report on computer networking

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www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

ON

COMPUTER NETWORKING


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Guidance Of

Under Guidance of Prepared ByMr. M.D.Mishra Pawan Sharma

B.Tech. Third Year(Information Tech & Engg.)

GHEC Kumarhatti

Solan (shimla)

Summer Training Report OnComputer Networking


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TABLE OF CONTENT

i Acknowledgement2 Certificate3 Table of Content4 About the Company

1. Introduction toNetworking DefinitionRequirement of Networking

2. Types of NetworkLAN (Local Area Network)WAN (Wide Area Network)

3. Network

Models OSI Model

4. CablesTwisted CableCoaxial CableFibre Optic

5. NetworkingDevices NetworkInterface Card HubSwitch

Router

6. IP Addressing

Introduction Private

IP

Masking

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking


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SubnettingExample

7. LAN Solution

Requirement

SolutionSpecification Sheet

8. RouterInternal ComponentsNetwork InterfacesConfiguringConfiguring using ConsoleRouting Protocols

RIPIGRPAccess List

9. Firewall

Introduction

Technologies

Configuring

10. WLANStandards

TopologiesInfrastructure Network

Adhoc Network

11. Intrusion Detection System (IDS)HIDS NIDS

Techniques

12. Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN) ChannelsInterfaces

Functional Group

Reference Points

13. WAN Solution14. Self Evaluation



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Summer TrainingReport On ComputerNetworking


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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

Definition :-

A network is a system that transmits any combination of voice, video and/or data

between users. A network can be defined by its geographical dimensions and bywhich the users PC access it.

A network consists of a:

1 The network operating system (Windows NT/2000TM

/Xp) on the usersPC (client) and server.

2 The cables connecting all network devices (users PC, server, peripherals,etc.).

3 All supporting network components (hubs, routers and switches, etc.).Computer Network means an interconnected collection of

autonomous computers.

Requirement of NetworkingResource sharing - To make all programs, equipment, and especially data

available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the

resource and the user.

High reliability- As all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if

one of them is unavailable (due to hardware failure), the other copies could be

used.

Scalability- It is the ability to increase system performance gradually as theworkload grows just by adding more processors.A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium along

widely separated employees.

The use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication will probably

prove more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.

These are the requirement with respect to companies but computer networking is

required even in the normal day to day life as we have to access the internet to

get information about what all new happening in the world, to have

communication with people staying far away using the e mail service.

These are the reasons that forced the inventerors to invent the networking

devices, models and protocols etc.

And the birth of Networking took place in 1844 when for the first time Samuel

Morse send the first telegraph message.



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TYPES OF NETWORKS

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

These are privately owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a

few a kilometers in size.LANs are distinguished from other networks by three characteristics:1) Their size.2) Their transmission technology.3) Their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission timeis bounded and known in advance.LANs often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to whichall the machines are attached.LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delays, and make very few

errors.


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LAN SETUP

IEEE has produced several standards for LANs. These standards collectively known as IEEE 802 .IEEE802.3 (Ethernet), IEEE802.4 (Token Bus), IEEE802.5 (Token Ring)



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WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

It is a Computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area, often acountry or continent. Typically a WAN consists of two or more Local AreaNetwork.

Computers connected to WAN are often connected through public networks suchas telephone systems. They can also be connected through leased lines orsatellites. The largest WAN in existence is Internet.WANs run at speed of maximum 2 to 10 Mbps.

WAN SETUP

For most WANs, the long distance bandwidth is relatively slow: on the order of


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kilobits per second (kbps) as opposed to megabits per second (Mbps) for local-

area networks (LANs). For example, an Ethernet LAN has a 10 Mbps bandwidth;

a WAN using part or all of a T1 carrier has a bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps .

Three types of approaches are used to connect WANs:

1) Circuit switching, which provides a fixed connection (at least for the duration of

a call or session), so that each packet takes the same path. Examples of thisapproach include ISDN, Switched 56, and Switched T1.

2) Packet switching, which establishes connections during the transmissionprocess so that different packets from the same transmission may take differentroutes and may arrive out of sequence at the destination. Examplesof this approach are X.25, frame relay, and ATM.

3) Leased lines, which can provide a dedicated connection for private useSummer Training Report OnComputer Networking


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NETWORK MODELS

Layering Concepts and Benefits

Many benefits can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions ortasks of networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and defining standardinterfaces between these layers. The layers break a large, complex set ofconcepts and protocols into smaller pieces, making it easier to talk about, toimplement with hardware and software, and to troubleshoot.The following list summarizes the benefits of layered protocol Specifications:

Humans can more easily discuss and learn about the many details of a protocol

specification.

Standardized interfaces among layers facilitate modular engineering.

A better environment for interoperability is created. One vendor can write

software that implements higher layersfor example, a Web browserand

another can write software that implements the lower layersfor example,

Microsofts built-in TCP/IP software in its operating systems.

Reduced complexity allows easier program changes and faster product

evolution.

One layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it. Therefore,

remembering what each layer does is easier. (For example, the network layerneeds to deliver data from end to end. To do this, it uses data links to forward

data to the next successive device along that end-to-end path.)

OSI NETWORK MODEL

The OSI model describes how information makes its way from application

programs through a network medium to another application program in other

computer. It divides one big problem in to seven smaller problems . Each

problem is addressed by one of the seven layers of the OSI model.



