Rfid Based Voting Machine

7/21/2019 Rfid Based Voting Machine

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RFID BASED ELECTRONIC VOTING MACHINE

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

Many secure systems, such as contactess cre!"t car!s an! secure entrance systems, are #u"t $"th

contactess smartcar! RFID technoo%"es&

In many cases these systems are ca"me! to #e secure #ase! on the assum't"on that rea!ers an!

ta%s nee! to #e "n cose 'ro("m"ty )a#out*cm+ "n or!er to commun"cate& Ho$eer, "t "s -no$n

that th"s 'ro("m"ty assum't"on "s .ase/ Reay attac-s are a cass o. har!$are0#ase! attac-s $h"ch

com'rom"se the sa.ety o. such systems #y !ramat"cay e(ten!"n% "nterro%at"on ran%e o. the

contactess system& Interest"n%y, the 'ro'ose! Israe" e0ot"n% scheme "s #ase! on contactess

smartcar!s& In th"s $or- $e sho$ ho$ the 'ro'ose! system can #e com'etey com'rom"se!

us"n% o$0cost reay attac-s& Our attac-s ao$ an a!ersary to rea! out a otes area!y cast "ntothe #aot #o(, su''ress the otes o. one or seera oters, re$r"te otes at $" an! een

com'etey !"s1ua".y a otes "n a s"n%e ot"n% stat"on& Our attac-s are easy to mount, ery

!".."cut !etect, an! com'rom"se #oth the con."!ent"a"ty an! the "nte%r"ty o. the eect"on systems&

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1.2 INTRODUCTION TO RFID:

Ra!"o0.re1uency "!ent"."cat"on )RFID+ "s an automat"c "!ent"."cat"on metho!, rey"n% on stor"n%

an! remotey retr"e"n% !ata us"n% !e"ces cae! RFID ta%s or trans'on!ers& The technoo%y

re1u"res some e(tent o. coo'erat"on o. an RFID rea!er an! an RFID ta%&

An RFID ta% "s an o#2ect that can #e a''"e! to or "ncor'orate! "nto a 'ro!uct, an"ma, or 'erson

.or the 'ur'ose o. "!ent"."cat"on an! trac-"n% us"n% ra!"o $aes& Some ta%s can #e rea! .rom

seera meters a$ay an! #eyon! the "ne o. s"%ht o. the rea!er&

1.3 What i RFID!

A #as"c RFID system cons"sts o. three com'onents/

a+ An antenna or co"

#+ A transce"er )$"th !eco!er+

c+ A trans'on!er )RF ta%+

Eectron"cay 'ro%ramme! $"th un"1ue "n.ormat"on& There are many !"..erent ty'es o. RFID

systems out "n the mar-et& They are cate%or"3e! accor!"n% to there .re1uency ran%es& Some o. the

most commony use! RFID -"ts are as .oo$s/

4+ Lo$0.re1uency )56 7H3 to *66 7H3+

8+ M"!0Fre1uency )9667H3 to 4*66MH3+

5+ H"%h Fre1uency )8&:GH3 to 8&*GH3+

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These .re1uency ran%es mosty te the RF ran%es o. the ta%s .rom o$ .re1uency ta% ran%"n%

.rom 5m to *m, m"!0.re1uency ran%"n% .rom *m to 4;m an! h"%h .re1uency ran%"n% .rom *.t to

96.t& The cost o. the system "s #ase! accor!"n% to there ran%es $"th o$0.re1uency system

ran%"n% .rom a .e$ hun!re! !oars to a h"%h0.re1uency system ran%"n% some$here near *666

!oars&

1." Ho# RFID I Chan$in$ th% &uin% En'iron(%nt toda)!

Ra!"o .re1uency "!ent"."cat"on )RFID+ technoo%y has #een "n use .or seera !eca!es to trac-

an! "!ent".y %oo!s, assets an! een ""n% th"n%s& Recenty, ho$eer, RFID has %enerate!

$"!es'rea! cor'orate "nterest as a means to "m'roe su''y cha"n 'er.ormance& Mar-et act""ty

has #een e('o!"n% s"nce <a0Mart=s >une 8665 announcement that "ts to' 466 su''"ers must #e

RFID0com'"ant #y >anuary 866*& Man!ates .rom <a0Mart an! the De'artment o. De.ense

)DoD+ are ma-"n% many com'an"es scram#e to eauate, seect an! "m'ement sout"ons that$" ma-e them com'"ant $"th the"r customers= RFID re1u"rements an! a!!"t"ona reta"ers an!

other ar%e su''y cha"n channe masters are "-ey to .oo$ su"t&

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Cha*t%r- 2

TECHNO+O, UED

2.1 E(/%dd%d )t%(:

A $ay o. $or-"n%, or%an"3"n% or 'er.orm"n% one or many tas-s accor!"n% to a ."(e! set o. rues, 'ro%ram or 'an& A %enera0'ur'ose !e."n"t"on o. em#e!!e! systems "s that they are !e"ces use!

to contro, mon"tor or ass"st the o'erat"on o. e1u"'ment, mach"nery or 'ant& ?Em#e!!e!@ re.ects

the .act that they are an "nte%ra 'art o. the system& In many cases, the"r ?em#e!!e!ness@ may #e

such that the"r 'resence "s .ar .rom o#"ous to the casua o#serer&

2.2.1 E(/%dd%d )t%( D%0inition:

?An em#e!!e! system "s a system that has so.t$are em#e!!e! "nto com'uter0har!$are, $h"ch

ma-es a system !e!"cate! .or an a''"cat"on or s'ec"."c 'art o. an a''"cat"on or 'ro!uct or 'art

o. a ar%er system&@

?An em#e!!e! system "s one that has !e!"cate! 'ur'ose so.t$are em#e!!e! "n com'uter "s a

har!$are&@

? It "s a !e!"cate! com'uter #ase! system .or an a''"cat"on )s+ or 'ro!uct& It may #e an a

"n!e'en!ent system or a 'art o. ar%e system& Its so.t$are usuay em#e!s "nto a ROM )Rea!

Ony Memory+ or .ash&@

?It "s any !e"ce that "ncu!es a 'ro%ramma#e com'uter #ut "s not "tse. "nten!e! to #e a %enera

'ur'ose com'uter&@

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?Em#e!!e! Systems are the eectron"c systems that conta"n a m"cro'rocessor or m"crocontroer,

#ut $e !o not th"n- o. them as com'uters the com'uter "s h"!!en or em#e!!e! "n the system&@

2.2.2 E(/%dd%d )t%( co(*on%nt:

Em#e!!e! a rea t"me o'erat"n% system )RTOS+, $h"ch su'er"ses the a''"cat"on so.t$are tas-s

runn"n% on the har!$are an! or%an"3es the accesses to system resources accor!"n% to 'r"or"t"es

an! t"m"n% constra"nts o. tas-s "n the system&Ena#es e(ecut"on o. concurrent 'rocesses or

threa!s or tas-s, "t aso 'ro"!es a mechan"sm to et the 'rocessor run each 'rocess as 'er

sche!u"n% an! to !o conte(t0s$"tch #et$een the ar"ous 'rocesses )threa!s or tas-s+&

2.3 &+OC DIA,RA:

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Fig 2.1 Block Diagram of RFID based EVM

2." CIRCUIT DIA,RA:

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Fig 2.2 Circuit Diagram of RFID based EVM

2. COPONENT +IT:

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RFID &a%d E4%ctronic 5otin$ achin%

Na(% IC No. 6uantit)

M"crocontroer AT9S*8 4

Vota%e Re%uator ;6* 4

Vota%e Re%uator ;48 4

LCD 16*2 4

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR 11.0592 4

DIODE 1N4007 :

RESISTOR 220 OHM *

RESISTOR 10 OHM 4

CAPACITOR!CERAMIC" 22PF 8

CAPACITOR!CERAMIC" 104 4

CAPACITOR!POLARISED" 1000#10 $%&'(F 4

CONNECTOR 2 PIN 8

IC )ASE 40PIN 4

SITCH MICRO :

Table:2.1 Components List used in project

2.7 A &RIEF INTRODUCTION TO 891 ICROCONTRO++ER:

<hen $e hae to earn a#out a ne$ com'uter $e hae to .am""ar"3e a#out the mach"ne

ca'a#""ty $e are us"n%, an! $e can !o "t #y stu!y"n% the "nterna har!$are !es"%n )!e"ces

arch"tecture+, an! aso to -no$ a#out the s"3e, num#er an! the s"3e o. the re%"sters&

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A m"crocontroer "s a s"n%e ch"' that conta"ns the 'rocessor )the C+, non0oat"e memory .or

the 'ro%ram )ROM or .ash+, oat"e memory .or "n'ut an! out'ut )RAM+, a coc- an! an IO

contro un"t& Aso cae! a com'uter on a ch"', #""ons o. m"crocontroer un"ts )MCs+ are

em#e!!e! each year "n a myr"a! o. 'ro!ucts .rom toys to a''"ances to automo#"es& For

e(am'e, a s"n%e eh"ce can use ;6 or more m"crocontroers& The .oo$"n% '"cture !escr"#es a

%enera #oc- !"a%ram o. m"crocontroer&

2.7.1 AT82:

The AT9S*8 "s a o$0'o$er, h"%h0'er.ormance CMOS 0#"t m"crocontroer $"th 7 #ytes o.

"n0system 'ro%ramma#e Fash memory& The !e"ce "s manu.acture! us"n% Atmes h"%h0!ens"ty

nonoat"e memory technoo%y an! "s com'at"#e $"th the "n!ustry0stan!ar! 6C*4 "nstruct"on

set an! '"n out& The on0ch"' Fash ao$s the 'ro%ram memory to #e re'ro%ramme! "n0system or

#y a conent"ona nonoat"e memory 'ro%rammer& By com#"n"n% a ersat"e 0#"t C $"th "n0

system 'ro%ramma#e Fash on a mono"th"c ch"', the Atme AT9S*8 "s a 'o$er.u

m"crocontroer, $h"ch 'ro"!es a h"%hy .e("#e an! cost0e..ect"e sout"on to many, em#e!!e!

contro a''"cat"ons&

The AT9S*8 'ro"!es the .oo$"n% stan!ar! .eatures/ 7 #ytes o. Fash, 8* #ytes o. RAM, 58IO "nes, <atch!o% t"mer, t$o !ata 'o"nters, three 40#"t t"mercounters, a s"(0ector t$o0ee

"nterru't arch"tecture, a .u !u'e( ser"a 'ort, on0ch"' osc"ator, an! coc- c"rcu"try&

In a!!"t"on, the AT9S*8 "s !es"%ne! $"th stat"c o%"c .or o'erat"on !o$n to 3ero .re1uency an!

su''orts t$o so.t$are seecta#e 'o$er sa"n% mo!es& The I!e Mo!e sto's the C $h"e

ao$"n% the RAM, t"mercounters, ser"a 'ort, an! "nterru't system to cont"nue .unct"on"n%& The

o$er0!o$n mo!e saes the RAM con0tents #ut .ree3es the osc"ator, !"sa#"n% a other ch"'

.unct"ons unt" the ne(t "nterru't&

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Fig2.3:Microco!troller

The har!$are "s !r"en #y a set o. 'ro%ram "nstruct"ons, or so.t$are& Once .am""ar $"th

har!$are an! so.t$are, the user can then a''y the m"crocontroer to the 'ro#ems eas"y& The

'"n !"a%ram o. the 6*4 sho$s a o. the "n'utout'ut '"ns un"1ue to m"crocontroers&

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The .oo$"n% are some o. the ca'a#""t"es o. 6*4 m"crocontroer&

Interna ROM an! RAM

IO 'orts $"th 'ro%ramma#e '"ns

T"mers an! counters

Ser"a !ata commun"cat"on

Th% 891 archit%ctur% conit o0 th%% *%ci0ic 0%atur%:

#"t 'ro%ram status $or! )S<+

#"t stac- 'o"nter )S+

Interna ROM :-

4 #"t C J!ata 'o"nter )DTR+

Interna RAM o. 48 #ytes&

: re%"ster #an-s, each conta"n"n% re%"sters

6 #"ts o. %enera 'ur'ose !ata memory

58 "n'utout'ut '"ns arran%e! as .our #"t 'orts/ 605

T$o 4 #"t t"mercounters/ T60T4

T$o e(terna an! three "nterna "nterru't sources Osc"ator an!coc- c"rcu"ts&

2.7.2 Archit%ctur% o0 891:

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Fig.2." # $%&1 'rc(itecture

The 6*4 "s a h"%h 'er.ormance s"n%e ch"' com'uter "nten!e! .or use "n so'h"st"cate! rea t"me

a''"cat"ons such as "nstrumentat"on, "n!ustr"a contro an! com'uter 'er"'heras& It 'ro"!es

e(tra .eatures "-e "nterru'ts, #"t a!!ress a#""ty an! an enhance! set o. "nstruct"ons, $h"ch ma-es

the ch"' ery 'o$er.u an! cost e..ect"e&

2.7.3 Pin Con0i$uration:-

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Fig2.&: )i! co!figuratio! of microco!troller

ot (icrocontro44%r #i44 a4o co(/in% oth%r d%'ic% uch a:-

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A T"mer mo!ue to ao$ the m"crocontroer to 'er.orm tas-s .or certa"n t"me 'er"o!s&

A ser"a IO 'ort to ao$ !ata to .o$ #et$een the m"crocontroer an! other !e"ces such

C an! Internet&

An ADC to ao$ the m"crocontroer to acce't anao%ue "n'ut !ata .or 'rocess"n%&

The '"ns o. the m"cro controer are e('a"ne! #eo$/0

I;O Port:-

Four 0#"t IO 'ort& Most hae aternate .unct"ons&

Port 9 <*in 32-3=

Dua 'ur'ose IO 'ort& In m"n& com'onent !es"%n, "t "s use! as a %enera 'ur'ose IO 'ort& In

ar%er !es"%ns $"th e(terna memory, "t #ecomes a mut"'e(e! !ata #us/0

4+0Lo$ #yte o. a!!ress #us, stro#es #y ALE&

8+00#"t "nstruct"on #us, stro#e #y SEN&

5+00#"t !ata #us, stro#e #y <R an! RD&

Port 1 <*in 1-8=

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As an IO 'ort/ Stan!ar! #"0!"rect"ona 'ort .or "nter.ac"n% to e(terna !e"ces as re1u"re! .or IO&

Aternate .unct"ons/ Ony on some !er"at"es

Port 2 <*in 21-28=

Dua 'ur'ose IO 'ort& As an IO 'ort/ Stan!ar! #"0!"rect"ona %enera 'ur'ose IO 'ort& Aternate

.unct"ons/ H"%h #yte o. a!!ress #us .or e(terna 'ro%ram an! !ata memory accesses&

Port 3 <*in 19-1>=

ort "s an 0#"t #"0!"rect"ona IO 'ort $"th "nterna 'u0u's& It aso seres the

.unct"ons o. ar"ous s'ec"a .eatures o. the 6C*4

Ta/4% o0 a4t%rnat% u% o0 Port- 3 *in:

PIN A+TERNATE UE FR

5&6 RKD Ser"a !ata "n'ut SBF

5&4 TKD Ser"a !ata out'ut SBF

5&8 INT6 E(terna Interru't 6 TCON&4

5&5 INT4 E(terna Interru't 4 TCON&5

5&: T6 E(terna T"mer 6 I TMOD

5&* T4 E(terna T"mer 4 I TMOD

5& <R E(terna Memory $r"tes 'use 0

5& RD E(terna Memory rea! 'use 0

*able:2.2 uses of +ort3 +i!s

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R%%t/

It resets tota 6*4 m"cro controer&

?TA+1 @ ?TA+2/

To connect the crysta osc"ator& For 6*4 crysta osc"ator o. 44&6*98 MH "s connecte!

#et$een these '"ns&

A+E:

A!!ress atch ena#e $h"ch "s use! to access the a!!ress ocat"ons .rom e(terna memory&

PEN:

ro%ram store ena#e $h"ch "s use! .or stor"n% 'ro%ramm"n% Co!e "nto the e(terna memory&

EA:

E(terna Access/ : 7B o. ROM "s the "m"t .or e(terna memory&

u**4) and ,round *in/

"n :6 "s .or *V an! '"n 86 "s .or GND&

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2.7." REET CIRCUIT and C+OC CIRCUIT:

Fig2.,: Reset circuit of microco!troller

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2.> Fa(i4) %(/%r o0 891:

Features 6*4 654 6*8 658

ROM :7 67 7 67

RAM)#ytes+ 48 48 8* 8*

T"mers 8 8 5 5

IO "ns 58 58 58 58

Ser"a ort 4 4 4 4

Interru't Sources ; ;

*able:2.3 Famil- members of $%&1

The 6*4 has a #an- o. 48 #ytes o. Internal RAM & Th"s Interna RAM "s .oun! on-chip on the

6*4 so "t "s the .astest RAM aa"a#e, an! "t "s aso the most .e("#e "n terms o. rea!"n%,

$r"t"n%, an! mo!".y"n% "ts contents& Interna RAM "s oat"e, so $hen the 6*4 "s reset th"s

memory "s ceare!& The 48 #ytes o. "nterna ram "s su#!""!e! as sho$n on the memory ma'&The ."rst #ytes )66h 0 6;h+ are re%"ster #an- 6& These aternat"e re%"ster #an-s are ocate! "n

"nterna RAM "n a!!resses 6h throu%h 4Fh&B"t memory actuay res"!es "n "nterna RAM, .rom

a!!resses 86h throu%h 8Fh& The 6 #ytes rema"n"n% o. Interna RAM, .rom a!!resses 56h

throu%h ;Fh, may #e use! #y user ar"a#es that nee! to #e accesse! .re1uenty or at h"%h0s'ee!&

Th"s area "s aso ut""3e! #y the m"crocontroer as a stora%e area .or the o'erat"n% stack &

a= R%$it%r &an:

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The 6*4 uses R re%"sters $h"ch are use! "n many o. "ts "nstruct"ons& These R re%"sters are

num#ere! .rom 6 throu%h ; )R6, R4, R8, R5, R:, R*, R, an! R;+&These re%"sters are %eneray

use! to ass"st "n man"'uat"n% aues an! mo"n% !ata .rom one memory ocat"on to another& The

conce't o. re%"ster #an-s a!!s a %reat ee o. .e("#""ty to the 6*4&

/= &it %(or):

The 6*4,#e"n% a commun"cat"on or"ente! m"crocontroer, %"es the user the a#""ty to access a

num#er o. bit variables& These ar"a#es may #e e"ther 4 or 6& There are 48 #"t ar"a#es

aa"a#e to the user, num#ere! 66h throu%h ;Fh& The user may ma-e use o. these ar"a#es $"th

comman!s such as SETB an! CLR& It "s "m'ortant to note that B"t Memory "s reay a 'art o.

Interna RAM& In .act, the 48 #"t ar"a#es occu'y the 4 #ytes o. Interna RAM .rom 86h

throu%h 8Fh&

c= *%cia4 Function R%$it%r <FR= %(or):

S'ec"a Funct"on Re%"sters )SFRs+ are areas o. memory that contro s'ec"."c .unct"ona"ty o. the

6*4 'rocessor& For e(am'e, .our SFRs 'erm"t access to the 6*4s 58 "n'utout'ut "nes&

Another SFR ao$s a 'ro%ram to rea! or $r"te to the 6*4s ser"a 'ort &SFR "s a 'art o. Interna

Memory& Th"s "s not the case& <hen us"n% th"s metho! o. memory access )"ts cae! !"rect

a!!ress+, any "nstruct"on that has an a!!ress o. 66h throu%h ;Fh re.ers to an Interna RAM

memory a!!ress any "nstruct"on $"th an a!!ress o. 6h throu%h FFh re.ers to an SFR contro

re%"ster&

2.>.1 R%$it%r:

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B Th% Accu(u4ator:

The Accumuator, as "ts name su%%ests, "s use! as a %enera re%"ster to accumuate the resuts o. a

ar%e num#er o. "nstruct"ons& It can ho! an 0#"t )40#yte+ aue an! "s the most ersat"e re%"ster&

2.Th% R r%$it%r:

The R re%"sters are a set o. e"%ht re%"sters that are name! R6, R4, etc& u' to an! "ncu!"n% R;&

These re%"sters are use! as au(""ary re%"sters "n many o'erat"ons&

3. Th% & R%$it%r:

The B re%"ster "s ery s"m"ar to the Accumuator "n the sense that "t may ho! an 0#"t )40#yte+

aue& The B re%"ster "s ony use! #y t$o 6*4 "nstruct"ons/ ML AB an! DIV AB&

".Th% Data Point%r <DPTR=:

The Data o"nter )DTR+ "s the 6*4s ony user0access"#e 40#"t )80#yte+ re%"ster& The

Accumuator, R re%"sters, an! B re%"ster are a 40#yte aues& DTR, as the name su%%ests,

"s use! to 'o"nt to !ata& It "s use! #y a num#er o. comman!s $h"ch ao$ the 6*4 to access

e(terna memory&

.Th% Pro$ra( Count%r <PC=:

The ro%ram Counter )C+ "s a 80#yte a!!ress $h"ch tes the 6*4 $here the ne(t "nstruct"on to

e(ecute "s .oun! "n memory& <hen the 6*4 "s "n"t"a"3e! C a$ays starts at 6666h an! "s

"ncremente! each t"me an "nstruct"on "s e(ecute!&

&

7. Th% tac Point%r <P=:

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The Stac- o"nter, "-e a re%"sters e(ce't DTR an! C, may ho! an 0#"t )40#yte+ aue& The

Stac- o"nter "s use! to "n!"cate $here the ne(t aue to #e remoe! .rom the stac- shou! #e

>.Int%rru*t:

An "nterru't "s a s'ec"a .eature $h"ch ao$s the 6*4 to 'ro"!e the "us"on o. mut"tas-"n%,

athou%h "n rea"ty the 6*4 "s ony !o"n% one th"n% at a t"me&

&

8. Ti(%r:

T"mers are one o. the cate%or"es o. har!$are t"me !eays& T"me !eays are use! to -ee' a system

"nto hat"n% System or see'y mo!e& <e hae t$o t"mers0t"mer6,t"mer4&Har!$are t"me !eays are

use! to %enerate e(act t"me !eays&

. C%ntra4 Proc%in$ Unit:

Let a!! 5 more memory ocat"ons to a s'ec"."c #oc- that $" hae a #u"t "n ca'a#""ty to

mut"'y, !""!e, su#tract, an! moe "ts contents .rom one memory ocat"on onto another& The

'art $e 2ust a!!e! "n "s cae! centra 'rocess"n% un"t )C+& Its memory ocat"ons are cae!

re%"sters& Re%"sters are there.ore memory ocat"ons $hose roe "s to he' $"th 'er.orm"n% ar"ous

mathemat"ca o'erat"ons or any other o'erat"ons $"th !ata $hereer !ata can #e .oun!& Loo- at

the current s"tuat"on&

<e hae t$o "n!e'en!ent ent"t"es )memory an! C+ $h"ch are "nterconnecte!, an! thus any

e(chan%e o. !ata "s h"n!ere!, as $e as "ts .unct"ona"ty& I., .or e(am'e, $e $"sh to a!! the

contents o. t$o memory ocat"ons an! return the resut a%a"n #ac- to memory, $e $ou! nee! a

connect"on #et$een memory an! C& S"m'y state!, $e must hae some $ay throu%h !ata%oes .rom one #oc- to another&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig 2.: C)/

I., .or e(am'e, $e $"sh to a!! the contents o. t$o memory ocat"ons an! return the resut a%a"n

#ac- to memory, $e $ou! nee! a connect"on #et$een memory an! C& S"m'y state!, $e

must hae some $ay throu%h !ata %oes .rom one #oc- to another&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Cha*t%r-3

PC& DEI,NIN, @FA&RICATION

3.1 PC& DEI,NIN, @ FA&RICATION:

In th"s sect"on, $e $" oo- at some o. the e1u"'ment that "s use! "n mo!ern CB 'ro!uct"on&

Com'rehens"e Des"%n Rues Chec-"n% $"th error annotat"on an! on0screen h"%h"%ht"n%&

T"%hty "nte%rate! $"th the 0CAD Sha'e0Base! Auto router&

Fu ran%e o. manu.actur"n% an! assem#y .unct"ons&

T"%ht "nte%rat"on to the SECCTRA auto router, CAM5*6, an! V"e$ o%"c 'ro!ucts&

Inte%rate! $e#0#ase! re1uest .or CB .a#r"cat"on 1uotat"on .eature&

IDF ers"on 5 "m'ort an! e('ort o't"ons&

E(tens"e 'r"nt an! re'ort o't"ons&

Boc- an! su# seect"on ao$ 'ort"ons o. !es"%ns to #e co'"e!, moe!, rotate! an! !eete!&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Each !eeo'ment sta%e "s carr"e! out #y a !e!"cate! '"ece o. e1u"'ment $h"ch may .orm 'art

o. an assem#y "ne& De'en!"n% on your a''"cat"on, note that some sta%es may #e m"ss"n% here&

For "nstance, a t"nn"n% sta%e "s o.ten "ncu!e! a.ter etch"n% to re!uce co''er ayer o("!at"on& A

mut"0ayer CB, too, re1u"res a am"nat"on sta%e to 2o"n the ayers&

A mut"0sta%e 'ate0throu%h $hoe setu' .rom Me%a Eectron"cs A raster 'otter .rom Me%a

Eectron"cs seres as a re'acement to the 'hoto 'otter !escr"#e! ear"er& Th"s 'otter "s ca'a#e

o. creat"n% a * m"cron s'ot& A am"nator "s use! to a''y the 'hotores"st ayer to the CB& Th"s

am"nator "s .rom Me%a Eectron"cs& V un"ts use! to e('ose the 'hotores"st on a CB& There are

many !"..erent sorts o. etch"n%, !eeo'"n%, an! str"''"n% setu's& Th"s one "s .rom Me%a

Eectron"cs an! "s a un"t that s'rays the chem"cas oer #oar! 'anes, mounte! "ns"!e& D"..erent

un"ts )o. the same ty'e+ are ty'"cay use! .or each sta%e !escr"#e!, a#oe&

0CAD CB ):66+ has the .u ran%e o. a!ance! !es"%n .eatures aa"a#e $"th 0CAD CB,

#ut $"th re!uce! !es"%n ca'ac"ty& It "s a <"n!o$s0#ase! 'r"nte! c"rcu"t #oar! !es"%n system&

D"..erences #et$een the t$o 'ro!ucts hae #een note! throu%hout th"s manua $"th the sym#o

you see "n the e.t mar%"n& The .oo$"n% chart 'ro"!es a summary o. those !"..erences&The

."%ure sho$s the 'rocess o. CB Fa#r"cat"on&

3.2 F+OW CHART FOR TEP OF PC& DEI,N:

CB Des"%n"n% "ncu!es .oo$"n% ste' these are as .oo$s on ne(t 'a%e/0

Page 24

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Page 25

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig3.1: )CB Fabricatio!s

3.3 Po*u4atin$ and o4d%rin$:-

Each o. the t$o metho!s has a!anta%es an! !"sa!anta%es/

a+0Some 'arts cannot han!e the therma shoc- e('er"ence! #y #e"n% 'asse! throu%h moten

so!er&

#+0<hen $ae so!er"n% "s use!, "t "s necessary to ho! com'onents "n 'ace/ %ue&

c+0<ae so!er"n% "s FAST

&

!+0Re.o$ so!er"n% !oes not reay $or- $"th throu%h0hoe 'arts&

e+0Re%ar!ess o. the metho! use!, 'art"cuar tem'erature 'ro."es must #e a!here! to&

.+0To 'ace com'onents on a CB, a ?"c- an! ace@ un"t can #e use!&

%+0A%a"n, com'onent 'acement "n.ormat"on or"%"nates .rom the CAD 'ac-a%e&

h+0An "nterest"n% home0#re$e! sout"on that sho$s many o. the necessary ste's "n th"s 'rocess "s

at Home#re$ Sur.ace Mount "c- an! ace Ta"% M" Coners"on&

3." IN,+E AND DOU&+E IDE PC&:

A s"n%e s"!e! #oar! "s ma!e .rom r"%"! am"nate cons"st"n% o. a $oen %ass e'o(y #ase

mater"a ca! $"th co''er on one s"!e o. ary"n% th"c-ness& Dou#e s"!e! #oar!s are ma!e .rom

Page 26

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




the same ty'e o. #ase mater"a ca! $"th co''er on t$o s"!es o. ary"n% th"c-ness&

3. COPPER FOI+:

The co''er .o" use! "n c"rcu"t #oar!s "s ty'"cay "n sheets o. o3& an! 4 o3& 'er s1uare .oot "n

$e"%ht or 6&666; an! 6&6645: "nches nom"na th"c-ness& In other $or!s 0 one ounce o. co''er

$" coer one s1uare .oot $hen "t "s roe! out to a th"c-ness o. 6&6645:@or 4&5: m"s&

3.7 ETCHIN,:

<arm the 2ar o. etchant "n a #uc-et o. $arm $ater )or use an a1uar"um heater+& Dont heats the

etchant a#oe 44* !e%rees Fahrenhe"t or a'ors may #e reease!&

I. !es"re!, a ery sma a1uar"um 'um' can #e use! to 'ro"!e aerat"on !ur"n% etch"n%& Aerat"on

%reaty "m'roes etch"n% s'ee!& um's an! 'ast"c aerat"n% #oc-s can #e 'urchase! .rom

reta"ers that se the etchant chem"cas an! co''er #oar!s&

our 2ust enou%h etchant "nto a 'ast"c tray that conta"ns sma 'ast"c r"sers to 'reent the c"rcu"t

#oar! .rom s"tt"n% !"recty a%a"nst the #ottom o. the tray& The c"rcu"t #oar! shou! .ace !o$n, so

that the co''er !ro's o.. as "t "s etche!& The tray may area!y conta"n a 'ast"c #oc- $"th hoes

an! a tu#e to an a1uar"um 'um'&

s"n% 'ast"c ton%s, 'ace the c"rcu"t #oar! "nto the tray& Turn on the aerat"on system )". !es"re!+&

se the ton%s to "ns'ect the 'ro%ress o. the #oar! an! to a%"tate the #oar! an! tray ". necessary&

<"th #u##"n% etchant an! cose #oar! "ns'ect"on, "t shou! #e cear $hy ru##er %oes, %o%%es,

.resh a"r, an! o! cothes are necessary& s"n% a 'ast"c 'arts $hen han!"n% a meta0corro!"n%

chem"ca shou! no$ seem o#"ous& Be sure to se%re%ate a the 'arts that hae #een e('ose! to

etchant a$ay .rom other uses& In other $or!s, !ont st"c- that etchant tray #ac- "nto the -"tchen

cu'#oar!&

The etch"n% shou! ta-e * to 86 m"nutes !e'en!"n% on #oar! s"3e& I. "t ta-es much on%er, the

etchant may hae !"ssoe! "ts ." o. co''er, an! shou! #e !"s'ose! o. 'ro'ery&

Page 27

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




A e('ose! co''er shou! no$ #e etche! a$ay on the #oar!, $"th ony res"st )#ue ."m or toner+

rema"n"n%&

Fig3.2: Etc(i!g )CB

3.> C+EAN UP:

Im not sure o. the e%a an! 'ro'er metho! o. !"s'os"n% o. use!0u' etchant& I $ou! #e ha''y to

"n- to an EA 'a%e or other o.."c"a !ocument ". you run across one& O#"ousy, 'ro'er !"s'osa

"s %o"n% to !e'en! on the ty'e o. etchant chem"ca& <hateer you !o, !ont 'our "t !o$n "nto

anyth"n% $"th co''er '"'esP

For .err"c chor"!e, Ie hear! that you shou! neutra"3e the ac"! #y a!!"n% a #ase )so!"um

car#onate, so!"um hy!ro("!e, or cac"um car#onate+& Th"s aso so"!"."es the "1u"!, an! a.ter

!ry"n%, "t can #e !"s'ose! o. as so"! $aste&

Store any 'art"ay0use! )#ut st" %oo!+ etchant "n a recyce! seae! 'ast"c conta"ner se'arate

.rom the com'etey0unuse! .resh etchant )". any rema"ns+& Athou%h you can a$ays ?to'0o..@ a

'art"ay0use! #atch o. etchant $"th .resh etchant, you !ont $ant to 'ut 'art"ay0use! etchant #ac- "nto the rema"n"n% .resh etchant&

Page 2+

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




It 2ust seems "-e etchant ?s'o"s@ )#ecomes an "ne..ect"e su!%e+ a .e$ months a.ter #e"n%

e('ose! to co''er&

<ash a the 'arts, trays, an! c"rcu"t #oar!s $"th 'enty o. .resh $ater&

3.8 DRI++IN, HO+E:

Some 'eo'e "-e to !r" the hoes #e.ore etch"n%& I 're.er to etch ."rst to ao$ the etchant to

care start"n% center hoes& The hoes ten! to %u"!e the !r" #"t to the center o. the "a&

A !r" 'ress an! a 458 #"t $or-s o-ay .or most res"stor an! DI hoes& A Q #"t "s een #etter&

M"cro Mar- ses Q #"ts .or ;&4* .or a ha.0!o3en )'art Q4*4;8+&

I use! my Derma !r" 'ress at o$ s'ee!& I #ro-e three #"ts& I %uess I $as su''ose! to use "t at

h"%h s'ee! an! aso 'reent the #oar! .rom sh".t"n%& An e('ens"e an! "nconen"ent esson&

ou $ant to use stan!ar! h"%h0s'ee! stee or co#at stee !r" #"ts& Athou%h car#"!e !r" #"ts

theoret"cay stay shar'er, they are #r"tte an! #rea- eas"y $hen use! #y ho##y"sts& Car#"!e ony

asts on%er .or 'ro.ess"onas $"th r"%"! setu's& ou= ony %et .rustrate! an! $aste money&

Dur"n% !r""n%, I $ore %o%%es to 'rotect a%a"nst .y"n% !e#r"s an! a ."ter mas- to 'rotect my

un%s .rom #oar! !ust&

Page 29

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig3.3 : Drilli!g (oles o! )CB

3. FINA+ PC& DEI,NIN,:

A 'rocess occur "&e&, etch"n%, cean"n%, !r""n%, so!er"n% mas-"n% etc& As sho$n "n the ."%ure/0

Fig3." : )CB B0'RD

<ash a the 'arts, trays, an! c"rcu"t #oar!s $"th 'enty o. .resh $ater& Athou%h you can a$ays

?to'0o..@ a 'art"ay0use! #atch o. etchant $"th .resh etchant, you !ont $ant to 'ut 'art"ay0use!

etchant #ac- "nto the rema"n"n% .resh etchant&

Page 30

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




CHAPTER - "

HARDWARE DECRIPTION:

".1 POWER UPP+:

Po#%r u**4) "s a re.erence to a source o. eectr"ca 'o$er& A !e"ce or system that su''"es

eectr"ca or other ty'es o. ener%y to an out'ut oa! or %rou' o. oa!s "s cae! a *o#%r u**4)

unit or PU& The term "s most commony a''"e! to eectr"ca ener%y su''"es, ess o.ten to

mechan"ca ones, an! rarey to others& Here "n our a''"cat"on $e nee! a * DC 'o$er su''y .or

a eectron"cs "noe! "n the 'ro2ect& Th"s re1u"res ste' !o$n trans.ormer, rect"."er, ota%e

re%uator, an! ."ter c"rcu"t .or %enerat"on o. * DC 'o$er& Here a #r"e. !escr"'t"on o. a the

com'onents "s %"en as .oo$s/

CIRCUIT DIA,RA OF POWER UPP+

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".1 Circuit Diagram of +oer su++l-

".2 TRANFORER:

Tran0or(%r "s a !e"ce that trans.ers eectr"ca ener%y .rom one c"rcu"t to another throu%h

"n!uct"ey cou'e! con!uctors the trans.ormer=s co"s or $"n!"n%s& E(ce't .or a"r0core

trans.ormers, the con!uctors are commony $oun! aroun! a s"n%e "ron0r"ch core, or aroun!

