Report of the Institute of Hydrology 1994-95 - NERC Open ...

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Report of theInstitute of Hydrology

1994-95

Natural Environment Research Council

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Foreword

The terrestrial and freshwater sciences are a diverse and complex area covering

a wide range of scales in space and time. There is also a strong interaction

between them and the economic and social sciences, industry and commerce.

It is increasingly recognised that many of the long standing and the newly

emerging environmental issues require a multi-disciplinary integrated research

for their resolution. The 1993 White Paper -Realising our Potential - a Strategy

for Science, Engineering and Technology", reaffirmed the NERC as the lead

body for research, survey and training in the environmental sciences and

provided the NERC with a new Charter. To meet its aims Professor John Krebs,

the Chief Executive, working with the Council, restructured the NERC. A major

element of this was the regrouping within the Centre for Ecology and

Hydrology of the

Institute of Freshwater Ecology (IFE)

Institute of Hydrology (III)

Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) and the

Institute of Virology and Environmental Microbiology (IVEM)

The combined activities of the Institutes cover the full range of terrestrial and

freshwater sciences' imd this must give CEI1 internationally one of the strongest

capabilities for holistic research, environmental monitoring and as a data

resource. The CEH outreach is extensive. The two figures in an Annex to this

Report show the location of the principal CEH Institute stations in the UK and

in those overseas countries in which CEH scientists are, or have been recently,

active.

As the former Director of the Institute of Hydrology it is inevitable that I take

a special interest in its activities. I ended my valedictory report as Director

in 1993/94 with the message that I was leaving the Institute "in the safe hands"

of Tony Debney. This has indeed proved to be the case. This Report

demonstrates very well how the Institute's science has continued to flourish,

that Commissioned Research has been maintain&I at a steady level and a

number of new initiatives have been started. I commend the Report to you.

I would also take this'opportunity to draw your attention to the

complementary Annual Reports for 1994/95 from the other CEH Institutes and

to the CEH overview report.

Brian Wilkinson

Director, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology

Contents

Director's Introduction

Engineering Hydrology

Forecasting and design prediction:

contrasting features of floods research

HYREX: HYdrological Radar EXperiment

Modelling global water scarcity

Hydro-ecological modelling: a basis for river management

Rainfall frequency analysis of drought severity

Information Hydrology 13The Rivers Data Centre 14

A flood risk map for England and Wales 16

Is the past still the key to the future? 18

Entering the Internet and CD-ROM design era 20

Exploring the World Wide Web

The Library service 22

IAI-IS Press 22

Information Services 23

Hydrological Processes 25What are hydrological processes ? 25

Global change and forecasting 27

Hydrological processes in complex vegetation 28

Sustainable natural resource management 31

Satellite radar for soil moisture monitoring 32

Environmental Hydrology 35Regional water quality 35Water resource management in Nepal 38

Hydrological and environmental impact of earthworm depletion

by the New Zealand flatworm 39

Predicting bacterial water quality 40

Land-use and Experimental Hydrology 43Modelling evaporative losses in the UK uplands 43

Interception losses from immature forest in northern England 46Sediment transport research:

high magnitude floods in the Yorkshire rivers 47

Upland wetlands, climate and water quality in Wales 49

Improved drilling capability for difficult terrain 51

Appendix I: Staff List 55Appendix II: Publications, Reports and Software 59Appendix HI: List of Research Projects 68

Appendix IV: Finance 70Appendix V: Location of CEH Institutes and Research Contacts 71

INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT 1994-95


ant

Water is different: it

cuts across all facets

of society and

therefore has no

favoured user

community.

Director'sIntroductionThe e)93 Government \\ I it

-Realising Our Potential'

precipiiated unprecedented

examinanun of the vay science .

engineering and technEEliEgy links

with naticmal uncle:Eci alt. and

clEnnibutes iii prosliertly and le die

quality of our lix-es. Ide hus

Ihcrefore heel) a year Willi 1110re

attenticn paid to the 501y our

communit oi-gantses.

pl:Ens and execuies deli‘ (Tv Ed its

reswarch than at an y 011i01- innle '- 111.10

1110 kemarion of NF.1:(1. Some

•hanges have already occurred.

Others, concerned ‘viih the planning

111d 1.111111-0

pot-116110S and funding meclunisms,

are still emerging.

Ise enH in which Os ha e

acihrely participated include:

• Ithciencv !scrininy (d Ptdflie

Scour Research FrEdaNishinents

• lie reshapine NPR(

management structure ‘‘ ith [1-1

moving into a &line for

elStitp IEEE w


Let Elegy and I 1‘. diology

• Idenlil'ication or key

endionmennal issues and

slIalegic 111111S s 1111111 Ill0 new

NNW \ fission.

• Develiipment E.El Elie NEI -EL

let.11nolog Folesiglit

hhju l and NrI;(:'soNvn

leresight actis hies

theft-let-E: recuixls a

selecticn E El. items hs ME our research

ponlehio against a Ivelsground

ev (illation and adaptation

1.0,p piding LLI I naticnal

improv• the felt. \ arse and h.:En:ski

;-,cience from itIV Ve•iarell ba,..e 10

User', This is. and has lEvEcn lot- two

decades an area in which we excel.

Ion projects during the year

cyncerned research of dittEct henefir

Iii user:E,. many or them making

advances on previous work

emerging fri»o lit susuegic core

pnigrainmes. 01 as conselluenee

roluests epnlinue Eft expand

work tunded tue uscs in Ihe 1051.

1OG cdc ireo.I kcLfln .9(11::!: vii


vtil

2. Biodiversity(9%)

3. Waste management —(3%)

4. Pollution(19%)

XIIII1b res

Output

incroised again IIP-1

rein:arch rep ini) won (IL h nrcd

l5( -,cionni I))IPcf'

Nvna in th)

Scientific priorities

NEW: has a ro-ii-ind iind, in

responding to its new mission,

recognii-es siN in'ajor ii-Huns high on

the I Ls enviyonmental itgolda:

(2) I illtiet5hIllilill( (4 311d pl'010(

hiccli)e

• yinnt c)l- land, water and

!he ti haStal Zane. kith( H i“lhOn

and uxploitatioll hind iincl

.ind !hot

{3) nst magement.

Noreinoliation Lind land

rest( )i-at

('i ,Iltilicln tit Ihi , laiit( anal 'esh

w(Iler ill relation io

enviionmottal and human

health.

(S) Fin in mincntal risk.s and hazatit- • linpro) ed understanding ol OR-

and improvol prediction or dynainics :Intl key pnicesses

exircine eVellet. e0111t0hillg 1)0111(111011. Ihrcugh

surfilnn wilIer )..?Rinnis and their

ineintlinn representation s) ;thin

prediction on a range i il little mathematic:II rnodnI5 s‘hich aid

aiitl sp.we scale:). scienlilie iffiden-,tanding 111(.1

hence %viler qualit

managonent.

5. Environmental risks(16%)

1. Sustainability(39%)

6. Global change(14%)

prnyn lin

Key prol)1).

HlltltJ'iI;IlItlLlIia sci d he

these pi iolit lt ill he (II th e

Rol luturc kink o

agenda \ hr.] tit our \\ork Alt\ ikle

addroii)e+ ti toe IliLittet s.

hOth Ill pet ten]. 0

relaio. lii \ ksue (hir

rnseritch 011 ed

untlerstanding ni the iinpael ni land-

l/Sn and 011It't iulthroftigenk

ch:ingt • un frohwiler

hettet lintIt'l'shlildilltZ 01 the pIiv sied

procci,sei, iii Ille terrestrial

hydrological cycle and on

naodel anti hence —

impia III lininan titiiiiliei

this evc lo Ilea: the long-ten-1i :rim is

to provide stillstantiaI support l0 thtt

development ot sustainable

managtrment and

in)teasingly, tc, enco]llpii)... the

challove managing miplele

i-ver Hin)ins

:so per cent of (-air pn)nels iiddros

Pollution. En)ininmcintal Risk and

Glol)al Change (NERC, issues

:Ind 6) in more or less equal

proportion as 161lows:

• dvancing the science

yolk ling and foreca,ling the

tedrernes ot hydroloi4ical and

Li)

(levnloi, anti appl

models ti) improve

elfectisnness ol

Hon [or resi /URI: .IT

110( 111(111,1gt'llle111 r. HAIL' c,

• Iii titList' ll it'tsl(IlltillIt(

I

rt. pre...enrailcill

ni models itt the global climate

arid in t uniinental-s‘ ale

hydrological models or futureelinrate and regit riulwater

re,soui-ces

Our cmtent his i il‘eilient in research

aimed at understanding and

predicting Hiodis eisit .. is relatively

1-1(mcver, placing this institute

within a Centre for Emlogy and

Hydrolugy has 2,trelIgthened and

encouraged opportuniues tor

hydrolouical -.cience to contribute

more to the undersunding of-

hiOlOgical fmaxassiiiins aila interactions

and hence a fuller appreciation of

the role of water a,

environmental agent. III hrings

this new- venture established

research expitience on the effects of

vegetation arid >.oil processes on the

hydrological cyt le in dif rerent

climatest the development and

application of hydw-ecological

models: and Slishlinahle use or

syater. panicularly where the

resource. is sparse and especially

\\ here: dryl,md cHradation is a

concern.