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Functions of Network Layers in Brief:

APPLICATION LAYER

1 Used for applications specifically written to run over the network2 Allows access to network services that support applications;3 Directly represents the services that directly support user applications4 Handles network access, flow control and error recovery5 Example apps are file transfer, e-mail, Net BIOS-based applications

PRESENTATION LAYER

1 Translates from application to network format and vice-versa2 All different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform

format that the rest of the OSI model can understand3 Responsible for protocol conversion, character conversion, data

encryption / decryption, expanding graphics commands, data compression4 Sets standards for different systems to provide seamless communication

from multiple protocol stacks5 Not always implemented in a network protocol



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SESSION LAYER

1 Establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network2 Responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the

designated parties can participate in the session

3 Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the datastream => if session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint needbe transmitted

4 Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long5 Examples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the session

would connect and re-connect if there was an interruption; recognize

names in sessions and register names in history

TRANSPORT LAYER

1 Additional connection below the session layer2 Manages the flow control of data between parties across the network3 Divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of the

receiving computer reassembles the message from packets4 "Train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into identical units5 Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on

losses or duplications6 Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions;

requests retransmission if some packets dont arrive error-free7 Provides flow control and error-

handling TCP, ARP, RARP;

NETWORK LAYER

1 Translates logical network address and names to their physical address(e.g. computer name ==> MAC address)

2 Responsible for addressing and determining routes for sending3 Managing network problems such as packet switching, data

congestion and routing4 If router cant send data frame as large as the source computer sends, the

network layer compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At thereceiving end, the network layer reassembles the data

5 Think of this layer stamping the addresses on each train car

IP; ARP; RARP, ICMP; RIP; OSFP;



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DATA LINK LAYER

1 Turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits intopackets.

2 Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers3 The receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data

frames for delivery to the Network layer4 Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via

the Physical Layer5 This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the

network. It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to

the wiring, the signaling involved to transmit / receive data and the abilityto detect signaling errors on the network media

Logical Link Control

1 Error correction and flow control2 Manages link control and defines SAPs

PHYSICAL LAYER

1 Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable2 Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects3 Defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to NIC

4 Defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable

IP ADDRESSING

Every machine on the internet has a unique identifying number, called an IPAddress. A typical; IP address looks like this:216.27.61.45

IP ADDRESS is a 32-bit number, usually written in dotted decimal form, that

uniquely identifies an interface of some computer. This 32 -bit number is dividedinto 4 octets each separated by a decimal. Out so many values certain values

are restricted for use as typical IP address. For example, the IP address 0.0.0.0

is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255is used forbroadcast.

Each IP address is split into 2 sections:

1) Network address

2) Host address



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Individual IP address in same network all have a different value in the host part of

address, but they have identical value in network part, just as in town there are

different street address but same ZIP code.

There are five IP classes:

Class A This class is for very large networks, such as a major international

company. IP addresses with a first octet from 1 to 126 are part of this class. Theother three octets are each used to identify each host.

Net Host or Node

54. 24.54.43

Loopback- The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the loopback address. This

means that it is used by the host computer to send a message back to itself. It is

commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing.

Class B- Class B is used for medium-sized networks. A good example is a largecollege campus. IP addresses with a first octet from 128 to191 are part of this

class. Class B addresses also include the second octet as part of the Net

identifier. The other two octets are used to identify each host.

NetHost orNode

145.24 53.198

Class C- Class C addresses are commonly used for small to mid-size business.

IP addresses with a first octet from192 to 223 are part of this class. Class Caddresses also include the second and third octets as part of Net identifier. The

last octet is used to identify each host.

Net Host or Node

196.54.34 86

Class D- It is used for multicast. It has first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1,

third bit value of 1 and fourth bit value of 0. The other 28 bits are used to identify

the group of computers the multicast messages is intended for.

Net Host or Node

224 24.54.145

Class E- It is used for experimental purpose only.

Net Host or Node

240. 23.45.105



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Private IP

It is not necessary that every time we make a network we are connected to some

ISP (Internet Service Provider). So in that case we require some private IP also

which can be used in indigenous networks .In each class a range of IPaddresses have been defined for this purpose

CLASS A 10.0.0.1 to 10.255.255.244

CLASS B 172.16.0.1 to 172.34.255.254

CLASS C 192.168.0.0/16

MASKING

Computers use a mask to define size of network and host part of an address.

Mask is a 32-bit number written in dotted decimal form. It provides us the network

address when we perform a Boolean AND of mask with the IP address. It also

define number of host bits in an address.

Class Size of Size of Default Mask

ofnetwork Host for Each

addres Part of Part of Class of

saddress,

address, Network

in bits in bitsA 8 24 255.0.0.0B 16 16 255.255.0.0

C 24 8255.255.255.0

SUBNETTING

Basically it is a process of subdividing networks into smaller subnets.In case we have 2-3 small networks but we cant buy IP address for each and


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every network. So here we use the basic concept of SUBNETTING i.e using one

public IP address we will give them IP address and make them independent

networks. For this we take some bits of host address and use them for network

address so we have different independent networks

Address Format when Subnetting Is Used (class A,B,C resp.):

8 24-x x

Network Subnet Host

1616-x x

Network Subnet Host

24 8-x x

NetworkSubnet Host

And due to this mask changes to subnet mask and now the network address also

includes subnet address.



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Example

If subnet mask is 255.255.240.0And an IP address for a computer is given as142.16.52.4 142.16.0.0 is network address

0.0.48.0 is the subnet address0.0.4.4 is the host address of the computer

10001110.00010000.00110100.00000100 is ANDed with11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000and output is 10001110.00010000.00110000.00000000here first two octets represents Network address and third octet representssubnet address.It can be compared with a postal address as there is only one ZIP code (Network

address), different streets (Subnet address), and different house number (Host

address).

Some terminologies those are used with

Networking models:

Collision Domain- It is the group of PCs in which collision will occur

when two PC will transmit data simultaneously.

Broadcast Domain- It is the group of PCs those will receive same

broadcast message.

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection)- In

this protocol when a PC wants to transmit any packet it sense the

carrier i.e the path ,if no other PC is using the carrier then only it sends.

If two PCs starts sending data simultaneously collision will occur. Both

PCs will wait for some random time and then initiate the same process.

MAC (Media Access Control) . The IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and802.5

(Token Ring) are the MAC sub layers of these two LAN data-link

protocols.

Burned-in address: The 6-byte address assigned by the vendormakingthe card. It is usually burned in to a ROM or EEPROM on the LAN

card and begins with a 3- byte organizationally unique identifier (OUI)

assigned by



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the IEEE.

Locally administered address: Through configuration, anaddress

that is used instead of the burned-in address.

Unicast address: Fancy term for a MAC that represents asingleLANinterface.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS

Passive components are those devices which are used to provideconnectivity between different networking devices.

It includes1 Cables2 Patch Panel3 Patch Cord4 I/O box5 Racks6 RJ-45 Connectors

CABLES

There are different Cabling options depending on the access method :


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Twisted pair

The wires are twisted around each other to

minimize interference from other twisted pairs in the cable.

Twisted pair cables are available unshielded (UTP)

or shielded (STP). UTP is the most common type

and uses a RJ-45 Connector.

Typical lengths are up to 100m.

Twisted pair network uses a star topology.



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Coaxial

Coaxial cable uses BNC connectors.

The maximum cable lengths are around 500m.

Coaxial networks use a single bus topology

Fiber Optic

UTP and Co-axial cables are not capable for driving the data signals for long

distance i.e. UTP is capable of transmitting up to a distance 100 meters only By

using the Fiber cables it is possible to send the data about 10 kilometers. Fiber

optic cable uses SC, ST, LC connectors (most common in use is SC connector)

In fiber cables the data is converted to light signals and the signal is made topropagate through the fiber cable. There are two types of Fibre optic cable

available.

1. Single mode: In this mode typical length is up to 12km and data rate is

1000Mbps. The core diameter is about 9.25 nm cable is known as 1000 base LX

cable.

2. Multi mode: This mode is further categorised in two:

1) SX: Typical length is up to 500m and data rate is 1000Mbps.


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2) FX: Typical length is up to 220m and data rate is 100Mbps.



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PATCH PANEL

A patch panel provides a convenient place to terminate (connect) all of the cablecoming from different locations into the wiring closet. We connect the cables

coming from various locations willing to connect to switch through the patch

panel.

NEED OF PATCH PANELWe can label the patch panel so we know that which wire belongs to which

location. Without a patch panel, it is chaotic. If we want to disconnect a station

from the switch, it's a lot easier if there's a label.

Most cabling is wired "straight-through" from end to end. But sometimes weneed to cross-wire some of the pairs between switch and station, like with a

cable modem, or cross-wire to connect two switches. With a patch panel, all of

this cross-wiring is done in the patch cable. If you have to make any changes,like moving a station or switch, you just move the patch cable with it, instead of

having to reterminate the cable run.


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PATCH CORD

RACKWe have to mount the patch panel somehow. The best way is to buy a rack.Basically, a rack is a pair of vertical rails with holes drilled in them so that we can

mount patch panels, hubs, and other network equipment. This made it easy to

access the back of the patch panel and other networking components.

Cabling Guidelines

The RJ-45 ports on the switch support automatic MDI/MDI-X operation, so wecanuse standard straight-through twisted-pair cables to connect to any other networkdevice (PCs, servers, switches, routers, or hubs).We use only twisted-pair cables with RJ-45 connectors that conform to FCC

standards.

Connecting to PCs, Servers, Hubs and Switches

1. Attach one end of a twisted-pair cable segment to the devices RJ-45connector.


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Making Twisted-Pair Connections

2. The port where we are connecting the RJ-45 is a network card, attach the

other end of the cable segment to a modular wall outlet that is connected



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to the wiring closet . Otherwise, attach the other end to an available porton the switch.

Make sure each twisted pair cable does not exceed 100 meters (328 ft) in length.

Wiring Closet Connections

Today, the punch-down block is an integral part of many of the newer equipmentracks. It is actually part of the patch panel. Instructions for making connectionsin the wiring closet with this type of equipment follow.

1. Attach one end of a patch cable to an available port on the switch, and theother end to the patch panel.

2. If not already in place, attach one end of a cable segment to the back ofthe patch panel where the punch-down block is located, and the other endto a modular wall outlet.

3. Label the cables to simplify future troubleshooting.


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NETWORKING DEVICESSummer Training Report OnComputer Networking


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Networking devices do various kind of jobs like transferring the data to signals,providing connectivity to different network devices, transferring the data in form ofpackets or frames form one device to other. These are the central connectionsfor all the network equipments and handles a data type known as frame or

packet. Actually frames/ packet contain data and the destination address ofwhere it is going. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmittedon to port of destination PC. But different networking components do this job in

diff form at diff layers.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a circuit board that plugs into both clients andservers and controls the exchange of data between them (A specific softwaredriver must be installed depending on the make of the NIC. A physicaltransmission medium, such as twisted pair or coaxial cable interconnects all

network interface cards to network hubs or switches. Ethernet and Token Ringare common network interface cards. Todays cards supports 10baseT and

100baseT with automatic recognition.

HUB

When the need for interconnecting more then 2 devices together then a deviceknown as hub comes to picture. Basically hub is a layer one device. i.e. itoperates on the physical layer of the OSI model. It is designed to dobroadcasting i.e when it gets any frame it broadcasts it to every port irrespective

that whether it is destined for that port or not. Hub has no way of distinguishingwhich port a frame should be sent. Broadcasting results in lot of traffic on thenetwork which lead to poor network response. If two PC simultaneously transmitthere data packets and both are connected to a HUB, then collision will occur, sowe can say, it creates a single collision domain. On the other hand all PCsconnected to a hub will get a same message so a single broadcast domain willbe created.

A 100/1000 Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its

ports. So when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the max

available bandwidth. If, however, multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that

bandwidth will need to be divided between all of these systems, which will

degrade the performance. They are usually Half-Duplex in nature.



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SWITCH

Hubs are capable of joining more than two PC but having some demerits like iftwo PC would want to communicate at a time then there would be a collision and

the both PC would have to send the data once again. This shortcoming of Hub isovercame by Switches. Switches are intelligent devices which work on theLayer2 of the OSI model. Basically a switch keeps a record of MAC addresses ofall the devices connected to it. Using this information, it builds a MAC addresstable. So when a frame is received, it knows exactly which port to send it to,which increases the network response time.

Basic Working Principle of Switch.

1. At the time of initializing the switch the MAC address table is yet to be builtup. When a frame is send by some of the PC, it recognises the source

MAC address and update the MAC address table.2. If the destination is available in the MAC table then forward to the

corresponding PC.3. If the destination MAC address is not present in the table then forwards in

all the port available expect the incoming one. The designated PC will

respond for the data and it will send the acknowledge for the data

received. This acknowledged data will be examined by the switch and the

MAC address table would be up dated accordingly.

If two PC simultaneously transmit there data packets and both are connected to

a SWITCH, then collision will not occur, so we can say, it creates a multiple

collision domain.

The switch supports broadcast. Hence we can call switches create single

broadcast domain and multiple collision domains.

