Research methodology fro md teaching

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Quantitative Technique of data collection

By: Dr. Y.L. Tekhre, Prof. Social Sciences

National Institute of Health, New Delhi

What is in this presentation?» Interview» Questionnaires» Observation» Schedules» Check list

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Selection of appropriate method for data collection

• Nature, scope and object of enquiry

• Availability of funds

• Time factor

• Precision required [correct method] which can be measured

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Interview

• This method of data collection involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses, it can be personal and telephonic.

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Characteristics of interview

• Two or more persons• Face to face relations• Specific object• Collection of data

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Main steps of Interview Technique

Preparation of Interview:

–Full knowledge of the problem–Construction of Interview guide–Selection of Interviewers–To know about the interviewers–To determine proper time and place

of interview

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What is personal interview?• Interviewer asking questions generally

in a face-to-face contact to the interviewee

• Personal interview has two form:

– Direct personal investigation:

The interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned. On the spot and meet people from whom data have to be collected. This is suitable for intensive investigations.

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• Indirect oral investigation: can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Commissions and committees appointed by Govt. are in this nature.

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• When we conduct the personal interview, usually we call it STRUCTURED INTERVIEW. It involve a set of predetermined questions and highly standardised techniques of recording.

• In case of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW it is flexible in terms of questions, recording, sequence, but it demand deep knowledge and greater skill

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Merits of the interview method

– More and depth information can be obtained

– Overcome the resistance through own skill

– Flexibility: opportunity to restructure

– Observation method can as well be applied

– Personal information can obtained easily

– Samples can be controlled,no missing returns

– Gather most sp0ntaneious reactions

– Language of the interview can be adopted

– Supplementary information also possible

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Weaknesses of the interview method

• Expensive method: when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken

• Possibility of bias from both side• High level officials may not be approachable• Time consuming: when sample is large• May over-stimulate the respondent• More complex with formidable problems• Rapport building is difficult

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Pre requisites and basic tenets of interview

• Technical competence and necessary practical experience

• Should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial

• Interviewing is an art: Every efforts should be made to create friendly atmosphere

• Discourage irrelevant conversation

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Telephone interviews:

• In this method interviewer contact to the respondents on telephone for data collection. It is now widely used, but plays important part in industrial survey and secrete information specially in developed regions.

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Basic characteristics of Tel Int.

• More flexible in comparison to mailing method

• Faster than other methods, quick way of obtaining information

• Cheaper than personal interviewing• Recall is easy; call backs are simple and

economical• Higher rate of response• Replies can be recorded• No field staff required

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Limitation of Tel. Int.• Surveys are restricted to respondents who have

tel. Facilities• Geographical coverage may get restricted• Little time given to respondents for considered

answers; 5-10 minutes • Not much useful in comprehensive answers are

required to various questions• Possibility of the bias is relatively more• Questions have to be short and to the point;

probes are difficult to handle.

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Piloting process of interview

• Establishment of contact• Beginning of interview

– Rapport, purpose, request etc.• To repeat some encouraging

sentences• To avoid irritating points• Recall

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• Adequate and timely questions• Extra precautions (easy

questions+within the subject)• Noting of information• Controlling, Directing and

Validating of the Interview

• Closing of interview• Report

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Report

– Immediate action

– Maintaining objectivity

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Questionnaires• It is popular method specially in big

enquiries• Private individuals, research workers,

private and public organisations and even by Govt. adopts

• It being posted to the persons concerned with a request to answer and return the questionnaire

• It is mailed and expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply

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Advantage • Low cost even when the universe is large