se'arate #ut ma%net"cay0cou'e! cores& A ary"n% current "n the ."rst or 'r"mary $"n!"n%

creates a ary"n% ma%net"c ."e! "n the core )or cores+ o. the trans.ormer& Th"s ary"n% ma%net"c

."e! "n!uces a ary"n% eectromot"e .orce )EMF+ or ota%e "n the secon!ary $"n!"n%& Th"s

e..ect "s cae! mutua "n!uct"on&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".2 *ra!sformer

I. a oa! "s connecte! to the secon!ary c"rcu"t, eectr"c char%e $" .o$ "n the secon!ary $"n!"n%

o. the trans.ormer an! trans.er ener%y .rom the 'r"mary c"rcu"t to the oa! connecte! "n the

secon!ary c"rcu"t&

The secon!ary "n!uce! ota%e V S , o. an "!ea trans.ormer, "s scae! .rom the 'r"mary V P #y a

.actor e1ua to the rat"o o. the num#er o. turns o. $"re "n the"r res'ect"e $"n!"n%s/

By a''ro'r"ate seect"on o. the num#ers o. turns, a trans.ormer thus ao$s an aternat"n%

ota%e to #e ste''e! u' #y ma-"n%

N S more than N P or ste''e! !o$n, #y ma-"n% "t

".2.1 &AIC PART OF A TRANFORER

In "ts most #as"c .orm a trans.ormer cons"sts o./

Page 33

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




A 'r"mary co" or $"n!"n%&

A secon!ary co" or $"n!"n%&

A core that su''orts the co"s or $"n!"n%s&

Re.er to the trans.ormer c"rcu"t "n ."%ure as you rea! the .oo$"n% e('anat"on/ The 'r"mary

$"n!"n% "s connecte! to a 60hert3 ac ota%e source& The ma%net"c ."e! ).u(+ #u"!s u'

)e('an!s+ an! coa'ses )contracts+ a#out the 'r"mary $"n!"n%&

The e('an!"n% an! contract"n% ma%net"c ."e! aroun! the 'r"mary $"n!"n% cuts the secon!ary

$"n!"n% an! "n!uces an aternat"n% ota%e "nto the $"n!"n%& Th"s ota%e causes aternat"n%

current to .o$ throu%h the oa!& The ota%e may #e ste''e! u' or !o$n !e'en!"n% on the

!es"%n o. the 'r"mary an! secon!ary $"n!"n%s&

Page 34

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".3 i!di!g of *ra!sformer

".2.2 THE COPONENT OF A TRANFORER

T$o co"s o. $"re )cae! $"n!"n%s+ are $oun! on some ty'e o. core mater"a& In some cases

the co"s o. $"re are $oun! on a cy"n!r"ca or rectan%uar car!#oar! .orm& In e..ect, the core

mater"a "s a"r an! the trans.ormer "s cae! an AIR0CORE TRANSFORMER& Trans.ormers

use! at o$ .re1uenc"es, such as 6 hert3 an! :66 hert3, re1u"re a core o. o$0reuctance

ma%net"c mater"a, usuay "ron& Th"s ty'e o. trans.ormer "s cae! an IRON0CORE

TRANSFORMER& Most 'o$er trans.ormers are o. the "ron0core ty'e& The 'r"nc"'e 'arts o. a

trans.ormer an! the"r .unct"ons are/

The CORE, $h"ch 'ro"!es a 'ath .or the ma%net"c "nes o. .u(&

The RIMAR <INDING, $h"ch rece"es ener%y .rom the ac source&

The SECONDAR <INDING, $h"ch rece"es ener%y .rom the 'r"mary $"n!"n% an!

!e"ers "t to the oa!&

The ENCLOSRE, $h"ch 'rotects the a#oe com'onents .rom !"rt, mo"sture, an!

mechan"ca !ama%e&

".3 &RID,E RECTIFIER:

Page 35

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




A #r"!%e rect"."er ma-es use o. .our !"o!es "n a #r"!%e arran%ement to ach"ee .u0$ae

rect"."cat"on& Th"s "s a $"!ey use! con."%urat"on, #oth $"th "n!""!ua !"o!es $"re! as sho$n

an! $"th s"n%e com'onent #r"!%es $here the !"o!e #r"!%e "s $"re! "nternay&

".3.1&aic o*%ration:

Accor!"n% to the conent"ona mo!e o. current .o$ or"%"nay esta#"she! #y Ben2am"n Fran-"n

an! st" .oo$e! #y most en%"neers to!ay, current "s assumed to .o$ throu%h eectr"ca

con!uctors .rom te *oiti'% to the n%$ati'% 'oe& In actua"ty, .ree eectrons "n a con!uctor neary

a$ays .o$ .rom the n%$ati'% to the *oiti'% 'oe& In the ast ma2or"ty o. a''"cat"ons, ho$eer,

the actual !"rect"on o. current .o$ "s "rreeant& There.ore, "n the !"scuss"on #eo$ the

conent"ona mo!e "s reta"ne!&

In the !"a%rams #e o$, $hen the "n'ut connecte! to the 4%0t corner o. the !"amon! "s *oiti'%,

an! the "n'ut connecte! to the ri$ht corner "s n%$ati'%, current .o$s .rom the u**%r su''y

term"na to the r"%ht aon% the r%d )'os"t"e+ 'at h to the out'ut, an! returns to the 4o#%r su''yterm"na "a the /4u% )ne%at"e+ 'ath&

Fig "."a Bridge Rectifier

Page 36

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




<hen the "n'ut connecte! to the 4%0t corner "s n%$ati'%, an! the "n'ut connecte! to the ri$ht

corner "s *oiti'% , current .o$s .rom the 4o#%r su''y term"na to the r"%ht aon% the r%d 'ath

to the out'ut, an! returns to the u**%r su''y term"na "a the /4u% 'ath&

Fig "."b Bridge Rectifier

In each case, the u''er r"%ht out'ut rema"ns 'os"t"e an! o$er r"%ht out'ut ne%at"e& S"nce th"s

"s true $hether t he "n'ut "s AC or DC, th"s c"rcu"t not ony 'ro!uces a DC out'ut .rom an AC

"n'ut, "t can aso 'ro"!e $hat "s somet"mes cae! reerse 'oar"ty 'rotect"on&

That "s, "t 'erm"ts norma .unct"on"n% o. DC0'o$ere! e1u"'ement $hen #atter"es hae #een

"nstae! #ac-$ar!s, or $hen the ea!s )$"res+ .rom a DC 'o$er source hae #een reerse!, an!

'rotects the e1u"'ment .rom 'otent"a !ama%e cause! #y reerse 'oar"ty&

r"or to aa"a#""ty o. "nte%rate! eectron"cs, such a #r"!%e rect"."er $as a$a ys constructe!

.rom !"screte com'onents& S"nce a#out 49*6, a s"n%e .our0term"na com'o nent conta"n"n% the

.our !"o!es connecte! "n the #r"!%e con."%urat"on #ecame a stan!ar! commerc"a com'onent an!

"s no$ aa"a#e $"th ar"ous ota%e an! current rat"n%s&

".3.2 OUTPUT OOTHIN,:

For many a''"cat"ons, es'ec"ay $"th s"n%e 'hase AC $here the .u0$ae #r"!%e seres to

conert an AC "n 'ut "nto a DC out'ut, the a!!"t"on o. a ca'ac"tor may #e !es"re! #ecause the

Page 37

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




#r"!%e aone su''"es an out'ut o. ."(e! 'oar"ty #ut cont"nuousy ary"n% or 'usat"n%

ma%n"tu!e )see !"a%ram a#oe+&

Fig ".& out+ut smoot(i!g of Bridge Rectifier

The .unct"on o. th"s ca'ac"tor, -no$n as a resero"r ca'ac"tor )or smooth"n% ca'ac"tor+ "s to

essen the ar"at"on "n )or =smooth=+ the rect"."e! AC out'ut ota%e $ae.orm .rom the #r"!%e&

One e('anat"on o. =smooth"n%= "s that the ca'ac"tor 'ro"!es a o$ "m'e!ance 'ath to the AC

com'onent o. the out'ut, re!uc"n% the AC ota%e across, an! AC current throu%h, the res"st"e

oa!& In ess techn"ca terms, any !ro' "n the out'ut ota%e an! current o. the #r"!%e ten!s to #e

cancee! #y oss o. char%e "n the ca'ac"tor&

Th"s char%e .o$s out as a!!"t"ona current throu%h the oa!& Thus the chan%e o. oa! current an!

ota%e "s re!uce! reat"e to $hat $ou! occur $"thout the ca'ac"tor& Increases o. ota%ecorres'on!"n%y store e(cess char%e "n the ca'ac"tor, thus mo!erat"n% the chan%e "n out'ut

ota%e current&

The s"m'"."e! c"rcu"t sho$n has a $e0!esere! re'utat"on .or #e"n% !an%erous, #ecause, "n

some a''"cat"ons, the ca'ac"tor can reta"n a lethal char%e a.ter the AC 'o$er source "s remoe!&

I. su''y"n% a !an%erous ota%e, a 'ract"ca c"rcu"t shou! "ncu!e a re"a#e $ay to sa.ey

!"schar%e the ca'ac"tor& I. the norma oa! cannot #e %uarantee! to 'er.orm th"s .unct"on, 'erha's

#ecause "t can #e !"sconnecte!, the c"rcu"t shou! "ncu!e a #ee!er res"stor connecte! as cose as

'ract"ca across the ca'ac"tor& Th"s res"stor shou! consume a current ar%e enou%h to !"schar%e

the ca'ac"tor "n a reasona#e t"me, #ut sma enou%h to m"n"m"3e unnecessary 'o$er $aste&

Page 3+

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Because a #ee!er sets a m"n"mum current !ra"n, the re%uat"on o. the c"rcu"t, !e."ne! as

'ercenta%e ota%e chan%e .rom m"n"mum to ma("mum oa!, "s "m'roe!& Ho$eer "n many

cases the "m'roement "s o. "ns"%n"."cant ma%n"tu!e&

The ca'ac"tor an! the oa! res"stance hae a ty'"ca t"me constant U RC $here C an! R are the

ca'ac"tance an! oa! res"stance res'ect"ey& As on% as the oa! res"stor "s ar%e enou%h so that

th"s t"me constant "s much on%er than the t"me o. one r"''e cyce, the a#oe con."%urat"on $"

'ro!uce a smoothe! DC ota%e across the oa!&

In some !es"%ns, a ser"es res"stor at the oa! s"!e o. the ca'ac"tor "s a!!e!& The smooth"n% can

then #e "m'roe! #y a!!"n% a!!"t"ona sta%es o. ca'ac"torres"stor 'a"rs, o.ten !one ony .or su#0

su''"es to cr"t"ca h"%h0%a"n c"rcu"ts that ten! to #e sens"t"e to su''y ota%e no"se&

The "!ea"3e! $ae.orms sho$n a#oe are seen .or #oth ota%e an! current $hen the oa! on

the #r"!%e "s res"st"e& <hen the oa! "ncu!es a smooth"n% ca'ac"tor, #oth the ota%e an! the

current $ae.orms $" #e %reaty chan%e!& <h"e the ota%e "s smoothe!, as !escr"#e! a#oe,

current $" .o$ throu%h the #r"!%e ony !ur"n% the t"me $hen the "n'ut ota%e "s %reater than

the ca'ac"tor ota%e& For e(am'e, ". the oa! !ra$s an aera%e current o. n Am's, an! the

!"o!es con!uct .or 46W o. the t"me, the aera%e !"o!e current !ur"n% con!uct"on must #e 46n

Am's& Th"s non0s"nuso"!a current ea!s to harmon"c !"stort"on an! a 'oor 'o$er .actor "n the

AC su''y&

In a 'ract"ca c"rcu"t, $hen a ca'ac"tor "s !"recty connecte! to the out'ut o. a #r"!%e, the #r"!%e

!"o!es must #e s"3e! to $"thstan! the current sur%e that occurs $hen the 'o$er "s turne! on at

the 'ea- o. the AC ota%e an! the ca'ac"tor "s .uy !"schar%e!& Somet"mes a sma ser"es

res"stor "s "ncu!e! #e.ore the ca'ac"tor to "m"t th"s current, thou%h "n most a''"cat"ons the

'o$er su''y trans.ormer=s res"stance "s area!y su.."c"ent&

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Out'ut can aso #e smoothe! us"n% a cho-e an! secon! ca'ac"tor& The cho-e ten!s to -ee' the

current )rather than the ota%e+ more constant& Due to the reat"ey h"%h cost o. an e..ect"e

cho-e com'are! to a res"stor an! ca'ac"tor th"s "s not em'oye! "n mo!ern e1u"'ment&

Some eary consoe ra!"os create! the s'ea-er=s constant ."e! $"th the current .rom the h"%h

ota%e )B + 'o$er su''y, $h"ch $as then route! to the consum"n% c"rcu"ts, )'ermanent

ma%nets $ere then too $ea- .or %oo! 'er.ormance+ to create the s'ea-er=s constant ma%net"c

."e!& The s'ea-er ."e! co" thus 'er.orme! 8 2o#s "n one/ "t acte! as a cho-e, ."ter"n% the 'o$er

su''y, an! "t 'ro!uce! the ma%net"c ."e! to o'erate the s'ea-er&

".3.3RE,U+ATOR IC <>8??=

It "s a three '"n IC use! as a ota%e re%uator& It conerts unre%uate! DC current "nto re%uate!