Research I.( dircaly on waste

management .icience lois not been

all area or major imokement for ruts

Institute. Instead we base

concentrated on the processes and

mechanisms h pollutant5 .

chemicals and sediments are

nansten the hind surlace and

sod into fluvial svs ems :ind On

quantifying fluxes in river syStenls

We bring to CHI extensive

experience in the develJtpment and

application or mathematical models

in this area and i 'cc ognise many

opportunities to work closely v‘ith

the three CF11 sister institute:4 on in-

riser prt)cesse,, reclamation of

polluted land and iii hiorenlediati 1

cl surfbce waters.

Delivery mechanisms

cit is ni isv the route kw

finding iii rtur core science

progrimme and inLleed lor research

iargeling specific ,,trategi, cthjevtiv es

[Lk:nuked through NI-RL pLmning

cxei, Core svience lurking tin

in I9Q: 05 continued to heid

ti ihout million and 1 anl

delighted to record funding ft ir

(:(Hninunity Research Programme.

(thematic activities) al

sank' leysai Together ihev

comprise :-,onie 30 per 1'018 i.tt i aft

income which is inve>4ed

entirety in specific researii acti flies

Or in direcL scientilic support in

these.

Our current science budget

programme comprises 20 plojects.

• \ portfolio of stroll

duration (3-yeart pr )Hers iliene

address key scieniinc problems.

tI relevance to niauers

emerging smategic rimccrn.

Organics hi aquatic

environments, eilccb

tflrestry on summer river noi,s.ecologically accepuble river

1.1(.Avsarid interacti(tns between

Segeration atril‘).sphere and

climate are example> c,rcurieril

ssork in this category.

• Long-term intensise monitoring

ol small experimental

catchments to improve the

nu:diction of errects i ti hutt use-

hmil-use change and climate on

£k

2,500

2.000

1.500

1,000

500

0


tIeR nur

ldboratiyo, ha, Lichiver.

most imporuni l'Edrologica

experimental recoKI in Furope,

arguahh. oily or Ilk.: mo:4

oinprehensive in the w-oild.

K ss »en indust.ry

tect.art hers Loin around the

world and Hain\ 5Wskill

visit each Currently ihe end

mipporb se., en CASE

swdeniships, several dissertation

projet is and is the location lor

se\ eral Hint research plojects

lviii i itiher NERC Institute?,

• D e.cipment i il new techniquc..

and I:it:nitres

our science lxise. Currently

these include research to

measure regional evaporation

from satellite data, exploiting

remote sensing application:, for

hydrology. linking hydrological

and hydn whemical models and

4.;IS systems, and researching

new data capture techniques.

• Our si i ugie .argest Science

.idget expenditure COncerns

this Irk SUni "JCL' Water Ai-chile.

Stewaidship transferred to 1/I in

1982 0.1 dclis es Ccwernment's

requircinenK for a cenTral

archive alongside that of the

13rhish Geological Survey

Cround‘Aawi records Data from

netwcirk iii mer 1200 ri\ er

gauging >unions are collated.

Ve publish yearbools and

Hlecialist irports dealing with

86/87 87/88 88/89 89/90 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95

Corescience funding Thematic science funding

ix



the analysis of significant

hydrological events. During the

winter of 1994/95 the archive

was a major source of advice to

Government as severe flooding

threatened. As I write it is now

providing urgent analysis of the

deepening drought.

Nineteen projects have been funded

under NERC's Community Research

and Special Topic programmes. This

year's annual report highlights

emerging results from our

participatkm in the Land Ocean

Interaction Study (LOIS). IH has

made excellent and rapid progress

in ninning the Rivers Data Centre

and in setting up core chemistry and

coordinating modelling activities.

At the heart of reorganisation is a

drive towards increasing efficiency

to compete more effectively, and a

push to encourage the scientific

community to be more aware and

hence more responsive to the needs

of users of the results of research. It

is difficult for this Institute to

envisage closer associations with

users than have existed throughout

the past two decades. 'Ms has been

possible because water is a special

natural resource and hydrological

research touches and benefits

virtually every segment of human

activity and most facets of the

natural environment. Each and every

user competes with others for the

resource, affecting the quantity and

quality as often gs not to the

disbenefit of other potential users

somewhere else within human

society, or indeed to the disbenefit

of other life forms attempting to co-

exist with man.

.1f-I has established an enviable

reputation for providing impartial

and expert advice, acnkfs often

conflicting responsibilities of many

of the UK organisations with

statukfry, professional, industrial or

ccnninercial interests in water. 1994/

95 saw associations with some 40

private sector companies. This has

given both depth and breadth to the

range of topics and environmental

issues in which we are actively

involved and continues to attract a

wide range of users: about 609'o of

income was derived from such

o fmmissioned research in 1994/95.

hnportant examples are:

flood extremes

— the analysis of specific floods

— statistical methods of flood

estiination and minfall frequency

— flood runoff in urban areas

— real time flood forecasting

techniques

— mapping of flood-risk areas

— initial work on the Flood

Estimation Handlxfok

— catchment characteristics for flood

estimation

Water quality

— critical loads

— acidification trends

— herbicide degradation

— impact of forest management

Water resources and water supply

— soil moisture monitoring

— regional procedures for estimating

groundwater recharge

Riverine/wetland habitats

— ecologically acceptable flows

— design of habitat improvements

— protection of wetlands in East

Anglia

Environmental impact

— impact of agricultural rehvms and

climate change on runoff in major

basins

— impact of waste disposal and

mineml extractifm

Some of our wf frk supports the a kl

pnfgnimmes of the Overseas

Development Administration (ODA)

or ankributes to iiwisible earnings

fnku the export of UK know-how

Overseas.

• Small-scale irrigation and water

management for sustainability in

semi-arid areas.

• Establishing design methods for

urban drainage in developing

countries.

• Providing impartial advice to the

governments of Lesotho and

Republic of South Africa to

calculate water transfer royalties.

• Investigation of low flows in

Southern Africa.

• Yield assessments of reservoirs

in Tanzania.

• River basin management in

Chile.

• Groundwater modelling in

Jordan.

• Development of improved

methods and procedures for

irrigation systems in the

Philippines.

Encouraging technology transfer

and public understanding of the

environment

Professional responsibilities of

staff are very wide, representing

NERC on some 30 national

committees, including Government

Advisory committees, the British

Standards Institute, professional

societies and institutions, and on

seven Research Council committees.

Staff also continued to contribute

their hydrological expertise to 25

European and other internatiomil

committees and working groups and

to the editorial boards of various

international journals.

The Schools Liaison Officer has co-

ordinated activities with local

schools. During the year nine

placements were found for work

experience students and we had our

first GINVQ student on site. For

5E795, a study pack comparing the

hydrology of a Chalk and a non-

Chalk catchment was produced and

circulated to local schools and a

hydrological essay competition held.

Working with users however

provides the main route for transfer

of our science. The application of

Information Technology in the form

of software development (including

models), database services and

remote sensing applications are

becoming increasingly important to

us and the water industry. We

welcome and are actively seeking

closer collaborations. The main

industrial and commercial users in

1994/95, apart from the water

industry itself, included:

• chemical industry

• power sector

• civil engineering companies

• peat and mineral aggregates

industry

• waste disposal companies

• agricultural sector

• insurance and finance sectors

• environmental consultancies

A 'Software Open Day' to

demonstrate our increasing range of

hydrological software was held at

Wallingford in January 1995. Spread

over two days, this was attended by

over 100 representatives from

universities, the water industry and

consulting firms.

In conclusion

When I was appointed Acting

Director in April 1994 I replaced

Professor Brian Wilkinson who

moved to take on the challenge as

NERC's first Director of the Centre

for Ecology and Hydrology. I

inherited an Institute in very sound

health. We deliver one of the nine

environmental disciplinary

responsibilities of the NERC Mission.

We: comprise just six per cent of

NERC staff but seem exceptionally

well placed to help it meet its

future. We have yielded 13 per cent

of its externally supported research

and are already major players in

areas of its future priorities.


1994/95 was not an easy year for my

staff. Increased competitiveness in

science involves additional overhead

duties. Preparation of bids and

submissions to win funding is an

activity of ever increasing

significance to all researchers. Last

year the time just to this activity

ckmbled and amounted to eight

man-years effort in a community of

190. Internally one of our measures

of efficiency is the delivery of at

least 70 per cent of all our income

directly to scientific activities. This

we managed, just, and I must record

my thanks to all staff for their

continued high level of performance

against the background of

considerable change and of growing

expectations on them.

Finally, perhaps a comment on one

change that will be particularly

welcome, especially to IN staff at

Wallingford, but also to those

colleagues from the British

Geological Survey and NERC

Computing Services who share this

site with us. The 1995 NERC

Business Plan shows funding for

replacement over the next two years

of temporary accommodation and

for improvements to library, data

centre and meeting room facilities.

These have been planned for and

awaited over almost a decade during

which hydrological and hydro-

logical research at Wallingford has

flourished and grown. Now as the

directorate of the Centre for Ecology

and Hydrology also moves onto this

campus, accommodation becomes..

an ever more pressing issue which

can only be solved by even more

temporary btfildings. It will therefore

be increasingly difficult for us to

welcome students and visiting

researchers to work here over the

next two years. I hope that staff and

our user community will bear with

us until a permanent solution has

been provided.

Tony Debney, Director


xii INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT 1994-95

FORECASTING AND

DESIGN PREDICTION:

CONTRASTING

FEATURES OF FLOODS

RESEARCH

Duncan Reed and

Bob Moore

Extreme hydrological events inevitably raise many

questions in our user community concerning frequency

of the event, likelihood of recurrence, whether or not

frequencies are changing and could the event have been

forecast? The engineering community of the water

industry, the resource planner responsible for the

design, management and operation of complex and

costly water resource systems and UK government

departments are all users of much of this research.

EngineeringHydrologyOur research seeks to provide

advanced techniques for flood and

low flow estimation, for forecasting

extremes, for assessing the

availability of water resources and

increasingly for determining the

impact of environmental change on

the reliability of existing and

proposed schemes. A selection of

key issues and scientific

achievements is described in the

following pages. Additionally, we

continue to advance modelling of

the inter-site and inter-duration

In some settings, flooding can bring

riches as well as hardship. But in

developed countries the impact is

nearly all for ill: flooding endangers,

destroys, damages and disrupts. The

Great Flood of 1993 in the USA

killed 48 people whilst damage

costs are estimated to be as great as

$15-20 billion with 30,000 homes

?ffected. Though flood depth

determines the extent of damage,

ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

dependence in extreme rainfall,

assessing the impact of urbanisation

on flood response in monsoon

climates and regionalising

hydrological variables based on

extensive international databases.

Our achievements would not have

been possible without the close and

long-term co-operation that we have

established with national and

international funding agencies,

consulting companies and university

departments throughout Europe and

the rest of the world.

particular danger arises from flash

floods, through their swift onset and

accompanying high velocities. While

the sustained Rhine flood of January

1995 verged on a European

catastrophe, the Vaison la Romaine

event in Southern France in

September 1992 was the more costly

in human terms, when 40 people

perished within hours of rain

commencing.

INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT I994-95


Floods research has always formed

an important element of the

Institute's work. In this brief

overview, we identify features that

distinguish flood estimation and

flood forecasting, and point to some

current lines of research.

Flottd estimation is crucial to the

cost-efl'ective design of sewers,

culverts, dykes and other structures,

designed to accommodate flood

flows safely. It may also be relevant

to setting insurance premiums,

through the production of flood risk

nmps (see also page 16). Flood

frrecasting is vital to raising the

alarm when defence-threatening

conditions arise. Timely warnings

allow the flood to be fought,

keeping the water away from

property and people or vice versa.

For some people, professional duty

or natural.curiosity iS a spur to

understanding in the aftermath of a

major flood. Toothers, the flood

phenomenon is introduced in the

lecture room, with the analysis of

flood peak data, or rainfall-runoff

modelling of recorded events, soon

following.The modelling oF flood

formation on instrumented

catchments provides much scope for

statistical, mathematical, conceptual

and physical elaboration.

Such experimentation affords

opportunities to identify and

quantify the influential processes. An

important aspect is to represent the

effects that particular changes in

land use exert on flow regimes. Yet

the derivation of improved

catchment models does not

dominate current research in

flock' estimatkin and flood

forecasting. Perhaps this reflects that

in these very practical areas of

engineering hydrology risk

assessmem is more important than

modelling bur se. Statistical aspects

are therefore never far away.


Contrasts

Flood estimation is inevitably rather

nebulous and long-term, the user

thinking as much of hypothetical

"design" events as real ones. A

recurrent worry is that the subject

catchment may somehow be

unusual, and that rare floods might

be rather greater than standard

assessments indicate. There are few

opportunities for feedback in flood

frequency estimation. A good

estimate may be blackened by the

chance incidence of extreme events.

More likely, a poor estimate may be

sustained for many years, perhaps

because relevant data for validation

are never gathered.

In contrast, flood forecasting is both

short-term and exceedingly specific:

so specific that being up-to-the-

nnnute may take precedence over

being completely right. Here the

fear is that the current event may

somehow be unusual: if the incident

rainfall is unusually distributed in

time or space, nflght this mislead the

forecast? A feature of flood

forecasting is that opportunities for

feedback arise when they are most

needed: a warning is issued and,

within hours, further knowledge of

the forecasting system's performance

is gained. Updating methods, which

combine a model forecast with

recent measurements of river flow,

allow forecasts to be refined.

Real-time flood forecasting

What are the priority issues that

flood forecasting research must

address and how are they to be

advanced? These questions were at

the heart ora recent review of

opprirtunities for research carried

out for the Ministry of Agriculture

Fisheries and Food. Of eight topics

identified, greatest priority was

attached to "flood warning under

uncertainty" and "updating

methods". With regard to forecasting

in the presence of uncertainty, the

ensemble approach is being

developed in which the decision to

warn (or not) is based on synthesis

of a number of equi-probable

outcomes to the current event.

Research on updating procedures is

exploring tnethods suggested by

recent developments in Bayesian

statistics, in which complicated

manipulations of probability

distributions are replaced by use of

appropriately generated random

samples. In principle, these allow an

optimal solution to the updating

problem, while avoiding the

approximations and assumptions

encountered in use of the much

researched Kalman filter.

Snow and snowmelt present special

difficulties when forecasting river

flows. The processes involved are

complex and the inputs difficult to

specify, not least through spatial

variability. A study for the National

Rivers Authority and MAFT has set

up enhanced instrumentation in the

headwaters of the Tees, Aire, Severn

and Tame, with the aim of providing

a database to support snowmelt

model development. The models

being assessed have varying data

requirements, and range from simple

lutnped models with a "temperature

index" melt equation, through more

distributed conceptual formulations

employing digital terrain data and

elevation zoning, to an "energy

budget" description of melt under

topographic control. The year saw

the extension of the study to the

l3alquhidder catchment under

Scottish Office support.

The variation of rainfall across a

catchtnent is a further source of

uncertainty in flood forecasts.

Research on the measurement of

rainfall by radar has been a feature

for some years. Most recently,

tedlniques for radar calibration

using raingauges and radar rainfall

forecasting have been integrated to

form the HYRAD (HYdrological

RADar) system, a software product

for the real-time reception and

animated display of weather radar

data as both raw images and

processed products. Research on

rainfall and radar is continuing as

part of the HYREX Special Topic

(see page 4).

Flood forecasting is often required

across a region, drained by a

number of river systems and

monitored by telemetry outstations

measuring river and tidal levels,

rainfall, weather variables and

control structure settings.

Forecasting in such a complex

situation concerns not only a range

of catchment, channel flow routing,

hydrodynamic and tidal models —

through which data and forecasts are

passed — but also the rigorous

management of incoming data and

outgoing forecasts and flood-

warning messages. The River Flow

Forecasting System (RFFS)

accomplishes this in an efficient

manner. Its generic design allows

application to any river network

without recoding, the easy

adaptation of an existing

configuration to accommodate new

forecast or measurement sites, and a

socket-style interface allowing new

models to be introduced with ease.

An operational system can make use

of the observed and forecast rainfalls

available from HYRAD. The RFFS is

now used for forecasting throughout

Yorkshire, in the Thames basin, the

White Cart (Glasgow) and the Indus

(Hong Kong).

Flood frequency estimation

Research to develop a new Flood

Estimation Handbook began in April

1994, The Handbook will supersede

the much used Flood Studies Report

and supplementary methods. One

part will provide a technical

restatement of the FSR rainfall-runoff

method which, following recent

enhancement, will continue in use

for some years yet. Other parts of

the Flood Estimation Handbook will

be original, presenting new

generalisations of rainfall and flood

frequency across the UK. Although

funding is led by MAFF, the

programme relies on funding and

co-operation from many sources.

Users can look forward to an

important change in flood frequency

estimation by statistical methods:

catchments will be grouped

according to the similarity of their

flood regime, not in geographical

regions as previously. Particular

emphasis is also being given to

methods that exploit catchment

information in digital form, freeing

the user from routine map-work."

A common concern is that extreme

floods may arise through a

combination of factors, perhaps

heavy rainfall accompanying

snowmelt, or an intense storm

occurring when groundwater levels

are unusually high in a normally

unresponsive catchment. It can be

difficult to represent these joint

probability aspects within general

procedures for flood frequency

estimation. Following specialised

studies with the University of

Sheffield of a complex joint

probability problem in reservoir

flood safety. IH research has shifted

to flood estimation at river

confluences. If systematic rules can

be devised for choosing tributar);

flows, while making good use of

historical records, the current

capability of hydrodynamic models

— to represent complex river

channel systems — will become

much more relevant to flood design.

Continuous simulation modelling

In due course, more advanced

catchment models or modelling

techniques will again assume


importance in floods research.

Longer-term research is exploring

the feasibility of basing flood

frequency estimates on the statistical

analysis of model outputs. This

requires the development of

catchment simulation models

capable of operating continuously in

time, coupled to extensive, spatially

consistent, rainfall time-series,

perhaps obtained by stochastic

modelling of rainfall in time and

space.

Integrated flood management

Best-practice flood management

demands attention to both flood

estimation and flood forecasting.

Flood estimates] are required to

guide planning — especially of

development on the flood plain —

and, in design, to ensure that flood

waters are evacuated with minimum

damage to life and property. Flood

forecasting and warning form a vital

step in the flood management

process to Further alleviate damage.

While the need for flood warning

may arise where planning consent

has been granted too liberally in the

past, it also arises naturally in

design, where a level of protection

can be afforded above which flood

warning provides the most cost-

effective solution.

Whether flood protection or flood

warning is the more natural

response to severe flooding is for

social historians to consider. Though

somewhat irrational to the analyst,

single events change perceptions

and raise community desires for.

more protection. This applies in the

UK no less than in major basins such

as the Rhine and Mississippi. Until

the next big one, floods research at

IH continues to improve the

methodology in both areas.

*nose wishiaq to regtster an interest in thenew research can do so by writing to theFlood Estimation Handbook team at theInstitute.