• Free from the bias of the interviewer

• Adequate time available with the respondents to give well thought out answers

• It can reach to un-reach

• Large sample can be made

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Demerits • Low rate of return of the duly filled in

questionnaires• Only possible when respondents are educated and

cooperative• No control once it is sent• Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of

replies; interpretation difficult• Difficult to know whether willing respondents are

truly representative• It is likely to be the slowest of all

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Basic aspects of a questionnaire• It is the heart of a survey operation• If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound

to failGeneral Form: it can be structured or semi

structure. Question sequence: A proper sequence reduces

individual questions being misunderstood.• Que.Seq. must be clear and smoothly-moving• Easy questions being put in the beginning• Opening questions should be human interest• Personal character, personal wealth and question

which strain memory or intellect avoided

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• Researcher can arrange the order of the questions• Relatively questions can be in the end• Must be general to the more specificQuestion formulation and wording: simple,

meaningful, clear, impartial (Unbiased), should convey only one thought at a time and should conform to the respondent’s way of thinking.

• We can think: Multiple choice and the open-end question, there ‘R’ some advantages and disadvantages of each possible form of question

• The various forms complement each other

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• Open-ended questions provide a more complete picture of the respondent’s feelings and attitudes

• Words with ambiguity, emotional connotations and double meaning should be avoided

Essentials of a good questionnaire:

• Size (small, minimum, short and simple)• Logical sequence (easy to difficult)

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• Technical terms and vague expressions

• Cross-check questions must be included

• Adequate space for answers• Indications for uncertainty. e.g.,

‘do not know’ ‘no preference’• Brief direction towards filling up• Quality of the paper, colour, return

postal, clear address, request etc.

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Observation Why this method: specially in studies relating to

behavioural sciences in which observation is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability in relation to research purpose

• In this method direct observation made without asking from the respondent

Advantage: – Consumer behaviour– Subjective bias is eliminated– What is currently happening can be gathered

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– Independent of respondents’ willingness– Useful when the respondents – not

capable of giving verbal reports of their feeling for one reason or the other

Limitation:

• Expensive• Limited information• Unforeseen situation can interfere • Some people are rarely accessible to direct• observation

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What to be kept in mind while using observation

• What to should be observed?• How the observation should be recorded• Accuracy of observation• Structured & unstructured observation• Structure observation is considered

appropriate in descriptive studies and unstructured observation is an exploratory study.

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Participant and non participant types of observation

• This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing: group experience

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SCHEDULE

Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled in by an interviewer in a face to face situation with another person… William

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Basic aspects of schedule

• The schedule has to be filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose

• In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions

• Enumerators explain the aims and objectives• Selection of enumerators should be careful

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• Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination in order to find out the truth

• Schedule method is useful in extensive enquiries, governmental agencies or big organisations.

• Population census all over the world and NFHS and RCH in India is known well.

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Objectives of schedule

• Valid and objective study

• Guard against incomplete collection of information

• Systematic collection of data

• Discarding unnecessary data

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Content of schedule

• Introductory information

• Main questions and tables

• Instructions for investigators

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Questions of schedule

• Open end questions

• Structured questions

• Dichotomous questions– yes/no

• Multiple choice questions

• Leading questions – hints, clues

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What type of questions are to be included

• Short, small• Level of respondent• In tabulated form• Related to objective• Direct and indirect• Systematic• Individual/emotional/secret.. Avoid• Cross-questions

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Process of preparing schedule

First stage: Prior considerations» Items» Subjects, different

Second Stage:Classification of information of each part

Third Stage:» Construction of Questions» Language» Content – clear, easy, meaningful» Relevant questions

4th Stage: Validity

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Physical features of schedule

–Paper

–Size of the schedule

–Margin

–Spacing

–Printing

–Use of pictures

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Difference between questionnaires and schedules

Questionnaire• Sent through mail• Relatively economical• Non-response is high• Not clear as to who

replies• Slow: Not in time• No personal contact• Only when respnd.

literate

Schedule • Filled out by the researcher• Relatively more

expensive• Non-response is low• Respondent is known• Time frame: certainty• Personal contact possible• Possible even

illiterate

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Contd…

• Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible

• Physical appearance must be quite attractive

• Observation method can not be used at all

• Success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality

• Wider area is difficult to cover while sending enumerators for filling up

• Not necessarily, can be explained on the spot

• Observation method can also be used

• Much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators