Research Report - Kuldeep Ulhe

Research Proposal

Perception Analysis on the use of ICT

To improve Citizen Participation in

Governance of Urban Water Supply

Systems: A Case Study on Bangalore

Student Researcher:

Kuldeep Ulhe

MAD14202

(M.A. Development)

Azim Premji University, Bangalore

Intern at: Public Affair Centre, Bangalore

Guided By

V. Santhakumar Jangal Jayram Arvind L Sha

Professor Programme Manager (EnGG) Programme Officer

Azim Premji University Public Affair Centre Public Affair Centre

Bangalore Bangalore Bangalore

Public Affairs Centre Azim Premji University

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1. Abstract

It is need to explore the importance of citizen involvement in decision making process for equitable distribution of water and making Bangalore Water Supply System sustainable. The study is a perception analysis of officers, who are involved in decision making process in Bangalore Urban Water Supply Systems, at Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) about citizens’ role in decision making. It is about finding out the level of citizens’ participation in decision making process. Study has also explored how does BWSSB allow citizen to participate in improving the water supply systems? It has also explored the role of information communication and technology (ICT) played in improving citizens’ participation. How BWSSB office is making use of new ICT application to improve participation level.

2. Background

Water is an important resource for holistic & sustainable development of a society. Water is sufficiently available on the earth. However, the resources for the supply of potable water are limited. We can supply the water up to certain quantity depending upon the renewable capacity of those resources. At present urban areas have limited water resources for meeting the growing demand. To ensure equitable, inclusive and sustainable water supply is the biggest challenge for Urban Water Supply Systems (UWSS) in the scenario of unplanned urbanization. It is of utmost significance to involve citizens in decision making and in overall governance of water supply system in these areas. This requires us to answer the following two questions on enhancing citizen participation: how can maximum participation of citizens’ to ensure water security be achieved? What role do ICTs play in maximization of the citizens’ participation?

2.1. Global Level

Global urban population will be doubled i.e. 6.4 billion by 2050. Even in India urban population count will reach 600 million1 by 2031 and 800 million by 20502. People, estimated as 2.4 billion3, are struggling to access for clean and sufficient water to meet their daily requirement. 21 out of 37 diseases responsible for deaths are water born and water related. This has happened because of non-availability of adequate quantity of clean water4.This issue has been sharply increased after industrialization, urbanization and increasing population. Problem has become more acute in climate change scenario. Climate change has given global face to the local problem of insufficient supply of clean and quality water.

Millennium development goal (7.c) talked about provision of sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation facilities. Although we have moderately achieved the mentioned target of halve the proportion of population without sustainable access to improved sources of

1 The High Powered Expert Committee(HPEC), Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services, 2008 2 EPW, Mihir Shah & Himanshu Kulkarni, Urban Water Systems in India: Typology & Hypothesis, July 2015 3 UNDP 4 C. Ramachandraiah, Drinking Water as Fundamental Right, EPW, Feb 24, 2001


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safe drinking water. Still about 10% of population is not yet getting access to water5. Population which is covered under water supply, are not getting equitable and affordable access to water. There are no measures or policies available which can generate data on sustainability, equitability and affordability. To focus on this issue, provision has been made in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG - 6) for equitable, affordable and universal access to drinking water. The question remains, without listening to citizen how can we decide or fix the prices of safe drinking water which are affordable universally.

SDG (17) talks about introducing environmental friendly technology. Each area has uniquely topography. To create environmental friendly technology requires local understanding of ecology and diversity. Sometimes local technologies evolved over period of time from the local people by using local resources. This requires citizens’ to participate in developmental process of local areas. To fulfill this need, SDG (16) asks government to have representative, inclusive, participative and responsive governance structure in place.

2.2. National Level

India’s schemes and programmes like National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM), Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Town (UIDSSMT), Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) have identified the need for augmentation of drinking water supply & technological intervention to achieve desired objectives in urban areas. India has designed “National Water Policy” and documented the citizens’ need along with need for new infrastructural and institutional arrangement. However our ground level framework has failed to ensure equitable6 and sustainable7 access to safe & quality drinking water for our increasing population in urban areas.