A 100/1000Mbps switch will allocate a full 100/1000 Mbps to each of its ports. So

regardless of the no of PCs transmitting user will always have access to max

amt of bandwidth. They are usually Full-Duplex in nature.

Switches are of two types

1) Managed

2) Unmanaged

Managed switch supports SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)



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Different switching Principles:-

1. Store-and-forward:- The switch fully receives all bits in the frame (store)

before forwarding the frame (forward). This allows the switch to check the FCS

before forwarding the frame. (FCS is in the Ethernet trailer.)

2. Cut-through:- The switch performs the address table lookup as soon as the

destination address field in the header is received. The first bits in the frame can

be sent out the outbound port before the final bits in the incoming frame are

received. This does not allow the switch to discard frames that fail the FCS

check. (FCS is in the Ethernet trailer.)

3. Fragment Free:- This performs like cut-through switching, but the switch waits

for 64 bytes to be received before forwarding the first bytes of the outgoing

frame. According to Ethernet specifications, collisions should be detected during

the first 64 bytes of the frame; frames in error because of a collision will not beforwarded. The FCS still cannot be checked.

Bridge is another device like switch which also operates basing on the MAC

address. But the Basic difference between the bridge and the switch is that

bridge works on software bases, but the switch works on hardware basic. The

Switch works on ASICs ( Application Specific Integrated Circuits)

ROUTER

Switch and the Hub can only interconnect devices in a single LAN. For

interconnecting two LAN or two or more different networks anther device knownas router is used. Its main job is to route ( sends ) packets to other networks andto do the routing ( establishing paths between networks ) it uses the IP address.

A router is typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs orWANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. Routers are located at gateways, theplaces where two or more networks connect. Routers to determine the best pathfor forwarding the packet are using forwarding tables.

It is a layer 3 device i.e it operates at network layer of OSI model. The workingprinciple of the router is totally different from a switch. Router makes a tableknown as routing table, which contains all the IP address in the network, theinformation for IP address router obtains directly ( all configured IP address on it )or indirectly ( from neighbour routers ). When a packet is received it comparesthe destination IP address of the packet with the available IP addresses in itsRouting table. If the IP address is not available in the routing table then it simplydiscard the packet instead of flooding in all the ports like a switch.(DetailedInformation about router in chap )



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Comparison between Hub, Bridge, Switch & Router

Feature Hub Bridge Switch Router Number of 1 perbroadcast router

domains Segment 1 1 interfaceNumber of 1 per 1 per collision bridge 1 per switch router

domains 1 port portinterface

Forwards LAN

broadcasts? 1 Yes Yes NoYes; can be

Forwards LANoptimized forless

multicasts N/A Yes forwarding NoOSI layer usedwhen makingforwarding

decision N/A Layer 2 Layer 2 Layer 3Store-and-

Internalforward, cut-

Store- through, Store-processing and- FragmentFre and-

variants N/A forward e forwardFrame/packetfragmentation

allowed? N/A No No YesMultipleconcurrentequal-costpathsto samedestination

allowed? N/A No No Yes

Summer Training Report On


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Computer Networking


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LAN SOLUTION

CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT

There is a company, which has 2 offices. And the offices are 200 meters apart.The connectivity between these two offices is the main requirement to be fulfilled.

In each office there are three different departments each department at different

floor.

In building Ist

At each floor there are 20 users and also at 3rd floor there are 2 Servers.

In building IInd

At floor 1st and 2nd there are 20 users each. And at 3rd floor there are 40 users.

The bandwidth requirement of each user is 100 Mbps while the bandwidthrequirement for the server is 1 Gbps.

All floors must be connected to a central switch to be placed at IInd floor in office

2nd. And connectivity should be via optical fiber.

Everywhere there should be structured cabling.

Every switch should be provide with one GBIC slot for future connectivity ofserver.Every where smart and managed switch should be used.



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SOLUTION

By looking at the requirement it is clear that we require a switch that has got 20

ports and also 2 GBIC slots (one for optical fiber connectivity and one free slot isdemanded for future use).

Keeping this point into consideration we can use HCL 24 Port ManagedStackable Switch as this switch has got 24 ports and 2 GBIC slots and this switchis managed switch also.

And with this 24 port switch we will use 24 port HCL made Patch PanelAnd for connectivity of patch panel with switch we require 3 ft Patch Cord. Asstructured cabling is must so we require UTP cable and I/O box and to connectPCs with I/O box we require 7ft Patch Cord.Here we will use Cat5e UTP cable because bandwidth requirement is 100 Mbps

This trend of connecting the users to the switch will be followed at each andevery floor but at floor 3rd of building IInd there are 40 user so here instead of 1

switch we require 2 switches.

At 3rd floor of building 1st 2 servers are also present whose bandwidth

requirement is 1Gbps. So now we have two options either to connect with UTPcable or Fiber optic cable. But here we will use fiber optic as we are alreadyusing it so thee is no need to waste money on UTP Cat 6 Cable. So here we willsimply use the fiber optic patch cord to connect the server to switch.

Now only one thing is left i.e. connection of switches to a central switch placed at

2

nd

floor of IInd building.As the connection requirement is via optical fiber so we at central location we

require a switch having all its ports as GBIC slots and no of ports should not be

more than 8 as there are only 7 24 port switches in use (one optical cable line

from each switch)

Now here as the distance between the two offices is only 200 meters so here we

will use multimode optical fiber and that too FX type and as the cable is to be laid

in open so outdoor armored cable will be use.



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The connectivity diagram, the bill of material and the specification sheet for the

solution is given in the following pages.

SPECIFICATION SHEET

HCL-24TMS-2S-W

HCL 24 Port Managed Stackable Switch

STANDARDS- IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) , IEEE802.3a (Fast Ethernet),IEEE802.2ab (Gigabit Ethernet), IEEE802.3z(1000Base SX/LX)

PORTS- 24 port auto negotiation 10 base T/100 base TX2optional modular expansion ports (1000 base-T, 1000 baseLX/SX/FX)

MAC Addresses- 4K

BANDWIDTH- 12Gbps

SWITCHING RATE- 6.6Mbps

SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol)- Yes, and supportsRFC1157

WEB MANAGEABLE- Yes

PC-C305-E

CAT 5 e CABLE

Enhanced CAT 5 350 MHzUTP Bulk Cable4 PairsSolid GreyLength: 305 Meters

PC-JP24-ESummer Training Report OnComputer Networking


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PATCH PANEL

Unshielded 24 Port RJ-45 jack for performance @ rated 100 MbpsFully Complied to e CAT 5 T568A/B standards1.6mm metallic Patch Panel 19'' Rack Mount frame 1U Fully powder coated

Black

PC-MC3-GE

3 ft. patch cord

3 ft. Enhance CAT.5 350 MHzGrey Patch Cord

UTP twisted pair with Black Snagless Flange Boot

PC-MC7-GE

7 ft. patch cord

7 ft. Enhance CAT.5 350 MHzGrey Patch Cord

UTP twisted pair with Black Snagless Flange Boot.

PF-CM6-A-OM2

outdoor armoured Fiber optic cable - Multimode

Construction: Corrugated steel tape armoured cableconstructionMultimode 62.5/125m cable

No of Cores 6 fibre core cables.

Length- 1 meter

PF-PMSC-SC-3D-50

SC-SC Duplex Patch cord Multimode

Patch Cords cable 50/125m Multi modePatch Cords connectors SC/ST Connectors MM patch cords



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OFC Patch cord is duplex type of 3mtrs length

PF-COSC-M

SC Connector Multi mode

Easy connection & disconnection Pull -- Push type

PF-CPSC-M

SC Coupler mm (Included in the Fiber Patch Panel)

Low Insertion loss

Type SC - SC type

PF-LIU-12U

12 Core LIU ( Line Insertion Unit )

Wall mount 12 way Fibre Jack PanelBase Unit + 12 MM SC couplers with panel

PF-LIU-6U

6 Core LIU (Line Insertion Unit)

Wall mount 6 way Fibre Jack PanelBase Unit + 6 MM SC couplers with panel.



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ROUTER

ROUTER INTERNAL COMPONENTS

Like a computer, a router has a CPU that varies in performance and capabilities

depending upon router platform. It has typically 4 types of memory in it.:

ROM- It is used to store the routers bootstrap startup program, operating system

software, and power-on diagnostic tests programs. We can also upgrade our

ROM

FLASH MEMORY- It holds operating systems image(s). Flash memory is

erasable, reprogrammable ROM. Our IOS software is present in this memory and

we can upgrade it also. Flash content is retained even when we switch off or

restart the router.RAM- It is used to store operational information such as routing tables, routers

running configuration file. RAM also provides caching and packet buffering

capabilities. Its content is lost when we switch off or restart the router. When we

configure the router at that time actually we are writing in RAM.

NVRAM- It is used to store the routers startup configuration file. It does not lose

data when power is switched off. So the contents of startup configuration files are

maintained even when we switch off or restart the router.

ROUTERS NETWORK INTERFACES


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Ethernet or Token Ring interface are configured to allow connection to a LAN.

Synchronous serial interfaces are configured to allow connections to WANs.

ISDN BRI interfaces are configured to allow connection to an ISDN WAN.

All cisco routers have a console port that provides an EIA/TIA-232

asynchronous serial connection. Console port can be connected to computers

serial connection to gain terminal access to router.

Most routers also have an auxiliary port that is very similar to console port but,

is typically used for modem connection for remote router management.

CONFIGURING THE ROUTER


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There are three methods for configuring the router:

1) Through console port:- The console port is used for configuring a router

locally with the help of a PC or a Laptop. The console port of the router is

connected to the serial i.e COM port of the router. The detailed

configuration is given in the section.

2) Through the AUX port:- The aux ( auxiliary ) port is accessed from a

modem located faraway from a router through the PSTN ( Public Switched

Telephone Network ) and the configuration is done.

3) Through Telnet:- Line vty ( virtual terminal ) 0 to 4 are used for theconfiguring the router by telnet.



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Configuring Router through Console port

We use HyperTerminal Program to open a console session and log into therouter locally. This console connection allows to connect to and to communicatewith router without having to connect to the network to which it belongs. Now, thePC becomes the console that allows to enter commands and communicatedirectly with the router. To set up a console session, we use the workstationsWindows HyperTerminal (terminal emulation) program. Now first of all weconfigure the COM port settings, then log into the router to interact with the IOScommand line interface (CLI). These are the com port settings:

96008N1On/off

After pressing enter or OK to accept these settings, we came across a blank

window. This is a session window.

The Following steps are adopted to access a router through the console port witha Windows based PC.

Access Hyper terminal:- Start Menu Programs Accessories Communication

Hyperterminal


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Connect to the device of the PC



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COM 1 Setting


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Hyper terminal Screen



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After connecting the router that will boot and after booting the followingprocedures will be adopted.Router> enable

Now automatically prompt asking for password will appear on the screen like this:

Password:Now write password over here. This is done to secure access to router. After this

Router#will appear on the screen this shows that we are in privileged mode and now we

try to enter in configuration mode.

Router# configure terminal

This is done to enter configuration mode.Now starts the configuration of routerNow we will assign IP address to each and very interface connected to router.

Subnet mask should be given with a proper care. Following steps are to be

followed:

For configuring ethernet interface:

Router# config terminalRouter (config)# interface ethernet 0



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Router (config-if)# ip address 223.8.151.1 255.255.255.0Router (config-if)# no shutdownRouter (config-if)#exit

For configuring serial interface:

Router (config)# interface serial 0Router (config-if)# ip address 204.204.7.1 255.255.255.0Router (config-if)# no shutdownRouter (config-if)#exitRouter (config)# interface serial 1Router (config-if)# ip address 199.6.13.2 255.255.255.0Router (config-if)# no shutdownRouter(config-if)# exit

ROUTING PROTOCOLS

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)RIP is a dynamic, distance vector routing protocol. RIP uses UDP port 520 forroute updates. RIP calculates the best route based on hop count. This makesRIP very fast to convergeRIP sends full table updates at regular intervals specified by the route-update

timer (30 seconds is the default). This means that a RIP router summarizes all

routes it knows along classful boundaries and sends the summary information to

all other RIP routing devices. RIP updates can contain up to 25 messages.

RIP TIMERS

TIMERDEFAULT CONTROLS

update 30 sec. Interval between route update advertisementstimeout 180 sec. Interval a route should stay 'live' in the routing table.

This counter is reset every time the router hears an update forthis

Flush

route.

240 sec.How long to wait from the time the routewas

received to delete a route (60 seconds after timeout).

The routing-update timer controls the time between routing updates. Default isusually 30 seconds, plus a small random delay to prevent all RIP routers fromsending updates simultaneously.The route -timeout timer controls when a route is no longer available. The defaultis usually 180 seconds. If a router has not seen the route in an update during thisspecified interval, it is dropped from the router's announcements. The route ismaintained long enough for the router to advertise the route as down (hop countof 16).The route-flush timer controls how long before a route is completely flushed from

the routing table. The default setting is usually 120 seconds.


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BASIC RIP CONFIGURATION

According to the recollection of InetDaemon, configuring a Cisco router for a

basic RIP configuration would look something like this:

router> enable

Password:router# conf t

router(config)#interface ethernet 0router(config-if)# ip address192.168.42.1 router(config-if)# interfaceethernet 1 router(config-if)# ip address192.168.43.1 router(config-if)# exitrouter(config)# router rip router(config-router)# network 192.168.42.0router(config-router)# network192.168.43.0 router(config-router)# exit

router(config-router)# ^zrouter#

The example above assumes that the interfaces that will be running RIP have IP

addresses on them that fall within the 192.168.42.0, and 192.168.43.0 class C

ranges.

IGRP

IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol that considers a composite metricwhich, by default, uses bandwidth and delay as parameters instead of hop count.IGRP is not limited to the 15-hop limit of RIP. IGRP has a maximum hop limit of

100, by default, and can be configured to support a network diameter of 255.With IGRP, routers usually select paths with a larger minimum-link bandwidthover paths with a smaller hop count. Links do not have a hop count. They areexactly one hop.IGRP is available only on Cisco routersIGRP will load-balance traffic if there are several paths with equal cost to the

destination

IGRP sends its routing table to its neighbors every 90 seconds. IGRP's defaultupdate period of 90 seconds is a benefit compared to RIP, which can consumeexcessive bandwidth when sending updates every 30 seconds. IGRP uses an

invalid timer to mark a route as invalid after 270 seconds (three times the updatetimer). As with RIP, IGRP uses a flush timer to remove a route from the routingtable; the default flush timer is set to 630 seconds (seven times the update periodand more than 10 minutes).If a network goes down or the metric for the network increases, the route is

placed in holddown. The router accepts no new changes for the route until the

holddown timer expires. This setup prevents routing loops in the network. The

default holddown timer is 280 seconds (three times the update timer plus 10

seconds).



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IGRP Timer Default Time

Update 90 seconds

Invalid 270 seconds

Holddown 280 seconds

Flush 630 seconds

IP ACCESS LIST

IP access lists cause a router to discard some packets based on criteria definedby the network engineer. The goal of these filters is to prevent unwanted traffic in

the networkwhether to prevent hackers from penetrating the network, or just toprevent employees from using systemsthat they should not be using.

Key features of access lists:1 Packets can be filtered as they enter an interface, before the routing

decision.2 Packets can be filtered before they exit an interface, after the routing

decision.3 Denyis the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will befiltered.

4 Permitis the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet willnotbe filtered.5 The filtering logic is configured in the access list.6At the end of every access list is an implied deny all traffic statement.

Therefore, if a packet does not match any of your access list statements, it is

blocked.

Access lists have two major steps in their logic: matching and action. Matchinglogic examines each packet and determines whether it matches theaccess -list statement. As soon as an access-list statement is matched, there

are two actions to choose from: deny and permit. Deny means to discard the


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packet, and permit implies that the packet should continue on its way.



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FIREWALL

As the limits of networking is increasing unfolded so the danger of informationleaking in and leaking out increases. So a mechanism is required to keep good

bits in and bad bits out. And for this we use FIREWALL.A firewall is a device of some kind that separates and protects our network - inmost cases, from the Internet. It restricts traffic to only what is acceptable, andmonitors that what is happening. Every firewall has at least two networkinterfaces, one for the network it is intended to protect, and one for the network itis exposed to. A firewall sits at the junction point or gateway between the twonetworks, usually a private network and a public network such as the Internet.It may be a hardware device or a software program running on a secure hostcomputer.Hardware device means a physical devise connected at the gateway whichchecks every incoming or outgoing packet.

Software program means that software is loaded in computer that determines aswhat to allow and what to reject.

A firewall examines all traffic routed between the two networks to see if it

meets certain criteria. A firewall filters both inbound and outbound traffic.

Technologies

There are three different types of firewall technologies:1) Packet Filtering2) Proxy3) Stateful Inspection

Packet FilteringA packet filtering firewall simply inspects incoming traffic at the transport layer ofthe OSI model. The packet filtering firewall analyzes TCP or UDP packets andcompare them to a set of established rules called as Access Control List (ACL).Packet filtering inspects packet nly for following elements

1 Source IP address2 Source Port

3 Destination IP address4 Destination Port5 Protocol

Proxy



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When a firewall is installed then no PC makes direct connection to the outside

world. In that case they use proxy i.e each PC first of all sends request to proxy

which then forwards the request to the internet or outside world for connection or

data transfer.

Stateful Inspection

It is a combination of Packet filtering and proxy services. This is the most securetechnology and provides the most functionality because connections are not only

applied to ACL, but are logged into a static table. After a connection isestablished, all session data is compared to the static table. If the session data

does not match the state table information for that connection, then connection is

dropped.

CONFIGURING THE FIREWALL

Five basic commands are used to do a basic configuring of the firewall.

1 interface

2 nameif3 ip-address4 nat5 global

Interface CommandThe interface command identifies the interface hardware card, sets the speed ofthe interface and enables the interface all in one command.SYNTAX: interface hardware_id hardware _speed [shutdown]hardware_idindicates interfaces physical location on the firewall.Hardware_speedindicates connection speed. There are various options providedto us by the firewall regarding speed.