HYREX: HYdrological

Radar EXperiment

Meon Is min. aSIsti moral{

Ihnpirical relationship betweea raiarall sensor al.eurney

lus ciEn-imunity reseirch

in% estigition. lunlod

under its Spechll hognimmo.

t" ,Edv:Incvscience through E4LIEIE EEIi4 L.t Rile,

understanding rainlall

a> sensed by \ve.tiher raclar, and

how this variability impacts on limy

regimes at Hie calchmuni scale Six

research projects .11%. ill !HMI, hrl,Ctl

trr. itie LlniNer0ril OH 'LEI li . TRIcil

(Imperial and I. .ni‘ersiw (.. nllegust.

\ewc.astle, Readiry, and LO11,4%.1.

together Iff ranging Irom

improved precipitatitui incw.urement

using polarisation and \ 001 le:0

pointing radars, throu0 network

design orradarlraingauge network,

and spatial-tempoi al modelling urnunrall fields, to rainfall Forecasting

lr,Hed on srochastic

meteorologi(A oulrept>

An important I( pens to the pn 'jets

a set of shared expel imental

facilities centred (ni the brue

catchment in :•;otnersut. m uth-wcst

England This comprises a network

nI SOIrle 50 recording raingauges

over the 132 km' catchment. with

Ayr-r gauged :It Lavingll in and

:-,cmned by three radars. rt new

ppler C-hand radar at

Cobhacombe Cross, a L Pinentional

C-hand radar at Wardon lillE and an

experimental Doppler

polarisation ti-hand radar at

Chilholton. Additional hiLilitics

Singhu lab:wine( ilem nablea Hill halal. r ri;Pin

4 11.(if c/- flnRol 10 Pr -0

o4 cr(r.;r:o15 min. rainlall loral InnEnl

al rainfall magnitude:

vn' r th

N-band radar .1 line

rapid ivspon-e 'mud

from Chilholh in tow.ird:, the Nine

aninmatic V,10Icr 40d stil 11 lr

station>, a disdn SE leter. radhoonde

ascents Inn]] yank'HS locations and

access En Mct ()Mice leseaidi

:-.upport lot this inirasiructure

C0111e0 r1l0r0 01‘.' N00011:0 kiveis

Authority, the Mel. Oifictr. (he

Ministrt of AgrICHIOIC l'ishrries and

Food and ihe ater

Design of radar/raingauge

networks for hydrological use

IN is reviewing the requirements for

rainfall field estimates in the

hydrological sciences to establish

hoNs- Wes(' can he hest Ind using

nenvorks Eif adars ;Ind raingauges.

Tl-h2 data collecied :LEV slIEN0CI to

statiqical analsis and physical

interprdation lindersuind O) thn

accuracy of different sensors to

illeasure rainrall and 1..i0 the

sensitivity or catchment [low models

to rainfall tinectiamtv ..md

An initial step in the niect w-

design ol die iL.iLaa Ei5c 001 work

itself which nIm comprises 22

gauges at the re Or 2 km radar

2-rid ...quart.w. two \X -NE line>, of

four squares e Wh oini.uning

gauge>, and two winares hat ing

dense networks of eight gauges in

areas ol low and high relief. 'Nu

arrangement ol the eight-gauge-

within-J-».quare network:, was

elNwen SEE Wai Lite Enean or Weir

values would 1,1 ide thy •'hest-

e5timate of Wu E1IeaEE E,EIE1I,III over

the square. this resulted in .1

diamondw MUTE s9u.ire

mfigu rati,

Daui ti'ehiiving LE nd quaky control

procedures hay(' I ccn du eloped

and the nwulling lit NI-' (1.0:41td-:e .11

11 15 .01.0.151t: 0.1,0 Vr. [INC i 1.1REN.

communio thufliu,li [emote JP

tranHel cnntrol prneedure.

have involved preparing simple

monthly tabulations of rainfall totals

for each gauge along with

cumulative hyetographs. These have

served to highlight the time of

inception of new gauges, the

malfunctioning of others and the

broad range of rainfall variability

experienced. Monthly rainfall fields

have been derived by multiquadric

interpolation and used to identify

gauge malfunction and to expose

the influence of orography on

rainfall amounts over the Ikue

catchment. Ratios of gauge to

coincident radar estimates of rainfall

have been calculated and averaged

over a month, using both 2 and

5 km grid square radar data from

Wardon Hill and Cobbacombe. This

has exposed that both radars are

underestimating rainfall, with

Cobbacombe being worse.

Automatic Weather and Soil Moisture

Stations have been installed in the

eight-gauge low relief square within

the same fenced compound. Data

from these stations support a water

balance calculation within the

network design study. The drop size

distributions obtained from an

optical disdrometer deployed nearby

during selected 'intense observing

periods' are used to estimate radar

reflectivity and rain rate, and to

investigate how the relationship

between them departs from the

standard Marshall-Palmer form

normally used for radar rainfall

estimation.

Current work is focusing on issues

concerning rainfall measurement

accuracy using the unique HYREX

dataset. Empirical measures of

accuracy, not based on spatial

correlation functions, are being used

to explore the dependence of

rainfall estimation accuracy on

rainfall magnitude. A simple

approach being pursued is to use

the average of the values from the

eight gauges in a 2 km square as the

"true rainfall". Departures from this

at each gauge are then used to

compute the standard error

associated with a single gauge

estimate. Plotting the standard error

against the true rainfall for each 15-

minute wet period yields an

empirical relationship between

gauge accuracy and rainfall

magnitude. This can also be (lone

for radar data, using the same true

rainfall, and the accuracy

relationship compared (see left).

Storm model radar rainfall

forecasting

Unfortunately, the current

generation of mesoscale models

represent storm dynamics on too

coarse a grid to meet the

hydrologists' needs — 16 km in the

case of the UK Met. Office

Mesoscale Model — with highly

parameterised representations, for

example, of convective cloud

systems. Disaggregation of

mesoscale model rainfall to smaller

scales provides one possible way

forward. An interesting alternative is

to pursue the physics-based

approach at a smaller scale and a

higher level of process

representation. An extreme

approach would be to employ one

of the number of detailed cloud

models currently being developed to

support studies of precipitation

formation.

One form of simple cloud model,

based on developments of

Georgakakos and workers at the

University of Iowa, is being pursued

in collaboration with the Joint

Centre for Mesoscale Meteorology,

University of Reading. Clearly, the

use of a simple water balance of the

atmospheric column, with frequent

state updating, in conjunction with

radar inference of its advective

movement, offers an attractive way'

forward for forecasting the

development of storm systems. Since


the model is essentially a simple

dynamic water balance of the lower

atmosphere it has much in common

with the conceptual catchment water

balance models familiar to

hydrologists working in the land

phase of the hydrological cycle.

Using a rainfall model

parameterisation commensurate with

that of a catchment model clearly

has much to commend it for the

purposes of storm and flood

forecasting. Depending on the

resolution of the radar data, the

model is capable of representing

rainfall fields for 1, 2 or 5 km grids

and for time intervals of from 5 to 15

minutes, for example, clearly

meeting the hydrologist's

requirement for forecasts at this fine

resolution in space and time.

Preliminary results, when applied tbsouthern England using data' from

the Wardon Hill weather radar in

Dorset, show that whilst the model

forecasts the development of frontal

events with some success one hour

ahead, it is less able to forecast the

more rapid growth and decay of

convective storms.

The general approach of using a

simple dynamic rainfall model with

frequent assimilation of real-time

data from weather radar, satellite

and surface weather stations has

considerable appeal. However, sonie

further research is still necessary on

both model formulation and use of

the new generation of Doppler

weather radars but the potential

improvements in flood forecasting

and warning of rainfall forecasts

even half-an-hour ahead during

convective storms, at spatial and

temporal scales of 2 km and 15

minutes, makes research progress in

this area particularly worthwhile.

Contact Bob Moore



Modelling global

water scarcity

90% reliable monthly Huron I rr ccrsrcrrr

6 oyo: or HYDROLOGY \ NNUAI I

RNIDid IFIYIVAsCA )pulat ans

food producnon, mbined

udianisation anti industrial

development has led to the pospect

or :1 crisis in hoo the quantity and

quality ol xvater supplies and die

conserEuent risk of socio-co)nttinic

disrupt i.. Hi, especially in less-

developed countries. Nat LIYAI

variations in climate also add further

uncenainty to the future availability

and distribution or water resources.

To help define the irdrts (r1 the

world that are currently suffering the

\s ()1st problems of seater scarcity and

those areas ‘s hieh are likely to

eNpenenee water scarcity in the

future. we are co-operating with ihe

British Geological Survey with

funding bx- the Overseas

Development (Administration on

improving methods of assessing the

avadalaty eir water resource» on a

global scale and designing user-

friendly software to display

results( The basic approsch relies on

the use of a 5" Hy OSgridwhich

allows the ..patial variability in both

the LIN Unahilily Of water and the

demands for s\ %Rif lo

represented. in contrUsl. most

previous yudies have examined

country-wide aggregates of

resources and dentanxl. which can

mast; significant variations between

differtmi parts of the s11010 COWILfy .

The approach that IS being

developed includes the following

elements:

• A consistent 11)(209910Ingy

applied in each grid cell, across

all countries and regliins

Several global datasets at this

resolution are nov: available.

pr(rvicling Sr 'me of the input

claw needed the model. and

allowing the possibility ol

exrension to worldwide

coverage

• The inch% idual erid cells are

linked I% Mode] 1110 nowpalturnqtilt the natural drainage

basins since the drainage basin

Is the logical unit for examining

iesources; it also allows

pix)1,lems ol transfers between

ogrotries sharing We same basin

to lie considered,

• SVitiniti each gt I cell the surface

water resources ate assessed

using a rainfall-runoff model.