In 2000 Supreme Court declared access to quality water in sufficient quantity as fundamental right of every individual under article 21. This decision have been taken because of increased nexus between industrialist, politician and bureaucrats on water issues in urban areas. This has mostly affected poor population. Although it’s constitutional right and government has obligation, drinking water supply have been privatized in some parts of India, e.g. Nagpur, where drinking water supply has been privatized, this has eroded people’s confidence because of unsuccessful experiment increasing the stake of private member in governance system of water supply8. People protested in protecting their drinking water sources. But it had failed because of lack of citizens’ participation in decision making and planning process.

5 Goal 7, Target 11, Page 22, MDG India Country Report 2015, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India 6 Water Harvesting to Augment Water Resources: Traditional Technologies & Communities are part of Solution, Towards Drinking Water Security in India (Lessons from the Field), Water and Sanitation Program, page 76 7 IWMI Tata Annual partners meeting, South Asia Network on Dam, Rivers & People, 28 Nov 2012 8 C. Ramachandraiah, Drinking Water as Fundamental Right, EPW, Feb 24, 2001


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Principles of National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) has rightly identified that protecting poor and vulnerable section and devising efficient and cost effective strategies for end user demand side management requires inclusive and sustainable development strategy sensitive to climate change9. NAPCC has also identified the need to create unique linkage with civil society, local government institution, private institution and organizations for successful implementation of programs and policies. These unique linkages vis-à-vis implementation network would not work directly without recognizing citizens’ role in decision making process in governing urban water supply system.

National Water Mission (NWM) has identified requirement of integrated water resources management in urban areas. Participation is one of the component to help in water conservation, minimizing wastage, creating innovative regulatory framework, creating water positive technologies, equitable, sufficient and sustainable distribution of water resources. National Conference on Water Management (2009 Bangalore) concluded that sustainable, clean and relevant technology is needed for management of water resources in urban areas. Asit k Biswas in one of his article mentioned that, India needs radically overhaul its water institutions and governance structure. He has identified problems of bureaucratic infighting, endemic corruption, regular political interference and public apathy in water governance. Public apathy is because of opaqueness in decision making and governing structure of water institution particularly in urban areas.

2.3. State Level

Karnataka Municipal Act passed in 2011, proposed to increase the participation of citizens in decision making process. How can participation of huge population be ensured is the challenge before administration? Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewable Mission (JNNURM) has allocated money for improving citizen participation level in governance. It’s time to find out whether money has been allocated and if it is allocated then how far this money has been used to enhance citizens’ participation in governance of water supply systems?

2.4. City/Region Level

Each city/region has its unique ecology. People have been using local resources and developed kind of relationship with them. They have developed their own way of management of resources. There is need to introduce the new approach of information transfer with governance. Bangalore is third most populous city in India. To place such huge population under one umbrella and make sure that everyone’s voice be heard in decision making process would be a challenge for governance. It requires extra ordinary method for communication of information from citizen to upper administrative level where the decision are made and implemented.

“Bangalore One” is one of the kind of project. It has been designed to make sure that people will get services under one umbrella. However this site is developed to make service delivery easy for

9 National Action Plan on Climate Change, Prime minister’s council on climate change, 2008


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government agencies. Another project “My City My Budget”10 is looking forward to improve citizens’ say in budget by launching complaints registered mechanism through website. They have claimed that it will improve citizens’ participation in decision making process of budgetary allocation.

3. Literature review

In all over world, democratic governments are using technologies to allow citizens’ involvement in governance. Information technology and communication (ICT) has been proved the capacity to improve and ensure citizen participation levels. There are many forms and applications of ICT e.g. emergency/complain registration numbers, online sites which are providing information about particular government structures, online registration systems, online billing systems etc11. In this study we are particularly going to look into scenario of Bangalore Water Supply System. How it works and in what way citizens’ are playing role to improve water supply system. We are also going to look into the role of Bangalore citizens’ in decision making process of Bangalore Water Supply Systems.

Urban water supply and resources management system involves following stages12: ‘Collecting’ the water to meet the needs of population resides in urban area, ‘treating’ collected water to meet the specific requirement e.g. industrial or household etc., ‘distributing’ water to end users, treating used water to ‘reuse’ it, ‘managing residuals’ from the treatment processes, ‘screening’ used water before meeting larger water bodies. How does citizen participate at each level in Bangalore is need for study. What are the application that are in place resulted into participation of Bangalore citizens?

Bangalore city has 51 lakes in early 1970’s. Now only 17 are there form which 14 are considered alive13. Water bodies are threatened because of number of causes like sewage, industrial effluent, garbage dumping, encroachment on lake bed, change in land use pattern of lake bed, degradation of catchment and siltation areas, unplanned development in catchment area and mining from lake bed, over extracting ground water and minerals which also resulted in pollution of surface water. How BWSSB is going to tackle with these problems and provide safe drinking water in equitable manner? Department of mines and geology identified Bangalore’s 2.4 million population could face severe water shortage in recent future. Inequitable distribution of water would increase the water shortage situation.

Why Citizens’ Participation is essential in governance of urban water supply systems? Whether to provide equitable supply of water to all individual in sustainable manner or to collect data from citizen for making the service delivery faster and efficient or citizens does not only have right over the water resources but also right to represent themselves in decision making

10 http://www.ichangemycity.com/ 11 http://mybwssb.org/ 12 https://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/43180/43201.aspx 13 http://cseindia.org/agenda2011/pdf/urban_water_crisis_kavarana.pdf


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processes. How can you assess the targets whether achieved or not without representation of citizens’?

Not only to solve above questions but also we have seen certain common problems like distribution of water in urban areas is extremely inequitable, unjust and biased against poor. Policy does not talk about penalizing the wastages of water resource. Waste may take place through infrastructural leakages or through citizen’s overuse or wastage. Use of local technology for harvesting water. Efficient way to solve the problems in service delivery. All these could not be possible without citizens’ participation in Bangalore Water Supply System.

There number of ways in which people can participate in decision making process of governance. Arnstein has defined the ladder of citizens’ participation in decision making process14 mentioned in a table mentioned below, where he has defined how the level of citizens’ participation can be analyzed by looking into the way citizens are participating in decision making processes. He has given 8 levels of citizens’ participation where we can see the role of citizen has been increased at each level from passive audience to hand over them full delegating power over all decision making processes and actions.

Numbers Level Meaning

Level 1 Manipulation assumes a passive audience Level 2 Education given information that may

be partial or constructed Level 3 Information tells people what is going to

happen, is happening, or has happened

Level 4 Consultation People are given a voice, but no power to ensure their views are heeded

Level 5 Involvement People’s views have some influence, but institutional power holders still make the decisions.

Level 6 Partnership People negotiate with institutional power holders over agreed roles, responsibilities and levels of control

Level 7 Delegated Power Some power is delegated Level 8 Citizen Control Full delegation of all decision-

making and actions

14 A Ladder of Citizen Participation, S R Arnstein, July 1969


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4. Introduction to the Research

4.1. Main Question

How do ICTs improve citizen participation to ensure equitable, inclusive and sustainable supply of water in urban areas?

4.2. Sub Questions

Main question will be tackled through following sub questions:

Does Bangalore Urban Water Supply System (BUWSS) have any mechanism to allow citizens’ participation in governance?

At what level citizens are allowed to participate in governance of water supply in Bangalore city?

In what way citizens’ are participating in governance of water supply in Bangalore city? What are the various ICTs in use at various levels of both supply as well as at demand

side? What are their purpose? Which are the ICT applications that are in use, enhances citizens' participation? What are the gaps in current ICTs in ensuring citizens’ participation in governance of

water supply in Bangalore city? What are the perceptions of BWSSB’s officer about citizens’ participation in decision

making process?

5. Framework

5.1. Conceptual Understanding

Figure 2 is designed as a cyclic framework to ensure citizens’ participation in water governance. It starts with assessing the condition of water supply and management in Bangalore. What is the institutional set up in Bangalore for supply of water and management of resources? How Bangalore urban area is managing and governing their water supply systems and resources? Then we need to explore on participation front, in which we need to look into the areas where citizens’ participation is allowed in decision making processes. Here we also need to explore the need for citizens’ participation in urban water governance. We need to explore why citizens’ participation is necessary in case of Bangalore? (Importance of citizens’ participation has already been explored in background and literature review)

Next level is to find out any ICT application in use which results into participation of Bangalore citizens in decision making processes. Is there any need, institutional or citizens’ or societies’, to develop new ICT application to enhance participation level? However in this study I have focused on the institutional need and officers’ perception about citizens’ participation in Bangalore water supply systems. At next level we need to look into data. What kind of data the existing ICT is


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generating through its use? What is the use of it? How many citizens’ are participating in generating the useful data? Is there any institutional structure in place at BWSSB to analyze the data which is generated through citizen participation? Is there proper provision in place to secure the data of citizens?

Fig 2.

(BUWSS – Bangalore Urban Water Supply System)

Framework Approach to Analyze Citizens’ Participation

To ensure citizens’ participation in future in governance of Bangalore urban water supply system, it needs to be verified through same process again? Each city has its own structure and system in place. This makes the city dynamic and requires innovative and unique approach to solve the problem of citizens’ participation in governing structure. Designing one application may not result into participation which need to be verified through cyclic approach. Increase in Population, Urbanization, Industrialization changes the statistics of stakeholders. As well as the vast demographic dividend requires cyclic approach to ensure participation of new stakeholders through innovative methods by designing various applications of ICT.

5.2. Theoretical Understanding

5.2.1. Governance of Urban Water Supply System

It can be defined as urban politico-administrative, social, economic and environmental systems that are in place for decision making process which ensures equitable, inclusive and sustainable supply of water. It focus on process or way in which decisions are made in the system for management and distribution of water resource. The overall urban water supply and management of water resource governance system involves all the formal institutions like


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administrative department, local urban government and informal institutions like markets, civil societies, and individual person. However in what way these institutions and stakeholders influence and interact with each other and how much does one entity influence in decision making process depends on socio, economic, political and environmental scenario of particular area.

5.2.2. Urban Citizens’ Participation

Urban Citizens’ Participation is the process in which ordinary citizen of the city voluntarily whether individually or as a part of group influences a decision making processes which affects their life significantly. Institutions are considered responsible for responding to local needs, to enhance autonomy of local institutions, to ensure inclusive and equitable supply of services, to integrate local resources and locally developed technologies efficiently and effectively. Can we achieve these goals without active citizens’ participation?

Participation is identified as one of the important part of citizen in good governance. International level organizations like International Monitory Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB) as well as our National Government pushing it forward. To ensure participation on large scale is also a challenge for administration. First it takes time to process, second is to merge the gap between state government and urban local bodies, third is finding suitable technology to ensure flow of reliable information from ground level to upper level, and forth is the socio economic diversity of citizens and their thoughts.

Still citizens’ participation is worth achieving because of number of reasons. First, people are the part of city. They lived with their experiences, needs, activities and practices, hence it becomes inevitable for decision makers to include those parts in policy development for supply of water resources. There are number of schools which differs in their view about participation. Neo liberal school will support participation of people through market, social democratic school will support for individual participation, representative democratic school will support for representation through elected members from local bodies. Main concern is people’s voice should get recognition in decision making process. To pick up particular kind of participatory approach one needs to look into kind development of city. Each city has developed in particular way. This will give the idea which kind of participation will be feasible for sustainable water supply of water resource through citizens’ participation.

5.2.3. ICT in Governance of Urban Water Supply Systems

Information communication and technology (ICT) has transformed the era because of its very fast efficient, effective nature of communication. ICT has evolved throughout the history from radio, television, telegrams, telephones, computer, internet, mobiles, and smart phones to satellite communications. Each of this technology has its potential advantage and disadvantage. ICT has transformed the relationship among stakeholders in societies. This has happened due to reduction in people-people, people-institutional and institutional-institutional distances. It has


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potential to provide chance for representation of each and every stakeholder in urban water governing structure.

ICT can be used for data collection, data analysis and visualization, information flow, stakeholder mobilization, capacity building, resource allocation, program monitoring, solving customer based issues quickly, and socially interacting with communities. ICT can be used to enhance feedback loops within the complex systems that constitute city15. This can make the city smarter. This has also a capacity to improve people participation in planning and decision making of supply and management of water resources.

6. Study Approach

6.1. ICT, Citizens’ participation and Governance of Urban Water Supply System

Increasing urbanization, population, pollution and living standards in India. It’s a challenge for government to create a holistic participative model of governance. It becomes more difficult in urban area which we have seen as uncontrolled growth centres. In this scenario, does ICT become ray of hope for citizen participative governance in urban water supply and management of resources? Does ICT become a base for creating good governance scenario in India? Good governance means transparent, efficient, effective, participative decision making system in place. Figure indicates ICT as base for ensuring participation in good governance in urban water supply and management of resources.

Fig 1.

15 Rohan Samarajiva, Shriganesh Lokanathan, Kaushalya Madhava, Gabriel Kreindler, Danaja Maldeniya, “Big Data to Improve Urban Planning” EPW May 30, 2015


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6. Methodology

The study approach was to analyze the perception of BWSSB’s officers about citizens’ participation in decision making. For which I have selected the various departments from BWSSBs’ office which I found relevant to my study. When I got permission to take interviews of different officers from the distinguish departments I chose all the head of the departments which are involved in decision making about their respective department. Then I followed snowball sampling method where I got reference of officers from personal assistant or officers who could not find time to give interview. The whole methodology to understand perception analysis was semi-structured qualitative questionnaire with snowball sampling technique.

7. Data Collection

Data is collected from the interviews from various departmental heads from BWSSB’s office. The head offices are Public Relationship Office, Operation and Maintenance Department, Financial Advisor & Chief Account Office, New Initiative & New Water Department, Project and Kaveri Department. It involved semi structured qualitative as well as quantitative questionnaire. Below mentioned are the questionnaires used in this perception analysis study.

1. In your view, should citizens’ be allowed to participate in decision making processes and why?

2. What are the provisions and mechanism to ensure citizens’ participation in this department? Do you have separate officer appointed for it?

3. Why does department not allow citizens’ participation in decision making process?

4. Do you identify any area which needs citizens’ participation?

5. What are the ICT tools used by the department to ensure citizens grievances in BWSSB?

6. Do you think that citizens’ participation will lead to sustainable and equitable supply of water in Bengaluru?

8. Data Analysis

Data is collected from the interviews of different officials who are involved in decision making process in their respective departments. Questionnaire is based on topics like citizens’ participation, Information communication and technology used by BWSSB, sustainability and equality of water supply in Bengaluru city. There are number of ways through which citizens’ participation is ensured. It starts with democratic setup of our country where our representative and their representation in decision making processes at municipal, legislative or parliament level indirectly considered as citizens’ participation. However above study is to explore the direct


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participation of citizen in daily decision making processes. Following table has mentioned the ways in which citizens’ are participating in BWSSB’s decision making process.

Non ICT ICT Water Adalats Complaint Letters

Helpline Numbers (Call Centers) Payment of bills New User/Connection Registration Contact Numbers of respective departments Emails Service stations – Maps Information about BWSSB (Mission & Vision)

From Interviews it has been revealed that 63% of officers do not support for citizens’ participation and others are supporting to have partial representation. There are number of reasons for not supporting citizens’ participation. First, the cost and investment is done by government and external agencies, second is people at household level are paying subsidized water prices, third is crowdsourcing will not result into concrete decision making, fourth is chairman and other staff is sufficient knowledge to take decision on public’s behalf. Those who supported in favor of participation was only to improve service delivery and to have grievance redressing mechanism in limited sense.

Bangalore water supply system depends on Kaveri water & ground water. Arkavati basin has already been dried. Water table levels has gone down everywhere. Number of lakes has been encroached upon or their boundaries has been shrinking. Unrestricted development is very high at the periphery of the city. Bangalore city has lot of mobile population. People come to work in city and go back to their residential areas which are outside the city. To cater to their needs is also a challenge to BWSSB. Bangalore water supply system is not only unsustainable but also inequitable. Right now there is no plan to make it sustainable and equitable. The role of citizen is not clear in resolving all the water problems of citizens.

9. Results and Findings

BWSSB has been allowing different level of participation in various departments. BWSSB is using ICT to increase awareness level among citizen. They have created infrastructure to improve educational awareness among student or citizens or tourist regarding waste water management and water harvesting techniques. Citizens’ are actively participating in grievance redressed mechanisms. This helps BWSSB to improve the services. However the citizens’ participation in decision making process is strongly prohibited in BWSSB. Even officer at BWSSB have reservation about allowing citizens’ to participate in decision making processes.


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There are 8 levels of citizens’ participation in governance (Arnstein, 1969). These are manipulation, education, information, consultation, involvement, partnership, delegating power and citizens’ control. In case of BWSSB, they achieved manipulation and information levels. However they have not covered educational aspects fully and consultation is only provided to improve services through grievance redress mechanism. However their views regarding how to solve the particular problems through their point of view is not taken into account.