1000sxfullSets full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet. 1000basesxSets half-duplex Gigabit Ethernet 1000autoAutomaticallydetects ands negotiates full/half duplex 10fullSets 10Mbpsfull-duplex Ethernet100fullSets 100Mbps full-duplex Ethernet.Shutdown This parameter administratively shuts down the interface.

nameif commandIt is used to name an interface and assign security level from 1 to 99.The outside and inside interfaces are named by default and have default security

values of 0 and 100, respectively. By default, the interfaces have their hardware

ID. Ethernet 0 is the outside interface, and Ethernet 1 is the inside interface

SYNTAX: nameif hardware_id if_name security_levelhardware_idIndicates the interfaces physical location on the Firewall.if_name The name by which we refer to this interface.security_levelA numerical value from 1 to 99 indicating the security level.Examples:nameif ethernet0 outside security0



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nameif ethernet1 inside security100nameif ethernet2 dmz security20We can see the configuration by using show nameifcommand.

ip address CommandAll the interfaces must be configured with an IP address. The ip address

command is used to configure IP addresses on the interfaces. The ipaddress command binds a logical address (IP address) to the hardware ID.

SYNTAX: ip address if_name ip_address [netmask]if_name The interface name that was configured using the nameifcommand. ip_address The interfaces IP address.netmask The appropriate network mask. If the mask value is not entered, the

firewall assigns a classful network mask.

Example: ip address inside 10.10.10.14 255.255.255.0We can see the configuration by using show ip command.

nat CommandThe nat (Network Address Translation) command translates a set of IPaddresses to another set of IP addresses.SYNTAX: nat ( if_name) nat_id local_ip [netmask]

(if_name) The internal network interface name.

nat_idThe ID number to match with the global address pool.local_ip The IP address that is translated. This is usually the inside networkIP address.netmask Network mask for the local IP address.

There are two types of NATing:1) Static: For ex. There is a google server and we dont want to make its IPaddress public so we change its IP address using nat command in firewalland now user will logon to this new IP . This results in more security asevery time it has to pass through firewall.

2) Dynamic: If there are lots of PCs in a network and all want to access the

internet , it is not easy that every PC is being provided with independent

public IP so at firewall level we change every PCs pvt Ip with public IP.

Examples:nat (inside) 1 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0

nat (inside) 1 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0

global Command



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The global command is used to define the address or range of addresses that

the addresses defined by the nat command are translated into. It is important

that the nat_idbe identical to the nat_idused in the nat command. The nat_id

pairs the IP address defined by the global and nat commands so that network

translation can take place.

SYNTAX: global ( if_name) nat_id global_ip | global_ip-global_ip [netmask](if_name) The external network where you use these global addresses. nat_idIdentifies the global address and matches it with the natcommanditis pairing with.global_ipA single IP address. When a single IP address is specified, the firewallautomatically performs Port Address Translation (PAT).global_ip-global_ip Defines a range of global IP addresses to be used by thefirewall to NAT.netmask The network mask for the global IP address(es).

INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM (IDS)

An IDS is a security counter measure. It monitors network traffic and monitors forsuspicious activity and alerts the system or network administrator. In some casesthe IDS may also respond to anomalous or malicious traffic by taking action suchas blocking the user or source IP address from accessing the network

A firewall simply blocks openings into your network/system, but cannot

distinguish between good/bad activity. Therefore, if you need to allow an opening

to a system (like a web-server), then a firewall cannot protect against intrusion

attempts against this opening. In contrast, intrusion detection systems can

monitor for hostile activity on these openings.

HIDSHost Intrusion Detection Systems run on individual hosts or devices on the

network. A HIDS monitors the inbound and outbound packets from the device

only and will alert the user or administrator of suspicious activity if detected

NIDSNetwork Intrusion Detection Systems are placed at a strategic point or points

within the network to monitor traffic to and from all devices on the network.

Ideally you would scan all inbound and outbound traffic, however doing so might

create a bottleneck that would impair the overall speed of the network.

When an unauthorized user logs in successfully, or attempts to log in, they arebest tracked with host-based IDS. However, detecting the unauthorized userbefore their log on attempt is best accomplished with network-based IDS.There are four basic techniques used to detect intruders:

1) Anomaly detection2) misuse detection (signature detection)3) target monitoring



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Anomaly DetectionDesigned to uncover abnormal patterns of behavior the IDS establishes abaseline of normal usage patterns, and anything that widely deviates from it getsflagged as a possible intrusion.

An example of this would be if a user logs on and off of a machine 20 times a day

instead of the normal 1 or 2. Also, if a computer is used at 2:00 AM whennormally no one outside of business hours should have access, this should raise

some suspicions. At another level, anomaly detection can investigate user

patterns, such as profiling the programs executed daily. If a user in the graphicsdepartment suddenly starts accessing accounting programs or compiling code,

the system can properly alert its administrators.

Misuse Detection or Signature Detectionthis method uses specifically known patterns of unauthorized behavior to predict

and detect subsequent similar attempts. These specific patterns are calledsignatures. For host-based intrusion detection, one example of a signature is

"three failed logins."

Target MonitoringThese systems do not actively search for anomalies or misuse, but instead lookfor the modification of specified files. This is more of a corrective control,designed to uncover an unauthorized action after it occurs in order to reverse it.One way to check for the covert editing of files is by computing a cryptographichash beforehand and comparing this to new hashes of the file at regularintervals. This type of system is the easiest to implement, because it does not

require constant monitoring by the administrator. Integrity checksum hashes canbe computed at whatever intervals you wish, and on either all files or just themission/system critical files

Passive IDSA passive IDS simply detects and alerts. When suspicious or malicious traffic is

detected an alert is generated and sent to the administrator or user and it is up to

them to take action to block the activity or respond in some way.

Reactive IDSA reactive IDS will not only detect suspicious or malicious traffic and alert the

administrator, but will take pre-defined proactive actions to respond to the threat.Typically this means blocking any further network traffic from the source IP

address or user.

IDS is required to be properly configured to recognize what is normal traffic on

your network vs. what might be malicious traffic and you, or the administrators

responsible for responding to IDS alerts, need to understand what the alerts

mean and how to effectively respond.



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WAN SOLUTION

REQUIREMENT

There is one CBC (Central Billing Center) which is required to be connected with

28 BGC (Bill Generation Center). As with each BGC location further locations are

connected so it is required to use a router at each location.

CBC Router must have these specifications:

1 4 numbers of10/100 fast Ethernet interfaces.2 20 number of V.35 interface to receive the data from coming BGC Via

optical fiber/ Lease line3 2 numbers of ISDN BRI ports.4 Four numbers of synchronous serial interfaces for 64 kbps lease line

connectivity.