Both the locallv-generared

runoff and thai arriving from

Lipti1:02:00 are considered,

Seasonal and year-to-year

variability in the surface water

flows ;Ire Laken ifflO accouni

ASSCSS the antorint of skater

which is actually available for

use at different levels of

reliability (see below/. The

effects of lakes, resenoirs and

wetlands and of WYJIGI-

er MSUmed and net urn Il rises a ira

included in assessing the surface

water availability.

• Ch-oundwater availability in each

grid cell, taking into account

water quality, is also assessed

and added tO the Surf:lee water

availahiliry ro provide an

estimate ()I the tcital water

availability for the cell.

• Water demands including those

fx)r human and lixextock

consumption, industry ind

irrigation, are assessed and

compared to water

arailaliility lor ell to derive

an index of •ater alamdance

Seat( ity for Lach grid cell

• The model allows die

exa Illitilii011 cif a range ol

scenarios of change, includh

factors such AS population

growth. urhanDation, economic

development and climate

change to es1101:ill: the

magnitude or posttiblit future

water resources problems.

• The re ults can he presented

using a GiF and user-friendly

software, pmviding a \ isual

index of water availability or

scan:try in different legions. and

a flexible range of options for

examining the results in

different ways.

So hit, a preliminary mediodology

has been developed and tested on a

part of eastern Africa. The results for

surface Water only are sllimn on the

right: the index used compares the

availability of water with the current

demands. Future studies will

concentrate on improving the

modelling, combining die surface

and groundwater assessments into a

single index and extending the

cterage of die model.

Contact: Jeremy Meigh

Hydro-ecological modelling work at

It I focuses on methods and tools to

assist the ecologically sound

management of rivers. A major pa rt

of this work is the development of

the Physical Habitat Simulation

(PHABSIM) model for LK

application. PHABSIM is a hydro-

ecological computer marlet designed

to assess impacts caused by

changing flow regimes, or channel

geometry. upon the aVdil ',dale habitat

for selected species.

Originally produced hy the IFS Fish

& Wildlife Service. PHABSIM

simulates the relationship between

streamflow and the available

physical habitat (as defined by water

depth and velocity, sahstrate and

available cover). If contains a

number of hydraulic models which

simulate values of depth and

velocity under selected no,

hides

conditions..Fhese models arc

calibrated using How data collected

'on site- at one or more calibration

discharges (see below).

Observations of sultstrate and cover

are also recorded and are assumed

rai foc:r' 0 availability Jar Caste/al Alaica. The inagy A the ratio

he ca 'tillable szalnce nate 31'

Collecting PHABSIM calibration data cm the Rive,


he demand.

IndexI c o!

OA ro (RS05 10 Ok

n 0./ !c: I 2

Hydro-ecological

modelling: a basis

for river

management

NSW ieTh Or HYDROLOGY ANNUAL RE RH" 1994-99 7


to he independent of discharge.

Once calibrated to a study site, the

model can simulitte aloes of

microhabimi variables over the hill

range of discharges witItin the river

reach in question.

The simulated values of the

microhabitat variables modelled

within PHABMM are combined with

data which describe the relative

suitability of those variables for the

selected target species life stages.

lbese data are termed "INtlaitat

suitability indices' and may he

derived from expert opinion,

-isting literature or by field

sampling. For appheation in the

a range of these indices has been

produced in collaboration with the

Institute of Freshwater Ecology anti

by the National Rivers Authority.

The habitat models within PHABSIM

combine these two sets of

information to produce results

showing the available habitat within

the study reach, expressed as

weighted usable area (WLIA) against

discharge. An example of this type

of output is given below, showing

changes in WCIA wah flow for the

adult and spawning life stages of

dace 21: the Mill Stream study site.

The first applications of PHABSIM in

the UK ti ytic pbce Oil the rivers

Blithe and Gwash under a

0

cc

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1 500

1,000

500

Example 11/UA

8 INSTYt tI

'.11

H 01,7 L

2

0.5

2 3 4

D scharge (cumecs)

input fo• ihr adult and spintwing life

qf ckwe Sormn 37/07 sire)

331 Ir 317 )171 195 1 '37

Adult— Spawning

Row

.ruoijt/c limy and hid tot

Department of the Envilonment

ConhuiSsiOn which began in I988.

Subsequently, the [node] has been

the focus of an ongoing National

Rivers Atitibbity R&D paficet On

ecologically acceptable flows, I;nder

Phase I. the model was applied lo

ten rivers througlkan England and

Wales. These Were chosen to

represent a wide range oraquatic

systems and to examine a range of

common problems, including sites

affected by reservoir compensation

HOW'S and intensively regulated river

systems. Further. NRA-commissioned

operational studies oft the rivers

Allen, Piddle, Bray and Haile

demonstrated the model's usefulness

in examining UK water resource

issues. Phase

includes

extrapolation of

model msults from

the study reach to

lialger lengths, or

secto, of river.

The dissemination

of tl te knowledge

and skills gained

during this work

has been a high

priority and a5

PI IABSIM thiining

course Was held

or NRA staff.

2000 ,

_1,000

500

e± 200

100

201 5 10 2030 50 70 90 95 99

%of time flow exceeded- Naturalised

— Historical

Y (River Ailen elounsi

Habitat

\ ,

1 5 10 2030 50 70 90 95 99

%of time WUA exceeded

Other innovative research using

PHABSIM includes joint research

with the Institute orFreshwater

Ecology on hatmal and Floral

response to reduced flows and

habitat loss in rivers. a study of how

poplbinclI, of acillatic species

respond to changes in river DOW

regime. This study centred on a

200 m reach of the Mill Stream al the

IFIN River Laboratory, Wareham,

where a programme ot intensive

field data collection hits i alc en place

with the installation of an automatic

water level logging system to record

hourly water levels ai each of 15

study transects within the rear:h.

Research funded by SIAN' 11US

examMed habitat improvemenhz

restoration pubedures which are

being applied with increasing

frequency at UK river sites.

Continued refinement to the

Fl IASI1IM software in response to

the needs of potential UK users has

included some rationalisation to

simplily the modelling procedure

and the incorporation of new

graphics facilities to aid the

interpretation of model outputs. A

further advance is the incorporation

()I software 1.0 3110 A' temporal

analysis oravailable habitat. This is

achieved by combining tile WLIA/

dischaige functions. pioduced using

the PHABSIM habitat models with

river flow data. The flow data used

may be obtained from river gauging

stations or by using hydrological

models to simulate data with or

without artificial influences. This

combination produces a time seriesof available habitat under existing

and simulated flow conditions. An

Is a hosepipe ban the harbinger of agood summer or a sign of resource

mismanagement? From a global

perspective, water scarcity in the UK

is not a problem. However, with

supply companies no longer in

conventional public ownership, it is

inevitable that consumers are

concerned to receive an appropriate

level of service at all times. So how

does the resource manager argue

and support the contention that the

need to restrict water use has arisen

naturally?

Typically, quantitative assessments

of drought severity are kept simple.

Rainfall is a convenient common

denominator: the phenomenon is

well known to the public, and

relatively long-term records are

usually available. If the on-going

drought is unprecedented in terms

of rainfall, it should be easy to

convince the regulator that

restrictions on water usage are

necessary.

A typical supporting statement is

that the gauge at Great Dryby has

never previously recorded so little

rain in a four-month period

beginning April, since records began

in the year dot. If the historical

comparison is obscure (e.g. second

smallest 3-month rainfall since

computerised records began),

quoting the drought rarity as a

return period in years may be

slicker. While historical comparisons

and statistical assessments are fine

example of this is shown left where

the habitat time series have been

converted to "habitat duration

cunts". This facilitates the

interpretation of ecological data

using techniques familiar to water

resource planners.

Contact: Craig Elliott

when applied to a direct measure of

resource, such as river flow or

groundwater level, those based on

rainfall totals should not, pass

unchallenged. At best, they are

misleading.

The underlying weakness is that a

particular water resource system is

not uniquely sensitive to dry spells

of a specific duration, or to droughts

beginning in a given month. Thus it

is incorrect to interpret an

assessment of rainfall rarity made for

a particular combination of duration

and start-month as indicative of the

severity of the water resource

problem being faced. In practice,

such estimates grossly over-estimate

the drought rarity. Some users

recogni9,this and, by a rule of

thumb, divide the assessed return

period by ten. Clearly a more

scientific approach is required.

There are two features to note.

While some durations and start-

months are likely to cause difficulty

more often than others, a given

water resource system will be

sensitive to rainfall droughts of a

range of durations and start-months.

Further, there is considerable

temporal dependence between

droughts of differing duration and

start-month. For example, an

extreme 18-month drought will

inevitably include an extreme 17-

month drought.

The assessment of drought severity


Rainfall frequency

analysis of drought

severity

INSTFUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT 1994-95


I 0

Il ,t _ill (Lit: hum tl

ud [sr: tut. Oupun

1,-1/f/7'ift puuoct lundod Iuffifal work if, investigating, fho

depeudensu [band in dutught

kiinlalls cl dillerent duiunon.