10. Conclusion

Bangalore water supply system is developed in unsustainable manner. Speed of population growth and development is very high in Bangalore. Hence to match demand of water for every sector need an innovative solution. These solutions should be locally suitable and implementable. Even to generate statistics about ground water supply, daily needs of people, usage and equitable access, technological knowhow, awareness level of citizens’ about their native water supply system needs citizens’ participation. Hence citizens’ participation should be enhanced to improve water supply systems.

Participation does not only creates accountability and brings transparency in system of governance but also increase awareness level of citizens. Supreme Court of India made water as fundamental right of every citizen. Now it becomes duty of government to provide minimum amount of water to each citizen. To create equitable accessible sustainable water supply system, which could not be possible without citizens’ participation. Citizen participation will not only increase awareness about their right but also make citizens’ responsible about their resources and its use and by understanding contemporary condition about it in local area.

11. Recommendations and way forward

There is need to improve technology in pipe line water distribution. This kind of distribution system uses valves to control the water flow. As some areas of Bangalore is situated at lower gradient and some at upper gradient levels. To provide equitable water in all areas requires technological solution to control valves. Meter connections have been successful but not sufficient to ensure equitability in water supply. Even there is no policy to save the lakes of this city. There is no policy to look after the revival and maintenance of lakes in this city.

Theme park has been provided to generate awareness level among public regarding water harvesting and conservation technologies. It has been used by school children and staff and tourist. However the Bangalore public involvement is minimal in understanding the water system in Bangalore. There is very less awareness level among citizen regarding Bangalore water supply system. There has been no efforts to understand and note down the local knowledge about conservation of water. There is need to conduct a drive where we can merge the local knowledge


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and contemporary knowledge of water conservation through citizens’ participation in data generation.

Bangalore water problems has integrated with each other. Increasing population, drying of lakes, urbanization, exploitation of ground water resources & decreasing level of ground water, limited quantity of Kaveri water, no awareness among public and not so encouraging mind set of BWSSB’s officer to allow citizens’ participation in decision making process has created water problems in Bangalore. Futuristic solution should not be taken without consulting citizens’ of Bangalore. This will again decrease awareness level among Bangalore citizen about their water supply system. Right now Bangalore citizens’ are not prepared in handling the situation like high level of water scarcity. This could only be possible by enhancing level of awareness through increased participation level in Bangalore water supply systems.

12. Bibliography

1. State of Environment Report, Karnataka, 2011, http://envfor.nic.in/sites/default/files/SOER-Karnataka-2011-EMPRI(I).pdf

2. Conference on Right to Information & Transparency in the digital age, Stanford University, March 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysqlgHGkPhs

3. ICT Tools to support public participation in water resources governance & planning: experiences from the design and testing of a multimedia platform, Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy & Management, Sept 2003, PP 395-420

4. Rohan Samarajiva, Shriganesh Lokanathan, Kaushalya Madhava, Gabriel Kreindler, Danaja Maldeniya, “Big Data to Improve Urban Planning” EPW May 30, 2015

5. A Ladder of Citizen Participation, S R Arnstein, July 1969

6. My City My Budget, http://www.ichangemycity.com/

7. BWSSB Official Website, http://mybwssb.org/

8. https://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/43180/43201.aspx

9. Urban Water Crisis Kavarana, Agenda 2011, CSE India.

10. National Action Plan on Climate Change, Prime minister’s council on climate change, 2008

11. MDG India Country Report 2015, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India

12. Water Harvesting to Augment Water Resources: Traditional Technologies & Communities are part of Solution, Towards Drinking Water Security in India (Lessons from the Field), Water and Sanitation Program, page 76


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13. IWMI Tata Annual partners meeting, South Asia Network on Dam, Rivers & People, 28 Nov 2012

14. C. Ramachandraiah, Drinking Water as Fundamental Right, EPW, Feb 24, 2001

15. The High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC), Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services, 2008

16. Mihir Shah & Himanshu Kulkarni, Urban Water Systems in India: Typology & Hypothesis, EPW, July 2015

17. UNDP Population Projection

Research Report - Kuldeep Ulhe

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