DC current&

Fig. "., Regulator IC $44

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Normay $e %et ."(e! out'ut #y connect"n% the ota%e re%uator at the out'ut o. the ."tere! DC

)see "n a#oe !"a%ram+& It can aso #e use! "n c"rcu"ts to %et a o$ DC ota%e .rom a h"%h DC

ota%e ).or e(am'e $e use ;6* to %et *V .rom 48V+& There are t$o ty'es o. ota%e re%uators

1& ."(e! ota%e re%uators );((, ;9((+ 2& ar"a#e ota%e re%uators )LM54;+ In ."(e! ota%e

re%uators there "s another cass"."cat"on 1& e ota%e re%uators 2& 0e ota%e re%uators

OSITIVE VOLTAGE REGLATORS Th"s "ncu!e ;(( ota%e re%uators& The most

commony use! ones are ;6* an! ;48& ;6* %"es ."(e! *V DC ota%e ". "n'ut ota%e "s "n

);&*V, 86V+&

".3."Th% Ca*acitor Fi4t%r

The s"m'e ca'ac"tor ."ter "s the most #as"c ty'e o. 'o$er su''y ."ter& The a''"cat"on o. the

s"m'e ca'ac"tor ."ter "s ery "m"te!& It "s somet"mes use! on e(tremey h"%h0ota%e, o$0

current 'o$er su''"es .or catho!e0ray an! s"m"ar eectron tu#es, $h"ch re1u"re ery "tte oa!

current .rom the su''y& The ca'ac"tor ."ter "s aso use! $here the 'o$er0su''y r"''e

.re1uency "s not cr"t"ca th"s .re1uency can #e reat"ey h"%h& The ca'ac"tor )C4+ sho$n "n

."%ure :04* "s a s"m'e ."ter connecte! across the out'ut o. the rect"."er "n 'arae $"th the oa!&

Fig. ". ca+acitor filter

<hen th"s ."ter "s use!, the RC char%e t"me o. the ."ter ca'ac"tor )C4+ must #e short an! the RC

!"schar%e t"me must #e on% to e"m"nate r"''e act"on& In other $or!s, the ca'ac"tor must char%e

u' .ast, 're.era#y $"th no !"schar%e at a& Better ."ter"n% aso resuts $hen the "n'ut .re1uency

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"s h"%h there.ore, the .u0$ae rect"."er out'ut "s eas"er to ."ter than that o. the ha.0$ae

rect"."er #ecause o. "ts h"%her .re1uency&

For you to hae a #etter un!erstan!"n% o. the e..ect that ."ter"n% has on Ea%, a com'ar"son o. a

rect"."er c"rcu"t $"th a ."ter an! one $"thout a ."ter "s "ustrate! "n "e$s A an! B o. ."%ure :04&

The out'ut $ae.orms "n ."%ure :04 re'resent the un."tere! an! ."tere! out'uts o. the ha.0

$ae rect"."er c"rcu"t& Current 'uses .o$ throu%h the oa! res"stance )R L+ each t"me a !"o!e

con!ucts& The !ashe! "ne "n!"cates the aera%e aue o. out'ut ota%e&

For the ha.0$ae rect"."er, Ea% "s ess than ha. )or a''ro("matey 6&54+ o. the 'ea- out'ut

ota%e& Th"s aue "s st" much ess than that o. the a''"e! ota%e& <"th no ca'ac"tor

connecte! across the out'ut o. the rect"."er c"rcu"t, the $ae.orm "n "e$ A has a ar%e 'usat"n%

com'onent )r"''e+ com'are! $"th the aera%e or !c com'onent& <hen a ca'ac"tor "s connecte!

across the out'ut )"e$ B+, the aera%e aue o. out'ut ota%e )E a%+ "s "ncrease! !ue to the

."ter"n% act"on o. ca'ac"tor C4&

".3.UNFI+TERED:

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Fig. ".$ a5alfa6e rectifier it(out filteri!g.

".3.7 FI+TERED:

Fig. ".$b 5alfa6e rectifier it( filteri!g.

The aue o. the ca'ac"tor "s .a"ry ar%e )seera m"cro.ara!s+, thus "t 'resents a reat"ey o$

reactance to the 'usat"n% current an! "t stores a su#stant"a char%e&

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The rate o. char%e .or the ca'ac"tor "s "m"te! ony #y the res"stance o. the con!uct"n% !"o!e,

$h"ch "s reat"ey o$& There.ore, the RC char%e t"me o. the c"rcu"t "s reat"ey short& As a

resut, $hen the 'usat"n% ota%e "s ."rst a''"e! to the c"rcu"t, the ca'ac"tor char%es ra'"!y an!

amost reaches the 'ea- aue o. the rect"."e! ota%e $"th"n the ."rst .e$ cyces& The ca'ac"tor

attem'ts to char%e to the 'ea- aue o. the rect"."e! ota%e anyt"me a !"o!e "s con!uct"n%, an!

ten!s to reta"n "ts char%e $hen the rect"."er out'ut .as to 3ero& )The ca'ac"tor cannot !"schar%e

"mme!"atey&+ The ca'ac"tor so$y !"schar%es throu%h the oa! res"stance )R L+ !ur"n% the t"me

the rect"."er "s non0con!uct"n%&

The rate o. !"schar%e o. the ca'ac"tor "s !eterm"ne! #y the aue o. ca'ac"tance an! the aue o.

the oa! res"stance& I. the ca'ac"tance an! oa!0res"stance aues are ar%e, the RC !"schar%e t"me

.or the c"rcu"t "s reat"ey on%&

A com'ar"son o. the $ae.orms sho$n "n ."%ure :04 )"e$ A an! "e$ B+ "ustrates that the

a!!"t"on o. C4 to the c"rcu"t resuts "n an "ncrease "n the aera%e o. the out'ut ota%e )E a%+ an! a

re!uct"on "n the am'"tu!e o. the r"''e com'onent )Er + $h"ch "s normay 'resent across the oa!

res"stance&

No$, et=s cons"!er a com'ete cyce o. o'erat"on us"n% a ha.0$ae rect"."er, a ca'ac"t"e ."ter

)C4+, an! a oa! res"stor )R L+& As sho$n "n "e$ A o. ."%ure :04;, the ca'ac"t"e ."ter )C4+ "s

assume! to #e ar%e enou%h to ensure a sma reactance to the 'usat"n% rect"."e! current& The

res"stance o. R L "s assume! to #e much %reater than the reactance o. C4 at the "n'ut .re1uency&

<hen the c"rcu"t "s ener%"3e!, the !"o!e con!ucts on the 'os"t"e ha. cyce an! current .o$s

throu%h the c"rcu"t, ao$"n% C4 to char%e& C4 $" char%e to a''ro("matey the 'ea- aue o. the

"n'ut ota%e& )The char%e "s ess than the 'ea- aue #ecause o. the ota%e !ro' across the

!"o!e )D4++& In "e$ A o. the ."%ure, the char%e on C4 "s "n!"cate! #y the heay so"! "ne on the

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$ae.orm& As "ustrate! "n "e$ B, the !"o!e cannot con!uct on the ne%at"e ha. cyce #ecause

the ano!e o. D4 "s ne%at"e $"th res'ect to the catho!e& Dur"n% th"s "ntera, C4 !"schar%es

throu%h the oa! res"stor )R L+& The !"schar%e o. C4 'ro!uces the !o$n$ar! so'e as "n!"cate! #y

the so"! "ne on the $ae.orm "n "e$ B& In contrast to the a#ru't .a o. the a''"e! ac ota%e

.rom 'ea- aue to 3ero, the ota%e across C4 )an! thus across R L+ !ur"n% the !"schar%e 'er"o!

%ra!uay !ecreases unt" the t"me o. the ne(t ha. cyce o. rect"."er o'erat"on& 7ee' "n m"n! that

.or %oo! ."ter"n%, the ."ter ca'ac"tor shou! char%e u' as .ast as 'oss"#e an! !"schar%e as "tte

as 'oss"#e&

Fig. ".7'. Ca+acitor filter circuit +ositi6e a!d !egati6e (alf c-cles. )08I*IVE 5'9FCC9E

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Fig ".7B. Ca+acitor filter circuit +ositi6e a!d !egati6e (alf c-cles. ;E<'*IVE 5'9FCC9E

S"nce 'ract"ca aues o. C4 an! R L ensure a more or ess %ra!ua !ecrease o. the !"schar%e

ota%e, a su#stant"a char%e rema"ns on the ca'ac"tor at the t"me o. the ne(t ha. cyce o.

o'erat"on& As a resut, no current can .o$ throu%h the !"o!e unt" the r"s"n% ac "n'ut ota%e at

the ano!e o. the !"o!e e(cee!s the ota%e on the char%e rema"n"n% on C4& The char%e on C4 "s

the catho!e 'otent"a o. the !"o!e& <hen the 'otent"a on the ano!e e(cee!s the 'otent"a on the

catho!e )the char%e on C4+, the !"o!e a%a"n con!ucts, an! C4 #e%"ns to char%e to a''ro("matey

the 'ea- aue o. the a''"e! ota%e&

A.ter the ca'ac"tor has char%e! to "ts 'ea- aue, the !"o!e $" cut o.. an! the ca'ac"tor $" start

to !"schar%e& S"nce the .a o. the ac "n'ut ota%e on the ano!e "s cons"!era#y more ra'"! than

the !ecrease on the ca'ac"tor ota%e, the catho!e 1u"c-y #ecome more 'os"t"e than the ano!e,

an! the !"o!e ceases to con!uct&

O'erat"on o. the s"m'e ca'ac"tor ."ter us"n% a .u0$ae rect"."er "s #as"cay the same as that

!"scusse! .or the ha.0$ae rect"."er& Re.err"n% to ."%ure :04, you shou! not"ce that #ecause oneo. the !"o!es "s a$ays con!uct"n% on& E"ther aternat"on, the ."ter ca'ac"tor char%es an!

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!"schar%es !ur"n% each ha. cyce& )Note that each !"o!e con!ucts ony .or that 'ort"on o. t"me

$hen the 'ea- secon!ary ota%e "s %reater than the char%e across the ca'ac"tor&+

Fig ".1%. Fulla6e rectifier it( ca+acitor filter.