Figure on the right shos\ss

monthly rainfall suriefs lot a. ii

l.tijtii On1110C5ite 1595550'd 90 (aliiiinne

\\: Cs( ",tutsets ,parining the entur

Ife,inning 451r114:1155 Ifiuu Additional

veil-, ttt ille Stan and end (51 Wu

recoul ttllta,v cent enni,f1 droughts hi

cletin,,,tfor datrattfinf, up co its

(114 filths, true From end elifects,

The a ectangles in the figure

heltt‘\ depict the ten \\ orsl droughik

ol each duration. defined It the

SeLillcA non-overlapping

accumulation,. The lateral e tun( of

the rectangiu indicate>: the tinting ol

t.lifouffht, The rectauffie height

dun( 'tuff, the historical rank, the tnost

ukfrutite drought Iffeing given most

puttninence. For example, the red

rectangles along the top of the

figure indicate that the I \.vri \54iNI

AS-month dufughttr, ocuurref.1 in the

mid Itrits and the lace 1890r. •FR

Flue rectangles denote the ten

wettest periods of each duration,

referred LO here as f'ff‘ f.

Chilgrove

amoa -

15/90 1900 1910 1970 19/50 1940

4-55 a

a a1 1.

1

rebid\ ely iiruiile rlispla\U Finn. UtVeI1

the red Hue tuv eil.fikf.. it

impractical — eyee 0.041 a ce.mor}-

t)f record — (Ii delinc as anmy

ton droughts for \\ elk) For durations

greater than 2 1 ukmths Thus.

severit ussessmentk ineff

hecome tts the

duration of interest increa,eff

‘oftfond the! re is st a n, renip i

dependence in drought,: laial s etk)

ol different flurtuions, While in many

Wets f2cneti:lis

a a— aa a a

al a a --a-

--

a — a

a a a a a

1950 1060 1970 990

,senhilion t!) the' Wit tron,r criarmlidl raufall elroughU, um/ •, Su

r

Ilii 11

I

I eif ( 'hi/sporein (If,ctSHS.Vex

Contact: Duncan Reed

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

way", an obvittu-, statement.

implk :firm for ff‘ ret_ktng inferenkef,

01 water aff.ource stross from fixed-

duratioli tiktfukturients of rainfall

se\ erity is n(A rly appreciated.

Finally. the lkture helow shows that

stfine tutlahle dtt and wet periods

have Ifesei this pan of souffiern

Britam. for evainple. il is seen that/1,, droutglif Ihrmed iyan

a longer Jiff. era beginning in the

early I 9TO,, and was unusual in its

late intensilficatif fn. Nor within the

gauged record was there precedent

For a severe drought to be pronaptly

f'tiet et:0yd I') a nuffabie \yet, asoccurred in Oro.

If due account <um he taken of

lentqufral dependenco. tho abuffe

ramtall asseffsments of drought

severity shooki he arrestcd.

seeking 0, 051:1wiate svatter resource

stress with low l'aird510.

C(01010` rainfall record

fflat mokt arlevant to the water

reffource. il Ilk] uranager insists un

utfotinfk, rfreat Doty — in

Trelerent y rainfall 44101/15( al

ileillnaiali/101( 15 Calane054151Ill

la(P" will 15:111.1110

Development of improved

methods of snowmelt

forecasting (for NRA). Review

of historical snow data,

enhancement of instrumentation

for study basins in four field

areas and exploration of lumped

and distributed snowmelt model

formulations for use in

operational flood forecasting.

Storms, floods and radar

hydrology (for CEC

Environment Programme).

Investigating the use of weather

radar for measuring and

forecasting storms and floods.

Design of radar/raingauge

networks for hydrological use

(NERC special topic). Using a

network of over 50 recording

raingauges in the Brue

catchment, Somerset, along with

three scanning radars. to

investigate the accuracy of

different sensors to measure

rainfall, the natural variability of

rainfall and the sensitivity of

catchment runoff and models to

rainfall uncertainty and

variability.

Short-period rainfall and flow

forecasting incorporating

weather radar data (NERC

Special Topic). Collaboration

with Reading University in the

development of a physical-

conceptual rainfall forecasting

model incorporating weather

radar, weather station and

Meteosat data, in conjunction

with a rainfall-runoff inodel for

real-time flood forecasting.

Real-time forecasting of river

flows (for MAN:). Strategic

research on real-time flow

forecasting in England and

Wales, including a review of

research and development

needs in this area.

London weather radar calibration

for the Thames Basin (for NRA

Thames Region). A project to

extend the London Weather

Radar Calibration Procedure,

originally developed for London

and the Lee Valley, to the entire

Thames Basin using data from

some 70 raingauges.

River Soar flood warning system

(for NRA Severn-Trent Region).

Investigation into the flood

warning methodology for the

River Soar extending from

hydrometric network design,

through modelling of a river

experiencing flood plain flows

and backwater influences from

navigation and flood gate

controls, to flood forecasting

system design issues.

River Flow Forecasting System

(for NRA Northumbria, Yorkshire

and Thames). Continued

maintenance and support of the

REFS for the rivers of Yorkshire.

Supply of the REFS Information

Control Algorithm and rainfall-

runoff model algorithms and

configuration to support 30

forecast points in the Thames

Basin.

Rainfall frequency estimation in

the UK A new method of

deriving rainfall growth curves

has been developed in a pilot

study in the East Midlands. The

growth curves can be focused

on any location and applicable

to a wide range of durations and

return periods. The curves are

used with maps of an index

variable produced by the

technique of kriging to provide

rainfall frequency estimates at

any point.

Allowance for discretization in

hydrological and environmental

risk estimatitnt The effect of


1994/95 highlights



data discretization upon the

estimation of environmental

extremes has been examined,

with emphasis on rainfall time

series. Recommendations have

been published for making the

necessary corrections to

estimates of mean period

maxima.

Confluence flood joint probability

Methods are being investigated

which estimate flood

probabilities at the confluence

of two rivers. The dependence

between flooding in each of the

tributaries is to be taken into

account in a simple but

consistent way.

Flood Estimation Handbook (for

MAIT, NRA, DANI). Holdings of

flood peak -data are being

updated in co-operation with

gauging authorities. Indices

representing the seasonality of

extreme rainfalls have been

added to those developed

previously for peaks-over-

threshold flood data. The

indices form the input to a

cluster analysis to propose

catchment groupings for

regional flood frequency

analysis.- Research progress is

yeported to a FlOod Estimation

Handbook Advisory Group,

chaired by MAFF, and includirig,

representatives from funding

organisations, consulting

engineers, the:Met Office and

academia.

'Assessment/design of habitat

improvement/restoration

procedures for river flood -

defence schemes (for MAFF).

Application of the IFliA to a case

study on the River Wey.

Faunal and floral response to

reduced flows and habitat

loss. Collaboration with WE,

1 INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT 1999-95

Wareham, examining and

modelling changes in biota of a

river under reduced flow

conditions.

Southern Africa FRIEND A large

hydrological database has been

established in association with

the 11 countries of the SADC.

Low flow and flood frequency

research is undertaken, using

over 660 daily time series and

GIS techniques.

European atlas of small-scale

hydropower resources (for EC

AUFENER programme).

Completion of software for

assessment of hydropower

potential at ungauged sites in

Spain, Italy and UK.

European water archive data

centre in St Petersburg The

establishment of a regional data

centre for the European

territories of the former Soviet

Union at the State Hydrological

Institute in St Petersburg.

Tanzania urban sector

strengthening (for Howard

Humphries & Gibb Eastern

Africa) Ltd) has centred on the

water supply to Morogoro,

about 200 km inland of Dar-Es-

Salam, and Tanga, on the coast

to the north near the Kenyan

border. Assessment of reliable

yield of an existing reservoir

was required for each town,

with assessment of the potential

yield of nearby river and spring

sources also undertaken for

Morogoro.

Hydrological review of the Kafue

River, Zambia (for Booker Tate

Ltd). The primary objective was

to ascertain whether there was

sufficient water dtrwnstream

the Itezhi-itezhi reservoir to

service the Zambian sugar

industry in the future. The

impact of proposed future

irrigation abstraction on energy

production at the Kafue Gorge

hydropower plant downstream

was assessed, with both existing

and possible future operating

rules.

Hydrological and hydraulic

investigations of Hung Shui

channel, Hong Kong

Investigation of causes of two

recent major floods. Nov 1993

and July 1994, plus

recommendations for short and

long term remedial measures.

Sandpool Farm flood study (for

Hill Aggregates Ltd) Assessing

the effect of proposed landfill

on floodplain storage in the

Flagham Brook catchment,

upper Thames Basin.

Water resources development

project,The Philippines (for

World Bank) Runoff available

for irrigation and the flood

peaks were assessed for 38

major irrigation schemes

throughout the Philippines, with

a manual and training provided

for local staff.

Extension to World Flood Study

(for ODA) Methods of flood

estimation, using the regional

approach, were derived for 17

countries or larger regions in

the developing world. The

methods are immediately useful

for rapid flood estimates,

especially for sites with no

observed flow data. A user-

friendly software package for

regional flood frequency

analysis was also produced.

Digital data, software trials and the communications

era are transforming the scale and pace of this

Institute's research. It is pleasing to report that thefirst

year of an Information Hydrology Division created to

focus and capitalise on IT opportunities for better

research and technology transfer has been both

effective and harmonious. Already the strength of being

part of a wider Centre for Ecology and Hydrology is

being felt. Thus the Division now provides software

supportfor ITE's Countryside Information System whilst

GIS skills are being shared with IFE.

InformationHydrologyThe mission of the division is clear-

alt:

• to collate, quality control awl

publish time series and spatial

datasets that describe any part

of the hydrological cycle over a-

region;

• to reveal the coherent structures

within environmental datasets

relevant to the water industry;

• to program to commercial

standards the scientific findings

of the Institute as well as

publishing them through every

relevant outlet in printed and

electronic form;

• to use metadata cataloguing and

wide area networks to collect

and distribute the facts on

which the subject flourishes;

INFORMATION HYDROLOGY

• to bring advances in information

technology into the hands of

water scientists in NERC, the UK

water industry and academia.

