, flooding activity which intern affects the nearby

human habitation across the districts and state. As the agriculture could not provide adequate

employment opportunities to the local landless laborers, the situation forces them to seek the support

of illegal miners for getting their livelihood assured. As the agricultural practices are dwindling day

by day, the farmers either sell their lands to the miners or allow the miners to dredge the precious

sand lying beneath their lands. Excessive in-stream sand mining is a threat to dams, bridges, river

banks and nearby structures. The physical habitat characteristics of the stream directly impacts on

groundwater, water quality, channel geometry, bed elevation, substrate composition and stability,

instream roughness elements, depth, velocity, turbidity, sediment transport, stream discharge,

temperature and sand dredging. These geologically impacts on morphology of the channel, increase

in suspended sediments & its load, unsuitable aquatic conditions, reduction in light penetration, loss



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of phytosynthesis in micro and macrophytes, reduced food availability for plant biomass, damage in

infrastructures, river bank erosion, loss of cultivable land, loss of biodiversity.

14. MANAGEMENT/ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

i. Granite powder may add with sand to reduce the sand consumption.

ii. Bubble Deck comprises a hollow, flat slab that spans in two directions, in which plastic balls are

incorporated to replace and therefore eliminate the concrete in the middle of a conventional slab.

Less amount of exhaust gases are emitted and energy consumption is very less during production and

transportation of bubble deck. Bubble Deck’s biaxial deck provides 35% more longer span, low

weight and have capacity in maintaining strength with that of concrete. Bubble Deck slab has the

same applied load capacity with only 50% of the concrete required for a solid slab, or the same slab

has thickness twice the load capacity using 65% of the concrete. Concrete usage is significantly

reduced by 1kg of recycled plastic that can replace 100kg of concrete proving an environmentally

friendly factor. Bubble Deck has 40% larger span and is furthermore 15% cheaper as the same

amount of steel and concrete. Bubble Deck reduces the amount of concrete of 33% with reduced

price of 30%.

iii.Clay bricks are the fine-grained soil that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal

oxides and organic matter. These are the sources from de-silting of dead water tanks and only natural

additives like coal ash, rice husk and saw dust that represents a sustainable alternative solutions for

sand mining. Clay bricks are larger in size and low weight material that provides improved sound

insulation, high thermal storage capacity and seismic-resistance for safe construction during

earthquake. Porotherm clay bricks are 60% lighter than solid concrete block allowing faster

construction, easy handling, high compressive strength and exceptionally provides long life. It’s an

excellent thermal insulation that's 45% better compared to conventional walling material. It doesn't

catch fire easily as it is already fired at 1000º C and has a fire rate of F240 (240 minutes). It provides

compressional strength of 35 Kg/cm2, approximate density of 694-783 Kg/m

3 and water absorption is

up to 20%.

15. SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

An integrated environmental assessment, management and monitoring programme should be

a part of any sand extraction that has to be encouraged at national, regional, district and local levels.

The problem is now solved to some extend by substituting river sand with crusher sand. It is

necessary to build check dams at regular intervals of each stretch in river/streams to specify a

reference line for bed profile. Thus the sand deposition above check dam can be permitted for sand

mining to minimize its impacts on environment (Binoy et al, 2013). Sand mining sites should be

situated outskirt of the active floodplain and excavation should not take place from below the water

table. Larger rivers and streams should be used preferentially than small rivers and streams. Bar

skimming should not be restricted. Pit excavation located on adjacent floodplain or terraces should

be separated from the active channel. Turbidity levels should be monitored periodically. Sand

extraction and storage of heavy equipment within vegetated habitat should be restricted.

Sensitization and awareness among people are required. Sand mining should be done within given

premises. There should be a time limit for sand mining and its extraction. It is necessary to fix the

limited amount of sand carriage for each transportation vehicles (trucks and lorries).



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16. CONCLUSIONS

Geomatics is the advent high-tech tool that provides synoptic view of a larger area, accurate

& effective results in environmental quality, planning and decision making processes. The locations

of the sand deposits are identified by bright reflectance of light color on aerial/satellite imagery. The

socio-economic significance of mining operations is often overlooked and need to protect for its

economic and social benefits. The mining impact cannot reshape the original environment, short

term benefits are only counted. The River basins are seriously threatened due to excessive sand

extraction which in turn affects the groundwater recharge. Currently sand extraction is permitted up

to 3 ft, but is being dug up even up to 25-30 ft. It is necessary to avoid the mining equipments and

instruments that produce CO2 and other exhaust gases which add to air and noise pollutions. Leakage

of toxic metals and petroleum in these equipments and other boats using under water may affects the

quality of water bodies and direct impact on micro & macro-organisms. Granite powder can reduce

the sand consumption up to some extent. Bubble deck and clay bricks are the best alternative

solutions to avoid maximum amount of sand and its mining from riverbeds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are indepthly acknowledged to Prof. S. Govindaiah, Chairman, DoS in Earth

Science, CAS in Precambrian Geology, University of Mysore, Mysore-06; Jagadish, Plant Manager,

Weinerberger, India Pvt. Ltd and UGC-MRP, New Delhi.

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Sand Mining Management and Its Environmental Impact in Cauvery and Kabini River Basins of Mysore District Karnataka

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