BGC Router must have these specifications:

1 2 port 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Interface.2 Sufficient port Serial WAN Interfaces.

Al the BGC locations are to be connected to the central location having a point to

point connectivity. The BGC location are having a leased line connectivity of 128

Kbps which can be up gradable to 2 Mbps. The leased Line connectivity is to be

provided BY a ISP.

SOLUTION

As per the requirement the proposed solution is to have point to pointconnectivity between the central location and the 28 BGC locations. There is aCisco 1841 Router at each of the BGC location. They are connected to a 2Mbps Leased Line Modem Pair., HCL-Gateway 2M-2W, through the serial port.The modem at the customer end is connected to a modem at the ISP side. Likethis way the central location having a Cisco 3845 Router is connected to 28 nosof 2 Mbps Leased Line modem pair.The connectivity diagram and the bill of material required for the solution is

given in the following pages.



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WLAN (WIRELESS LAN)

In a traditional LAN each computer physically connects to the network via wiresand a network port. A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a network thatprovides the same services but without the need for physical connectionsbetween the computers and the network. Wireless LANs offer many advantagesover traditional wired networks, such as mobility, flexibility, scalability and speed,simplicity and reduced cost of installation. A WLAN typically uses radio waves,which allow network PC cards plugged into a PC/laptop to connect to a traditionalEthernet LAN.IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology

like the wired Ethernet.

STANDARDS

IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology.

With time-to-time development in the field of technology three standards has

been finalized. 802.11(a), 802.11(b), 802.11(g)

802.11(b) 802.11(a) 802.11(g)Max. bit rate/Raw 11Mb/s 54 Mb/s 54 Mb/s

net 5.5Mb/s 22-26 Mb/s 17-22 Mb/sFrequency Band 2.4 GHZ 5 GHZ 2.4 GHZRange @ Max. 57 m 12m 19m

rateUnit Cost 100% 120% 110%

Coverage Cost 100% 2000% 500%

No. of channels 3 8 4

IEEE 802.11a standard is the most widely adopted one because it operates at

licensed 5 GHZ band while other are unlicensed and also it provides max. nof

channels and max. bit rate than any other standards.

TOPOLOGIES

There are two topologies on which WLAN works:1) Infrastructure Network2) Ad hoc Network

INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORK



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It is useful for providing wireless coverage of building or campus areas. Thisis a topology used when there are many access points in a single location. Bydeploying multiple Access Points (APs) with overlapping coverage areas,organizations can achieve broad network coverage . . A laptop or other mobiledevice may move from AP to AP while maintaining access to the resources of

the LAN. Each client is equipped with wireless network interface card (NIC)that consists of the radio transceiver and the logic to interact with the clientmachine and software. While the AP is essentially a radio transceiver on oneside and the wired backbone on the other.


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ADHOC NETWORK



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This topology is used when we have to interconnect mobile devices that are in

the same area (e.g., in the same room). In this architecture, client stations are

grouped into a single geographic area and can be Internet-worked withoutaccess to the wired LAN (infrastructure network). The ad hoc configuration is

similar to a peer-to-peer office network in which no node is required to function

as a server. In ad hoc there is no need of any AP as all devices are wirelesslyconnected to each other.


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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN )

ISDNs primary goal is the integration of voice and nonvoice services.ISDN is actually a set of communication protocols proposed by telephone

companies that allows them to carry a group of digital services thatsimultaneously convey data, text, voice, music, graphics, and video to end users,

and it was designed to achieve this over the telephone systems already in place.

There are two types of channels:1) B channel2) D channel

B channelBearer channels (B channels) are used to transport data. B channels are called

bearer channels because they bear the burden of transporting the data. B

channels operate at speeds of up to 64 kbps.

1D channel2D channels are used for signaling. They are used to establish the session

before the data is actually transfer.

ISDN INTERFACES

Types of ISDN interfaces:1) Basic Rate Interface (BRI)2) Primary Rate Interface (PRI).

Both BRI and PRI provide multiple digital bearer channels over which temporaryconnections can be made and data can be sent.

BRI: ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI, also known as 2B+1D) service provides

two B channels and one D channel. The BRI B-channel service operates at

64Kbps and carries data, while the BRI D-channel service operates at 16Kbps

and usually carries control and signaling information.

PRI: According to American standards , the ISDNPrimary Rate Interface (PRI,also known as 23B+D1) service delivers 23 64Kbps B channels and one 64KbpsD channel for a total bit rate of up to 1.544Mbps.

And according to European standards, ISDN provides 30 64Kbps B channelsand one 64Kbps D channel for a total bit rate of up to 2.048Mbps.

ISDN Function Groups and Reference PointsSummer Training Report On


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Computer Networking


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1 Function groupA set of functions implemented by a device andsoftware

2 Reference pointThe interface between two function groups, including

cablingdetails


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Router A is ordered with an ISDN BRI U reference point, referring to the I.430reference point defining the interface between the customer premises and theISP.Router B is bought with an ISDN BRI S/T interface, implying that it must becabled to a function group NT1 device. An NT1 function group device must beconnected to the ISP line through a U reference point; the S/T interface definesthe connection to Router B. Router B is called a TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1)function group device.

Non-ISDN equipment is called a TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2) device and isattached using the R reference point to a terminal adapter (TA) function groupdevice.

Alternatively, a TE1 can connect using an S reference point to an NT2 function

group,

Summer Training Report On

Computer Networking


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Function Groups:

1) TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1) ISDN -capable four-wire cable. Understandssignaling and 2B+D. Uses an S reference point.

2) TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2): Equipment that does not understand ISDN

protocols and specifications (no ISDN awareness). Uses an R reference point,

typically an RS-232 or V.35 cable, to connect to a TA

3) TA (Terminal adapter): Equipment that uses R and S reference points. Can

be thought of as the TE1 function group on behalf of a TE2.

4) NT1 (Network Termination): Connects with a U reference point (two-wire) to

the ISP. Connects with T or S reference points to other customer premises

equipment.

Reference Points:

R between TE2 and TA.S between TE1 or TA and NT2.T between NT2 and NT1.U between NT1 and ISP..


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report on computer networking

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