The articles that follow amply

demonstrate the new digital data

and communications era that is

transforming the scale and pace of

the Institute's research. In particular,

the role of Data Centres and Data

Plans is giving a new coherence to

community research programmes —

and this can be expected to lead to

longer term benefits from the

expenditure incurred; the LOIS

activities described overleaf are an

excellent example of linking data

past and present within a powerful

new information system.



14

THE RIVERS DATA

CENTRE

A perspective on the

Data Centre

managing the

integration of time

series and spatial

data for the rivers

component of the

Land Ocean

Interaction Study

(LOIS)

Isabella Tindall

I tie

dkersit it t-livin tiltitenis and

hahitats and ninny tdtpcnintliiic:s Ifs

and

/yew:nitm:11 hhst

InefedHllIg \ ph t)itl[ti il ilt -d.o,,,m1.11cing t sSLtic

which. il not earclull). managed Cal

resuIi !he klegnidatikc ot

especially sensillie envinmment

l'his (Linger pluskiss] the >,timulus

for the Ums1 (dcean Inter-Lice Study

LOIS) w huh tok uses on die links

between rhe terrestrial dnd marine

enuronments (see also page ;Si AL

present, linclLestanding of

proces•scs cvork is incompleie and

the purpose (-}I. LOIS; is to extend our

kilowledgetti die movemeni

tluxvs i +ei Neen difIerilt

components ti lie environment,

particularN the land, air ansl ocedn

phases. knowledge will then he

built ink, plyclictive models to help

gauge the impact ol land use.

slinute and other changes on the

crustatare.H. The results from the

most appropriate scenarios will then

he availahle io develop a legislaik C

and regulatory framework to

encourage sustainable management

of our coasts

Environmental prohlems inereasingl

span many sullied areas and often

I.equire an integrated multi-

ientilic approach

Carrespondingl) 1.0IS is an ink».

7he River Strati ttfisiceiiutt cr( rhr. wit/ (

1)iiesti,rate

Resew, je, WISH,

tive- ear hudget in w his h HUH \

• EV. Institntes and ill': ldighyr

Educsnion Institations al'e

hflotination

+flak il ty Hie‘Hvy

and manipnlanon itt data from a

wide iAriel ol sources and subjeii

:treas is one itt die keys in auaining

pnigranwir's scientific

objecti\ cs. A raictal aspect ol 1,c)Ps is

the creati•m ol them:ilk I),H.t

(Tentres iespcinsbli kW the

acquisit it til anti dkfriltution i..iI data

from ;tad to die researchers. Thy

Rivers l)-tta enure is Heain,1 at Hi

and is using its \Viler Informinon

System t \Us) lit iinegr:ne, manage

aikl anal% se highly diver,-.e dausets

of both sp.stial and time 5eries origin

single unified .4-D slatahase

idan ttlic-c-n:r- nl

pledicting the nlpact

and response tiL lite UK Lo,u-,t,t1

zone to natural and P.1:11-1-11/:Uk.

ens ironment;d cliances in the IICNI

50-100 yews, lour major themes for

LOIS -ire ex Hew:

• ii i Chardt. INC

nu \c, (trmdtenals and energ\

into the e(ust-il zone from ths

rivers, atuktspherc anti Uct'Ull,

• To identify :Ind quantify ths.

proLesses dial jJ.overn sm. h

nuses 1.{and from the cou.stal

/Afile

• To pisix ide

ptTspectivc itt hlcix variahility

across i tang(' ()I time scales •

the last .lon ycar; the

lokh enc aS :I V\ Loft'

• hit ileselitit nlieecttecl 1111(1

nceall 111(5lek i I ell\ in trnliv111.11

ell Illge ill We C(LISLII /(11.1L-

The pi Inslistl snidc awa extends

lielV.h.1. on \seed in the non h

to Great 1.timouth in the scnth. It

diveisity tI land us,:

And nher I.\ pee Inii to die last

flowing sheams chaining the

WIS output

northern Pennines, through the

industrial rivers of south

Yorkshire. to the sluggish and

nutrient-rich lowland rivers of

East Anglia.

LOIS consists of five integrated

component studies: the Rider,

Atmosphere, Coastal Study

(RACSL the Shelf Edge Study

(SES), the North Sea Modelling

Study INORMS) the Land Ocean

Evolution Perspective Study

ILOEPSL and the DATA

component. The hitter is a

recognition (il the pivotal role

played by dam management in

the LOIS programine.

Each of the five Data Centres has

resp(aasibility for specific data

categories and the duty to:

• Acquire !flak» clatasets froni

within and without NERD.

and make them availahle to

the LOIS community;

• Provide data management

services for LOIS data

including clLaility control and

archiving:

• Provide long term securit:

for all the LOIS data.

The IH Rivers Data Centre

The Rivers Data Centre is

ttion of time serieN dowsers

responsible for all catchmentlxised

data — both time series and Spatial

— of which the main suppliers are

the National Rivers Authorhy (NRA)

and Ore LOIS York Laboratory. The

NRA collect, analyse and manage

time series data for the great

majority of the river catchments anti

have agreed to SU pp lv those CIaL[sells

Of particular interest ro the LOIS

project. These include: river water

quality data, river water quantity

claw, consent to discharge data.

abstraction licence data and

biologic:al data. Spatial datast s

being used hy LOIS researchers

include: the 11-I digital river network

(at I:50000 scale), the 1km

Digital Terrain Model (IHDTM),

Flood Studies Report maps, the

Institute of Terrestrial Ecologys 25 in

Land Cover data, the I lydrology of

Soil Types (HOST) I kM grid,

Bartholomew's urban and roaCINMit

network data and the Ministry of

Agriculture Fisheries and Flood's

Small Area Agricultural Statistics

data,

IncreasMg awareness of the

commercial value of data has

created a new and unwelcome rask

rot the Data Centres, that of

negotiating terms and en nditions for

the use of externally supphed data.

The requirement to protect

copyright and create incrmie


undf.J1.1hredly slOw!" iii e LIpi. aLe of

informancin contained in daitiSe

lb create the required integration of

time series ancl spatial bsen'ati<ms

within a single database. the Data

Centre is faced with a challenging

task of matching data types 'from

different sources. There has been no

standard encoding sl'sreni for Similar

data types within the different

regions of the NRA, or between

wadtercilrality data fr(iin freshw:ater

and marine sources. Consequently,

estuarine rnodellers requiring, say

heavy metal data, from both the

Rivers and Marine Data Centres need

to be assured that they are

comparing data of sinillar analytical

origin or quality. Therefore, one of

the Rivers Data Centre's first tasks

was to harmonise the data frorn the

individual NRA regions with exisii rig

chemical detenninand dictionaries:

Sire Ii rel.ererlde corn pil:itions play an

indispensable role in esta Nis hing

standardised data transfer and

exchange. procedures. Once the data

were harmonised in a dictionary.

cross-reference tahles were designed

that: translated die data from the

codes in which they were supplied

lea those in which they are now

stored in the database. With the

publication of the LOIS chemical

determin.and dictionary scheduled

for the autumn of 1995. the next

major task of harmonising data from

freshwater and manne sources

should lie much easier.

The Rivers Data Centre is using WIS.

the Environmental Information

Svsrem designed and developed at

die Institute aver the past five years

in collaboration with Kl,, WIS stores

and manages all the catchment

associated data required hy the

modellers working on the RACS

Rivers component of LOIS. WIS has

a geographical user interface and

allowS the user to record the history

of any object. or feature, as it moves

through space and time. Events

u,rs7:TuTtenz synnoLor,y ANNUAL REPORT Nt..7-as I S


A flood risk map for

England and Wales


occurring at features can be

described in terms of attributes

which may be spatial or time series

in nature. Uniquely, WIS does not

distinguish between spatial and time

series attributes, but stores them in a

single unified database which allows

the user to link and analyse spatial

and time series datasets.

WIS has been installed on new

hardware with over 10 Gb of file

storage space and 10 Gb of database

space. The LOIS data volumes are

expected to rise from an initial

10 Gb to approaching 20 Gb as more

data are both derived by the project

and become available from other

sources. Within the last year the

Data Centre has been busy

confirming and updating its

Determinand Dictionaries and

translation tables for the loading of

time series data and many software

programs have had to be written to

convert externally supplied data.

The Yorkshire water quality data for

several thousand river monitoring

sites have been processea and the

attribute data for over 300

Flood warning procedures and

alleviation measures have mitigated

the threat of flooding in many UK

catchments. However, floodplains

continue- to offer attractive

development opportunities

and expose a substantial proportion

of the population, and much

commercial activity, to the risk of

inundation. Damage in excess of

1100 million resulting from the mid-

Strathclyde flooding in December

1994 provided a sharp reminder of

the need for more effective

catchment management, planning

controls and insurance

arrangements. Direct experience of

extreme flood events is necessarily

rare but the joint exploitation of

major spatial datasets and newly

determinand types have been

loaded into the WIS database.

Bringing together the water quality

data and corresponding river flows

stored on the National Water Archive

allows the complex interactions

between flow and determinand

concentrations to be examined and

mass flows into the North Sea to be

computed. The next data types to be

processed will be the Yorkshire

consent-to-discharge data and the

Severn-Trent NEA water qualify

data.