Another th"n% to -ee' "n m"n! "s that the r"''e com'onent )E r + o. the out'ut ota%e "s an ac

ota%e an! the aera%e out'ut ota%e )Ea%+ "s the !c com'onent o. the out'ut& S"nce the ."ter

ca'ac"tor o..ers a reat"ey o$ "m'e!ance to ac, the ma2or"ty o. the ac com'onent .o$s

throu%h the ."ter ca'ac"tor& The ac com'onent "s there.ore #y'asse! )shunte!+ aroun! the oa!

res"stance, an! the ent"re !c com'onent )or E a%+ .o$s throu%h the oa! res"stance& Th"s

statement can #e car"."e! #y us"n% the .ormua .or KC "n a ha.0$ae an! .u0$ae rect"."er&

As you can see .rom the cacuat"ons, #y !ou#"n% the .re1uency o. the rect"."er, you re!uce the

"m'e!ance o. the ca'ac"tor #y one0ha.& Th"s ao$ s the ac com'onent to 'ass throu%h the

ca'ac"tor more eas"y& As a resut, a .u0$ae rect"."er out'ut "s much eas"er to ."ter than that o.

a ha.0$ae rect"."er& Remem#er, the smaer the KC o. the ."ter ca'ac"tor $"th res'ect to the oa!

res"stance, the #etter the ."ter"n% act"on& S"nce the ar%est 'oss"#e ca'ac"tor $" 'ro"!e the #est

."ter"n%&

Remem#er, aso, that the oa! res"stance "s an "m'ortant cons"!erat"on& I. o a! res"stance "s ma!e

sma, the oa! current "ncreases, an! the aera%e aue o. out'ut ota%e )Ea%+ !ecreases& The

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RC !"schar%e t"me constant "s a !"rect .unct"on o. the aue o. the oa! res"stance there.ore, the

rate o. ca'ac"tor ota%e !"schar%e "s a !"rect .unct"on o. the current throu%h the oa!&

The %reater the oa! current, the more ra'"! the !"schar%e o. the ca'ac"tor, an! the o$er the

aera%e aue o. out'ut ota%e& For th"s reason, the s"m'e ca'ac"t"e ."ter "s se!om use! $"th

rect"."er c"rcu"ts that must su''y a reat"ey ar%e oa! current& s"n% the s"m'e ca'ac"t"e ."ter

"n con2unct"on $"th a .u0$ae or #r"!%e rect"."er 'ro"!es "m'roe! ."ter"n% #ecause the

"ncrease! r"''e .re1uency !ecreases the ca'ac"t"e reactance o. the ."ter ca'ac"tor&

"."DIODE:

The !"o!e "s a '0n 2unct"on !e"ce& D"o!e "s the com'onent use! to contro the .o$ o. the

current "n any one !"rect"on& The !"o!e $"!ey $or-s "n .or$ar! #"as&

D"o!e <hen the current .o$s .rom the to N !"rect"on& Then "t "s "n .or$ar! #"as& The ener

!"o!e "s use! "n reerse #"as .unct"on "&e& N to !"rect"on& V"suay the "!ent"."cat"on o. the

!"o!eXs term"na can #e !one #y "!ent".y"n% he s"er#ac- "ne& The s"er#ac- "ne "s the

ne%at"e term"na )catho!e+ an! the other term"na "s the 'os"t"e term"na )catho!e+&

APP+ICATION:

D"o!es/ Rect"."cat"on, .ree0$hee"n%, etc

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




ener !"o!e/ Vota%e contro, re%uator etc&

Tunne !"o!e/ Contro the current .o$, sno##"er c"rcu"t, etc

". REITOR:

The .o$ o. char%e throu%h any mater"a encounters an o''os"n% .orce s"m"ar "n many res'ects

to mechan"ca .r"ct"on th"s o''os"n% .orce "s cae! res"stance o. the mater"a &"n some eectr"c

c"rcu"t res"stance "s !e"#eratey "ntro!uce! "n .orm o. res"stor& Res"stor use! .a "n three

cate%or"es , ony t$o o. $h"ch are coor co!e! $h"ch are meta ."m an! car#on ."m res"stor &the

th"r! cate%ory "s the $"re $oun! ty'e ,$here aue are %eneray 'r"nte! on the "treous 'a"nt

."n"sh o. the com'onent& Res"stors are "n ohms an! are re'resente! "n Gree- etter ome%a, oo-s

as an u'turne! horseshoe& Most eectron"c c"rcu"t re1u"re res"stors to ma-e them $or- 'ro'ery

an! "t "s o#""ousy "m'ortant to ."n! out someth"n% a#out the !"..erent ty'es o. res"stors

aa"a#e& Res"stance "s measure! "n ohms, the sym#o .or ohm "s an ome%a ohm& 4 ohm "s 1u"te

sma .or eectron"cs so res"stances are o.ten %"en "n -ohm an! Mohm&

Res"stors use! "n eectron"cs can hae res"stances as o$ as 6&4 ohm or as h"%h as 46 Mohm&

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"..1FUNCTION/

Res"stor restr"ct the .o$ o. eectr"c current, .or e(am'e a res"stor "s 'ace! "n ser"es $"th a "%ht0

em"tt"n% !"o!e)LED+ to "m"t the current 'ass"n% throu%h the LED&

"..2TPE OF REITOR

a=FI?ED 5A+UE REITOR:

It "ncu!es t$o ty'es o. res"stors as car#on ."m an! meta ."m&

These t$o ty'es are e('a"ne! un!er0

/=CAR&ON FI+ REITOR:

Dur"n% manu.acture, at "n ."m o. car#on "s !e'os"te! onto a sma ceram"c ro!& The res"st"e

coat"n% "s s'"rae! a$ay "n an automat"c mach"ne unt" the res"stance #et$een there t$o en!s o.

the ro!s "s as cose as 'oss"#e to the correct aue& Meta ea!s an! en! ca's are a!!e!, the

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




res"stors "s coere! $"th an "nsuat"n% coat"n% an! ."nay 'a"nte! $"th coore! #an!s to "n!"cate

the res"stor aue

Fig:".11 Carbo! Film Resistors

Another e(am'e .or a Car#on 88666 Ohms or 88 7"o0Ohms aso -no$n as 887 at *W

toerance/ Ban! 4 Re!, 4st !"%"t Ban! 8 Re!, 8n! !"%"t Ban! 5 Oran%e, 5r! !"%"t, mut"'y$"th 3eros, "n th"s case 5 3ero=s Ban! : Go!, Toerance, *W

c=ETA+ FI+ REITOR:

Meta ."m an! meta o("!es res"stors are ma!e "n a s"m"ar $ay, #ut can #e ma!e more

accuratey to $"th"n Y8W or Y4 W o. the"r nom"na ae there are some !"..erence "n 'er.ormance

#et$een these res"stor ty'es, #ut none $h"ch a..ects the"r use "n s"m'e c"rcu"t&

d=WIRE WOUND REITOR:

A $"re $oun! res"stor "s ma!e o. meta res"stance $"re, an! #ecause o. th"s, they can #e

manu.acture! to 'rec"se aues& Aso, h"%h $atta%e res"stors can #e ma!e #y us"n% a th"c- $"re

mater"a& <"re $oun! res"stors cannot #e use! .or h"%h .re1uency c"rcu"ts& Co"s are use! "n h"%h

.re1uency c"rcu"t& <"re $oun! res"stors "n a ceram"c case, stren%thene! $"th s'ec"a cement&

They hae ery h"%h 'o$er rat"n%, .rom 4 or 8 $atts to !o3ens o. $atts& These res"stors can

#ecome e(tremey hot $hen use! .or h"%h 'o$er a''"cat"on, an! th"s must #e ta-en "nto account

$hen !es"%n"n% the c"rcu"t&

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"..3TETIN,:

Res"stors are chec-e! $"th an ohm meterm""meter& For a !e.ect"e res"stor the ohm0meter

sho$s "n."n"te h"%h rea!"n%&

".7 CAPACITOR:

In a $ay, a ca'ac"tor "s a "tte "-e a #attery& Athou%h they $or- "n com'etey !"..erent $ays,

ca'ac"tors an! #atter"es #oth store eectr"ca ener%y& I. you hae rea! Ho$ Batter"es $or- , then

you -no$ that a #attery has t$o term"nas& Ins"!e the #attery, chem"ca react"ons 'ro!uce

eectrons on one term"na an! a#sor# eectrons at the other term"na&

".7.1&AIC:

L"-e a #attery, a ca'ac"tor has t$o term"nas& Ins"!e the ca'ac"tor, the term"nas connect to t$o

meta 'ates se'arate! #y a !"eectr"c& The !"eectr"c can #e a"r, 'a'er, 'ast"c or anyth"n% ese

that !oes not con!uct eectr"c"ty an! -ee's the 'ates .rom touch"n% each other& ou can eas"y

ma-e a ca'ac"tor .rom t$o '"eces o. aum"num .o" an! a '"ece o. 'a'er& It $on=t #e a

'art"cuary %oo! ca'ac"tor "n terms o. "ts stora%e ca'ac"ty, #ut "t $" $or-&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Wh%n )ou conn%ct a ca*acitor to a /att%r) h%r% #hat ha**%n:

The 'ate on the ca'ac"tor that attaches to the ne%at"e term"na o. the #attery acce'ts eectrons

that the #attery "s 'ro!uc"n%&

The 'ate on the ca'ac"tor that attaches to the 'os"t"e term"na o. the #attery oses eectrons to

the #attery&

".7.2 TETIN,

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




To test the ca'ac"tors, e"ther anao% meters or s'ec"a !"%"ta meters $"th the s'ec"."e! .unct"on

are use!& The non0eectroyte ca'ac"tor can #e teste! #y us"n% the !"%"ta meter&

Mut" meter mo!e Ne%at"e 'ro#e / occur+ XOLX Resut

Cont"nu"ty os"t"e 'ro#e / One en!

Secon! en! D"s'ay / X6X)#ee' soun! / Fauty O7+

".> +ED:

LED .as $"th"n the .am"y o. 0N 2unct"on !e"ces& The "%ht em"tt"n% !"o!e )LED+ "s a !"o!e

that $" %"e o.. "s"#e "%ht $hen "t "s ener%"3e!& In any .or$ar! #"ase! 0N 2unct"on there "s,

$"th "n the structure an! 'r"mar"y cose to the 2unct"on, a recom#"nat"on o. hoe an! eectrons&

Th"s recom#"nat"on re1u"res that the ener%y 'ossesse! #y the un#oun! .ree eectron #e

trans.erre! to another state& The 'rocess o. %""n% o.. "%ht #y a''y"n% an eectr"ca source "s

cae! eectroum"nescence&

LED "s a com'onent use! .or "n!"cat"on& A the .unct"ons #e"n% carr"e! out are !"s'aye! #y

e! &The LED "s !"o!e $h"ch %o$s $hen the current "s #e"n% .o$n throu%h "t "n .or$ar! #"as

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




con!"t"on& The LEDs are aa"a#e "n the roun! she an! aso "n the .at shes& The 'os"t"e e% "s

on%er than ne%at"e e%&

".8 R-232:

In teecommun"cat"ons, RS0858 "s a stan!ar! .or ser"a #"nary !ata s"%nas connect"n% #et$een a

DT )Data term"na e1u"'ment+ an! a DC )Data C"rcu"t0term"nat"n% E1u"'ment+Z4:[& It "s

commony use! "n com'uter ser"a 'orts.

In RS0858, !ata "s sent as a t"me0ser"es o. #"ts& Both synchronous an! asynchronous

transm"ss"ons are su''orte! #y the stan!ar!& In a!!"t"on to the !ata c"rcu"ts, the stan!ar! !e."nes

a num#er o. contro c"rcu"ts use! to mana%e the connect"on #et$een the DTE an! DCE Z4:[&

Each !ata or contro c"rcu"t ony o'erates "n one !"rect"on that "s, s"%na"n% .rom a DTE to the

attache! DCE or the reerse& S"nce transm"t !ata an! rece"e !ata are se'arate c"rcu"ts, the

"nter.ace can o'erate "n a .u !u'e( manner, su''ort"n% concurrent !ata .o$ "n #oth !"rect"ons

Z4*[& The stan!ar! !oes not !e."ne character .ram"n% $"th"n the !ata stream, or character

enco!"n%&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig:".13Female 7 +i! +lug

". RT;CT Handhain$

The stan!ar! RS0858 use o. the RTS an! CTS "nes "s asymmetr"ca& The DTE asserts RTS to

"n!"cate a !es"re to transm"t an! the DCE asserts CTS "n res'onse to %rant 'erm"ss"on& Th"s

ao$s .or ha.0!u'e( mo!ems that !"sa#e the"r transm"tters $hen not re1u"re!, an! must

transm"t a synchron"3at"on 'ream#e to the rece"er $hen they are re ena#e! Z4[& There "s no

$ay .or the DTE to "n!"cate that "t "s una#e to acce't !ata .rom the DCE& A non0stan!ar!

symmetr"ca aternat"e "s $"!ey use!/ CTS "n!"cates 'erm"ss"on .rom the DCE .or the DTE to

transm"t, an! RTS "n!"cates 'erm"ss"on .rom the DTE .or the DCE to transm"t Z4;[& The re1uest

to transm"t "s "m'"c"t an! cont"nuous& The stan!ar! !e."nes RTSCTS as the s"%na"n% 'rotoco

.or .o$ contro .or !ata transm"tte! .rom DTE to DCE& The stan!ar! has no 'ro"s"on .or .o$

contro "n the other !"rect"on& In 'ract"ce, most har!$are seems to hae re'ur'ose! the RTS

s"%na .or th"s .unct"on Z4[& A m"n"ma ?50$"re@ RS0858 connect"on cons"st"n% ony o. transm"ts

!ata, rece"es !ata an! %roun!, an! "s commony use! $hen the .u .ac""t"es o. RS0858 are not

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




re1u"re!& <hen ony .o$ contro "s re1u"re!, the RTS an! CTS "nes are a!!e! "n a *0$"re

ers"on&

".19 *%ci0)in$ &aud Rat% Parit) @ to* /it

Ser"a commun"cat"on us"n% RS0858 re1u"res .our 'arameters/ the #au! rate o. the transm"ss"on,

the num#er o. !ata #"ts enco!"n% a character, the sense o. the o't"ona 'ar"ty #"t an! the num#er

o. sto' #"ts& Each transm"tte! character "s 'ac-a%e! "n a character .rame that cons"sts o. a s"n%e

start #"t .oo$e! #y the !ata #"ts, the o't"ona 'ar"ty #"t, an! the sto' #"t or #"ts& A ty'"ca

character .rame enco!"n% the etter m "s sho$n here&

Fig".1" Baud rate s+ecificatio!

I s'ec"."e! the 'arameters as #au! rate 966 #'s, !ata #"ts, no 'ar"ty, an! 4 sto' #"t <799-8

N-1=. Th"s $as set "n 're0o'erat"ona 'hase $h"e sett"n% u' the mo!em throu%h the hy'er

term"na, as 'er the ser"a transm"ss"on stan!ar!s "n 6*4 m"crocontroer Z49[&

DCE &aud Rat%

446,566,4866,8:66,"899,966,49866,5:66,*;66,11299,856: 66,:666,98466 )oss"#e

Bau! Rates+ Bau! Rate se!

o$er on !e.aut rate

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




T%tin$ a D&- R-232 %ria4 *ort in H)*%rT%r(ina4

Th"s 'roce!ure e('a"ns ho$ to trou#eshoot a COM car! us"n% Hy'erTerm"na& Be.ore test"n%

my ser"a 'orts, I ."rst hoo- u' a oo'#ac-& A oo'#ac- connects the out'ut s"%na )TKD+ to the

"n'ut s"%na )RKD+ "n a s"n%e ser"a 'ort connector to ma-e "t seem "-e there are t$o 'orts

connecte! to%ether&

ain$ a 4oo*/ac

Ste's

Turn o.. the com'uter&

Connect RKD )'"n 8+ an! TKD )'"n 5+ o. the ser"a 'ort& se a oo'0#ac- connector ".

aa"a#e, or any -"n! o. con!uct"e $"re, een a 'a'er c"' &

Turn on the com'uter& I am no$ rea!y to test the 'ort&

Page 5+

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




• DB9 "nter.ace

• Runn"n% Hy'erTerm"na

• Ste' roce!ure Descr"'t"on

Launch Hy'erTerm"na& In <"n!o$s, seect ro%rams Accessor"es

Commun"cat"onsHy'erTerm"na&

Create a ne$ sess"on& !hen prompted" #ive the session an$ name I %ish&

Seect the COM Q assoc"ate! $"th the com'uter, I am no% set up to test the port&

<"th the sess"on o'en, ty'e any te(t& I. the te(t I ty'e "s echoe! on the screen, the 'ort

"s .unct"on"n% 'ro'ery&

Cose the sess"on&

Initia4iation

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




The #au! rate o. the mo!em $as set to #e 966 #'s us"n% the Hy'erTerm"na, The ECHO .rom

the mo!em $as turne! o.. us"n% the comman! ATE6 at the Hy'erTerm"na& For ser"a

transm"ss"on an! rece't"on to #e 'oss"#e #oth the DTE an! DCE shou! hae same o'erat"ona

#au! rates& Hence to set the m"crocontroer at a #au! rate o. 966#'s, I set term"na count o.

T"mer 4 at 6FFh )coc- .re1uency 4&:58+& The TCON an! SCON re%"sters $ere set

accor!"n%y&

OFTWARE DICRIPTION

".11G5IION:

The \ V"s"on IDE "s, .or most !eeo'ers, the eas"est $ay to create em#e!!e! system 'ro%rams&

Th"s cha'ter !escr"#es commony use! \ V"s"on .eatures an! e('a"ns ho$ to use them&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




a=,%n%ra4 R%(ar and Conc%*t:

Be.ore $e start to !escr"#e ho$ to use \V"s"on, some %enera remar-s, common to many

screens4 an! to the #eha"or o. the !eeo'ment too, are 'resente!& In our cont"nuous e..ort to

!e"er #est0"n0cass !eeo'ment toos, su''ort"n% you "n your !a"y $or-, \V"s"on has #een

#u"t to resem#e the oo-0an!0.ee o. $"!es'rea! a''"cat"ons& Th"s a''roach !ecreases your

earn"n% cure, such that you may start to $or- $"th \ V"s"on r"%ht a$ay&

&a%d on th% conc%*t o0 #indo#:

\ V"s"on $"n!o$s can #e re0arran%e!, t"e!, an! attache! to other screen areas or $"n!o$s

res'ect"ey It "s 'oss"#e to !ra% an! !ro' $"n!o$s, o#2ects, an! ar"a#es, A Conte(t Menu,

"no-e! throu%h the r"%ht mouse #utton, "s 'ro"!e! .or most o#2ects& ou can use -ey#oar!

shortcuts an! !e."ne your o$n shortcuts& ou can use the a#un!ant .eatures o. a mo!ern e!"tor&

Menu "tems an! Too#ar #uttons are %reye! out $hen not aa"a#e "n the Current conte(t&

Page 61

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Page 62

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".1" co!ce+t of u 6isio!

The Pro%ct Windo# area "s that 'art o. the screen "n $h"ch, #y !e.aut, the ro2ect <"n!o$,

Funct"ons <"n!o$, Boo-s <"n!o$, an! Re%"sters <"n!o$ are !"s'aye!&

<"th"n the Editor Windo# area, you are a#e to chan%e the source co!e, "e$ 'er.ormance an!

anays"s "n.ormat"on, an! chec- the !"sassem#y co!e&

The Out*ut Windo# area 'ro"!es "n.ormat"on reate! to !e#u%%"n%, memory, sym#os, ca

stac-, oca ar"a#es, comman!s, #ro$se "n.ormat"on, an! ."n! "n ."es resuts&

I., .or any reason, you !o not see a 'art"cuar $"n!o$ an! hae tr"e! !"s'ay"n%h"!"n% "t seera

t"mes, 'ease "no-e the !e.aut ayout o. \V"s"on throu%h the Windo# R%%t Curr%nt +a)out

Menu.

Poitionin$ Windo#:

The \V"s"on $"n!o$s may #e 'ace! onto any area o. the screen, een outs"!e o. the \V"s"on

.rame, or to another 'hys"ca screen&

C"c- an! ho! the Tit4% &ar1 o. a $"n!o$ $"th the e.t mouse #utton an! Dra% the $"n!o$ to

the 're.erre! area, or onto the 're.erre! contro, an! reease the mouse #utton&

ease note, source co!e ."es cannot #e moe! outs"!e o. the Editor Windo#8&] Ino-e the

Cont%Jt %nu o. the $"n!o$s Tit4% &ar to chan%e the !oc-"n% attr"#ute o. a $"n!o$ o#2ect& In

some cases, you must 'er.orm th"s act"on #e.ore you can !ra% an! !ro' the $"n!o$&

\V"s"on !"s'ays !oc-"n% he'er contros5, em'has"3"n% the area $here the $"n!o$ $" #e

attache!& The ne$ !oc-"n% area "s re'resente! #y the sect"on h"%h"%hte! "n #ue& Sna' the

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




$"n!o$ to the Mut"'e Document Inter.ace )MDI+ or to a <"n!o$s area #y mo"n% the mouse

oer the 're.erre! contro&

/=%i4 o0t#ar% con'%rt th% C-cod% into th% Int%4 H%J cod%.

Fig ".1&:' 6ie of =eil uVisio! 3

Page 64

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".1,: ' 6ie of =eil uVisio! 3

".12 891 &urn%r o0t#ar%:

Page 65

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".1 $%&1 Bur!er softare

".13.1PRO 1:

Page 66

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




RO*4 BRNER 'ro"!es you $"th so.t$are #urn"n% toos .or 6*4 #ase! M"crocontroers "n

there Fash memory& The *4 BRNER toos, you can #urn AT9SKKKK ser"es o. ATMEL

m"crocontroers&

".13.2 F%atur% o0 PRO1:

• Fash ro%rammer .or 9C46*4, 9C86*4, 9C:6*4, 9S*4, 9S*8, 9C*4 an! 9C*8

m"cros&

• O'erates on s"n%e *V su''y $h"ch can #e ta-en .rom SB ort o. C&

• ser .r"en!y $"n!o$s #ase! Gra'h"cs ser Inter.ace&

• Inter.aces $"th C throu%h COM4 or COM8 ser"a 'orts&

".13.3 )t%( R%Kuir%(%nt :

• C $"th at east one ser"a an! one SB 'orts an! at east 66(66 VGA resout"on&

• I. SB 'ort "s not aa"a#e you nee! a re%uate! *V su''y&

• <"n!o$s o'erat"n% system&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




".13." Paca$% Cont%nt/

RO*4 un"t

Inter.ace Ca#e #et$een C an! RO*4

CD conta"n"n% ROG*4 so.t$are

,%ttin$ tart%d

Insta ROG*4 'ro%rams us"n% setu' .rom the CD& Th"s $ou! normay create these

'ro%rams "n a 'ro%ram %rou' INFONICS& ou may "-e to create a se'arate .o!er "-e

INFONICS on your !"s- $here these 'ro%rams $" #e "nstae!&

Connect RO*4 to COM 'ort an! SB on your C us"n% the ca#e 'ro"!e! $"th RO*4&

Foo$ "nstruct"on %"en "n the .oo$"n% sect"ons&

".13. PRO,1 U%r Int%r0ac%

ro%*4 "s use! .or 'ro%ramm"n% the 9C46*4, 9C86*4 an! 9C:6*4 M"crocontroers. ser

"nter.ace "ncu!es/

Page 6+

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




• Loa! He(B"nary ."e "n Bu..er

• Sae Bu..er as B"nary F"e

• D"s'ay S'ec".y Tar%et De"ce to #e ro%ramme!&

• Com ort Seect"on&

• I!ent".y Tar%et De"ce $"th the !e"ce s'ec"."e! #y you "n the !es"%nate! area&

• Rea! M"crocontroer ro%ram "n Bu..er

• Erase M"crocontroer ro%ram Memory

• Chec- ". Tar%et De"ce "s Erase!

•

ro%ram Bu..er Contents "n Tar%et !e"ce

• Ver".y the De"ce contents $"th !ata "n the #u..er

• Loc- Tar%et De"ce& Once the !e"ce "s oc-e! "t can not #e rea! or er"."e!&

Page 69

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




Fig ".1$ i!terface of )R0&1

".13.7 Proc%dur% to Pro$ra( a Chi*

Connect the RO*4 to COM 'ort an! SB 'ort on your C& SB "s use! .or *V 'o$er

su''y ony& ou can use re%uate! *V su''y an! connect "t on '"n : o. the 9 "n connector&

Start ROG*4 .rom your 'ro%ram menu&

Seect a''ro'r"ate com 'ort on your C&

Insert !es"re! !e"ce "n the IF soc-et on RO*4& 86 "n !e"ces "-e 9C86*4 shou! #e

a"%ne! $"th the #otom s"!e, "&e&, '"n 46 on the 9C86*4 shou! #e "nserte! "n "n 86 o. the

soc-et&

S'ec".y the !e"ce "n the tar%et !e"ce te(t #o(&

Page 70

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




C"c- I!ent".y #utton to chec- ". the !e"ce "nserte! matches $"th the one you s'ec"."e! "n the

Tar%et De"ce te(t #o(&

Loa! He( or B"nary ."e %enerate! us"n% com'"er or assem#er "n the #u..er&

C"c- on Erase #utton to erase the contents o. the .ash memory o. the m"crocontroer& Erase

'rocess $" automat"cay #e .oo$e! #y a #an- chec-&

C"c- on ro%ram #utton to $r"te the #u..er contents "n to the 'ro%ram memory o. the

m"crocontroer& ro%ram act"on $" automat"cay #e .oo$e! #y a er".y cyce&

I. you $"sh c"c- on Loc- #utton to secure the !e"ce&

Remoe the !e"ce .rom IF soc-et

".13.> Pin d%cri*tion o0 PIN (a4% conn%ctor on PRO1:

Pin Na(% D%cri*tion

Page 71

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




4 NC Not connecte!

8 RKD Ser"a ort Rece"e Data& Th"s '"n shou!

#e connecte! to TKD '"n o. COM 'ort on

C&

5 TKD Ser"a ort Transm"t Data& Th"s '"n shou!

#e connecte! to RKD '"n o. COM 'ort on

C&

: VCC *V su''y .or the RO*4& It must #e

re%uate! su''y& Ca#e su''"e! $"th the

!e"ce !ra$s 'o$er .rom the SB 'ort o.

your C& I. you $"sh to use any other

source o. 'o$er the same shou! #e

connecte! to th"s '"n&

* GND S"%na an! 'o$er %roun! .or ser"a 'ort

an! *V 'o$er su''y&

RKDEN I. th"s '"n "s e.t o'en or 'ue! u' )^5V+

then RKD s"%na rece"e! at IN 8 a#oe

"s sent to the C& I. you $"sh to !"sa#e

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




the RKD s"%na then th"s IN shou! #e

'ue! Ve& <"th the stan!ar! ca#e

su''"e! #y In.on"cs th"s '"n "s connecte!

to the DSR s"%na o. COM 'ort&

There.ore, the DSR must h"%h to ena#e

the RKD&

; NC Not connecte!

RESET A h"%h )^ 5V+ on th"s '"n $" reset the

RO*4& <"th the stan!ar! ca#e su''"e!

#y In.on"cs th"s '"n "s connecte! to the

RTS s"%na o. COM 'ort& There.ore, the

RTS must #e -e't o$ .or 'ro'er

o'erat"on o. the RO*4& A h"%h 'use on

RTS can #e use! to reset the !e"ce&

9 NC Not connecte!

*able ".1 +i! co!figuratio! of )R0&1

Page 73

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




CHAPTER -

PRECAUTION AND TETIN,

.1 PRECAUTION:

.1.1 O+DERIN, PRECAUTION:

The construct"on $as carr"e! out $"th care& The 'recaut"ons ta-en !ur"n% the so!er"n% $ere/

The t"' o. so!er"n% "ron $as -e't cean $"th the he' o. a ."e .rom t"me to t"me&

The so!er $"re $as o. smaer th"c-ness&

E(tra so!er $as not use! "n or!er to ao"! a cause o. short c"rcu"t "n the con!uct"e 'ath&

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DEPARTMENT OF ECE




The oerheat"n% o. com'onents $as ao"!e! to 'reent com'onent !ama%e as a resut o.

e(cess"e heat on the com'onents !ue to the heat .rom the so!er"n% "ron&

The ea!s o. the com'onents $ere -e't cean #e.ore so!er"n%, $"th the use o. san! 'a'er&

.1.2 COPONENT PRECAUTION:

IR sensor use! shou! #e sens"t"e& Be.ore us"n% "n the c"rcu"t "t shou! #e teste!

$"th a mut"0meter&

I&C shou! not #e heate! much $h"e so!er"n% too much heat can !estroy the I&C&

For sa.ety an! ease o. re'acement, the use o. I&C soc-et "s su%%este!&

<h"e 'ac"n% the I&C '"n no 4 shou! #e ma!e sure at r"%ht hoe&

O''os"te 'oar"ty o. #attery can !estroy I&C so 'ease chec- the 'oar"ty #e.ore

s$"tch"n% ON the c"rcu"t& One shou! use !"o!e "n ser"es $"th s$"tch .or sa.ety

s"nce !"o!e ao$s .o$"n% current "n one !"rect"on ony&

Each com'onent $as so!ere! neaty an! cean&

<e shou! use "nsuate! $"res&

.2 TETIN, OF PROLECT :

Page 75

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




<"th the -no$e!%e o. o'erat"on o. the system $as teste! ste' #y ste' to the trans"stor out'ut

an! the oa! $as connecte! across the coector term"na o. the trans"stor&

.3 AE&+IN, :

The $hoe system $as 'ac-e! "n a 'ast"c cas"n% an! 'ro"s"on $as ma!e .or the IR to sense

"%ht .rom the outs"!e&

CHAPTER- 7

AP++ICATION CONC+UION @ FUTURE COPE

7.1Ad'anta$%:

• It "s econom"ca&

• Less man'o$er re1u"re!&

• T"me consc"ous, as ess t"me re1u"re! .or ot"n% J count"n%&

• Ao"!s "na"! ot"n%&

• Saes trans'ortat"on cost !ue to "ts com'act s"3e&

• Conen"ent on the 'art o. oter&

• Easy trans'ortat"on, stora%e, an! ma"ntenance&

• Easy an! accurate count"n% $"thout any m"sch"e. at the count"n% centre&

• Eco .r"en!y&

7.2 Di-ad'anta$%:

• L"m"te! no& o. can!"!ates&

• More can!"!ates mean "m'"es com'"cate! c"rcu"t&

Page 76

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




7.3 A**4ication:

• Th"s cou! #e use! .or ot"n% 'ur'ose at any re1u"re! 'ace&

• It "s use! "n %enera eect"ons .or choos"n% can!"!ates to re'resent 'eo'e at ar"ous

sta%es&

• It can #e use! "n schoo ,coe%e stu!ent un"on eect"ons&

• It can #e use! to ."n! the %enera o'"n"on o. 'eo'e on ar"ous "ssues&

• Any$here $here ma2or"ty o'"n"on "s to #e .oun! out&

7." Futur% co*% :

• T"mer cou! #e "ncu!e!, $h"ch cou! automat"cay en! the ot"n% a.ter s'ec"."c !urat"on

o. t"me&

• B"ometr"c Ver"."cat"on o. oters, so that automat"cay "t can #e "nsure! that one 'erson "s

ot"n% once&

• It can #e ma!e more "nteract"e #y a!!"n% soun! e..ect )S'eech+ to "t&

• EEROM can #e use! to store !ata 'ermanenty&

• I. $e ma-e more than one EVM, each to #e use! at !"..erent ocat"ons an! ."na resut

$" #e a!!"t"on o. resut o. a, $e cou! th"n- o. connect"n% them to commun"cate $"theach other an! ."na resut can #e sho$n on one o. the LCD&

Page 77

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




7. &UD,ET ANA+I:-

The #u!%et o. th"s 'ro2ect "s aroun! o. ru'ees :6660 each mem#er o. the %rou' contr"#ute!

ru'ees 86660

<e "s"te! !"..erent eectron"c sho's to ac1u"re the 'art $e nee!e!&

Items that $ere 'urchases .rom !"..erent sho's are/0

• RF ta%

• RF mo!ue

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Res"stor

M"crocontroer 6*4

Vota%e re%uator I&Cs&

LCD

CB #oar!

Trans.ormer

Connectors

Ca'ac"tor

Page 7+

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




APENDI?

PRO,RA:

Q"ncu!e_re%*8&h^

Q!e."ne -ey 5

s#"t EN4`;

s#"t RS4`

s#"t s44`6

s#"t s84`4

s#"t s54`8

uns"%ne! char car!"!Z48[uns"%ne! char sZ[:E66;6E:848

uns"%ne! char tZ[6:665BD6C89

uns"%ne! char uZ[64664B:FB*

o"! sho$)+

o"! !eay)uns"%ne! "nt count+

o"! "n")+

o"! rec"ee)+

o"! cm!!ata)uns"%ne! char +

o"! sen!!ata)uns"%ne! char +

Page 79

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




o"! str"n%!ata)uns"%ne! char b+

stat"c "nt a,#6,c6,!6,',y,3,m,n,(6,1

o"! sho$)+

cm!!ata)6(6+

str"n%!ata)SHO< IDENTIT CARD+

cm!!ata)6(6+

cm!!ata)6(c6+

str"n%!ata)FOR VERIFICATION+

rec"ee)+

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1

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Page +0

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




'nW46

str"n%!ata)B> +

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sen!!ata)3:+

sen!!ata)y:+

cm!!ata)6(6+

cm!!ata)6(C6+

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sen!!ata)':+

sen!!ata)a:+

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d

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cm!!ata)6(6+

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d

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cm!!ata)6(64+

!eay)46+

cm!!ata)6(5+

!eay)46+

Page +1

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




cm!!ata)6(6E+

d

o"! cm!!ata)uns"%ne! char -+

8-

RS6

EN4

!eay)46+

RS4

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d

o"! sen!!ata)uns"%ne! char ch+

8ch

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d

o"! !eay)uns"%ne! "nt count+

uns"%ne! "nt "

$h"e)count+

Page +2

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




"44*

$h"e)"^6+

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count00

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o"! str"n%!ata)uns"%ne! char bstr+

uns"%ne! "nt "6

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Page +3

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




d

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Page +4

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




16

!eay)466+

str"n%!ata) <ELCOME TO EVM +

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Page +5

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




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rec"ee)+

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Page +6

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




!eay)4666+

%oto oo'

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".)(4!4+

str"n%!ata)O CAN VOTE+

!eay)4666+

$h"e)1_*+

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Page +7

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




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Page ++

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




".)s86+

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Page +9

DEPARTMENT OF ECE




!eay)4666+

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REFERENCE/

T%Jt &oo:

uha((ad A4i aidi ?THE 6*4 MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED

SSTEMS@, earson e!ucat"on,

A)a4a0 ?INTRODCTION TO 6*4 MICROCONTROLLER@

W%/it%:

• $$$&ho$stu..$or-s&com

• $$$&!natech"n!"a&com

• htt'/stu!ents&""t-&ac&"necu#'ro2ects8669Eectron"cW86Vot"n%W86Mach"ne&'!. • htt'/$$$&'ro2ectso.6*4&com'ro2ects6*0eectron"c0ot"n%0mach"ne&htm

• htt'/$$$&scr"#!&com!oc5*;;*Em#e!!e!0Eectron"c0Vot"n%0Mach"ne0System

• htt'/$$$&scr"#!&com!oc58*856Re'ort0Eectron"c0ot"n%0mach"ne

• htt'/$$$&scr"#!&com!oc559*998Fa$s0"n0Eectron"c0Vot"n%0Mach"nes0o.0In!"a

• htt'/$$$&scr"#!&com!oc5:6545REORT0on0Eectron"c0Vot"n%0Mach"ne0Em

a$ain%:• Eectron"cs .or you

• Eectr"-"n!"a

Page 90

DEPARTMENT OF ECE

http://www.howstuffworks.com/

http://www.dnatechindia.com/

http://students.iitk.ac.in/eclub/projects/2009/Electronic%20Voting%20Machine.pdf

http://www.projectsof8051.com/projects/05-electronic-voting-machine.html

http://www.scribd.com/doc/38586775/Embedded-Electronic-Voting-Machine-System

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36252360/Report-Electronic-voting-machine

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36395992/Flaws-in-Electronic-Voting-Machines-of-India

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36403613/REPORT-on-Electronic-Voting-Machine-Evm

http://www.dnatechindia.com/

http://students.iitk.ac.in/eclub/projects/2009/Electronic%20Voting%20Machine.pdf

http://www.projectsof8051.com/projects/05-electronic-voting-machine.html

http://www.scribd.com/doc/38586775/Embedded-Electronic-Voting-Machine-System

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36252360/Report-Electronic-voting-machine

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36395992/Flaws-in-Electronic-Voting-Machines-of-India

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36403613/REPORT-on-Electronic-Voting-Machine-Evm

http://www.howstuffworks.com/




Rfid Based Voting Machine

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