To support the major LOIS objective

of developing integrated simulation

models that will allow better

predictions over time, the Data

Centres are currently integrating

and harmonising the datasets under

their aegis. The next challenge is to

standardise the datasets across the

different component Data Centres.

This represents a substantial task but

the aim, by the end of the LOIS

project in 1998, is to create a truly

integrated dataset which should be

available on CD-ROM for public use

and further scientific investigation.

developed modelling techniques

now allow the likely impact of

exceptional flooding to be explored

at the national scale.

The Institute was commissioned by

MAEF to estimate the total area of

England and Wales that, in the

absence of any flood defences,

would be inundated by fluvial floods

of the 100-year return period level.

The project also involves identifying

the built-up area that would be at

risk. There has been no previous

nationwide estimate of these

quantities at this level of detail.

Progress in evaluating the spatial

extent of severe flooding has been

made possible by several recent

• thc: fornplistinn. <tic ngian .m

-\\ ales of ;_h Tnshinte

Iydrology Dighal citain \bidet

11115FM):

• the de \ el tic et ol

e0imaring il oc}d depth-: directUi,

Iroin ih.iraleiNte,v

• thr completion lot- I' titfluitd and

\Vales, or the ill digital river

centre-lint network. hased

Ordnance Survey I:50,000 maps:

• the estalalishment of digital

dataseu. that :ilk ‘v

tatchment characteristics 0,

computed automatically to any

point on 0-le river now otk:

• the piOcItlelion (II a national

dataset of built-up areas

(based on the Institute of

'Terrestrial Evologys Land (c

Nlap orGreat Britain and 1)5

1325(1,000 digital settlement

data): and

• the development ol

and software for exploiting and

displaying digital spati•l data.

.1.he analysis has heen conducted on

a 50 in square grid. v.hich is the

horizontal resolution iii It \lso

represented on the grid is the

1:50,1100 river network, and Elie HO-

)ear Fluod depth has been t.amiputed

for e er1 point \\here the I al< llnient

area (f\L eeds Ion'. Huai iork,

relate mean annual maximum water

depth to catchment

area. yainPall and soil) an(I gnm

curc es which enahle

return periods of up to 20o years to

Nc hrcradll‘ assessed

kisumares ol the depth of the lOo•

year llood at the river hank base

licyn ohtained Ivy taking tlie

difference berween the river dor die 100-year eveni and the

las

Flood ItoVOI fr r

Kirkiw(illech. inid-Somheirde

I lop) in Dormber 1994 arfd

the Lire frig/Min 1991

annual maximum (w“urning that,

typically. the latter represents a

depth just greater than hankftill). As

l0Cal channel COrkliii Ab, ail': not

taken into aciValni there is a

significant degree of uncentj

associated with the cc-stilts at

panic:Ill.:Tr h how,:yer.

believed that this approach provides

a valid way of cptantirying relative

risk at the regional and national

leveL

The areal extent i <i inundation has

heen deterndned I ft taking each

flooded rher point in tuin ant1 using

the LI identifc conugueus

areas of higher iand that are lower

than or eqUil It) ilikr elevation of the

flood surface. fhis apprcrach

obviates the need to 'node! the flos‘

of water chits n the Iloodplain and,

s not edlcilnient ka,-;0.1. allows

nood irrt,ii the Major river in a

valley to 5pleacl across :my minor

tnhntaries or hands

[he )1 flood ;extent

have been compared with exititing

IllapS of Hood risk titt, stly Section

21(5) tamps produced by the Former

Whter Authorities) at over 30


relfIr j

I 7


18 I

Is the past still the

key to the future 2

the fir I 71 por

iha hither

IIIIHEIC data Aye tpund.

upim which hvcirci( ul science

and w.lter Inaltigtnneill aft hudd A

deu lied understanding

r

Ivcharge rates is

plVeCtIlliSitC for effeL e planning

slraiu.gies and tireildiolulprpt edures to cornhai Ulu dleCt

1(4, little or loo :yak h

klruinatc!x- in [his Contest, i11051

lengihv livcIminerric sorie for the

nited Kingdom — vhilc displaying

notahle penurhanont, — are

characteri ud hy Tilde or

Ittdid ‘s peel, the

l! ions e peripra“1 o'er

I.H1 Iecade ha‘ rJr,t,‘I

imponam questions tvg.nding the

ivpn'sentatikv.Lness (Hid resilience ol

index hydvdogical statislics, the

uLik ol which ale b:HLAti (In LUIln

ICJ ItV1.21' v‘dn's,

cur /1111TV

ifLic'iilI \ iii the [Nun' linclerlule

the impoitance 01 dot unwilling dud

examining We range or impat

a-u,tici,,ted with the lucent

remarhake wu.ithei

nceLl pit lied tI plintli un, in

Wr, 'ugh, qi IngiAnd And

LLud I L",ci '11(i

L/S Httl'Il t tlIdCd Ir tt,

Initial nu-Jihs -- which cxclude

cpvercd lv ihtu Anglian and

funnel- 1.-()11,,,hirefeg >11

\ mional \ niliontv — ha‘e

heen delIn cd u•-ing ti provkiondl

ver-don arey,-;

Ittesu miggem dun -421)1.1 km- ()/' land

lld7Uld ;II risk, ul which t001<ru

is built-up linprovenlent>, to the

builicup tin:II-Ad are expecled

to le:R1to :1 sumli R.-duct:on in the

httler

Contacts: David Morris or

Robert Flavin

bir :he tu.H.Nplinteni of a pl iill

Insitime (,! I fulloingy

GePlPgital c•une).• nitional

hydrolPgical monitoring programme

on helhill [he Department of the

En \ fronnk.ni dnd the Nationnl Rivers

Authorii • 'e as instigated eail in

1(-»;0 stih-1,1nUa! rainfall

d(fficiencie, extended apr05,, much

lhe i N. die dlpu,ght proved to

exceplionall% protiacicrd and

wide-Prc'ad. niggtiring FulklanwrIldireviews nr alcr resource

managenlium in many parts

Eun)pe,

2 the wwer

le., urce, C(‘F

L vcry trAgile, Theleariel.

sequence PI Iptrous Iffintal

ssscurns hcralded imnsrormation

hydroltIgicil eunclitions thai

mialurn snulic i, Fur

[ngland \\ the: dlicH

nCIIIICHCV nil 1cE1 tile l/rd-dd. waS

>dILL'et (RH In [Hu scc( nd

month sequence ihp (unItirv,

latter Culnlin;lwd in ihe

escuPiiDILIIL clanh011g ri"inu.nitiu:_t Irit afflicted \\ oslein

11 I Ill, VC in lhe lalew inter ol

It)0

part it uhirly di-an-LIU, . In

lei Hp,: in mid-ittP2 tt% (Tall

reCk .0, cry

.tt [twit-

elltur hut the >dtht..etittunt

‘ titer ittille eritZ, [

wi•tei • peak-, in lOt.ti and I905

‘‘ cry ( );-,c zal-linte trifixt

I 31 lu :399_11 1 n

i s 4:42en

and I titliland !,cottland tor mure

than ti flee:ale. SIN 01 the 9.euest

wintur hall-years in the I.;5-vear

Sct tttish rainfall :-.erte:., have occurred

since Itxtid. conIrii-911inf!, marked

exaggeration in the nprtm.t1 it{ trth-

\-‘ cst IC south-cast grut.

across the 1_1.. this is eNemplitied

bv the ielation llek ecn rAinrall

Fort William and Kew Ltincktn): ihe

tunning mere± of We tatio

tinntrtl totals Ilow exceeds the

lti>.trtnc:d mean hva con-dderahle

margin (see belon I. Ihi. ext. eptional

accumulated precipitanon totals for

Sn Aland over recent yctrs have

Hoot associated with a cluster of

malt ti flood ev531ts 13419 :11, /or risers

draining the Higillantis cspeettillv .

haNe increa>ed die espceled

frequency ordamaging lit tods and

prompted the introducdetn 111

fistnidlicilS on further Iii mdplain

de\ elopment in some areats.

In 1 ;deal 13310, ilk. effect of -

the i detit unuslial rainfall patterns

has !teen heavily intuencell by

evarmtration rates that htt‘e Heen

equally exceptional 'flte recent

tendency for climate sttne, to

reflected in

ille Central England lemperattint

Series ).\ hich by:gins in 160/. the

posi .1087 average is 0[1193,3 1:1131y

higher than ally other se' co-year

set Ittence :Ind 11a 4 ecnIrilalted

putendfil esaporati In rat(t,

,11-4.tsc_ erage liii J99,:ci:tted

increx:e in soil moisture deficits has

mitigated the risk ol rknoingOver

the summer half-year Inn Lirrosved

11132 "1 (121 1(11111H1I hir•

Inler recharge, especially toIt,„1„nd

Ci en the inherent %at-lability cl the

I. efittiate. any .1pp:treat t-tItorl tern3

trendf: need to be tatated with

cant ion. the relatisels shon Ictngth

or most river flow series — for the

k the average i helm t\k 2c, svars —

prtt kles an inadequate Lonlext in

‘‘hich to appraise the reo:nt ninon

patterns and can exaggeraue the

signilkance of the re( eni solatility.

ifs capitalising on OR;

ntimber of lengthn . hydrometric

serie,-; Available a fuller historical

pei.pecti e may Ix. t)htainecl.

1.nlortuntorly relatisel lesv long

now records arct Hrmally ttrchked

and considerable 5:m511:3491 skills and

hHrometric Et\perU•te .tre necessary

to ItW.Ite appropriate historical

dataseH and pi-crate them lor

generil exploitation.

988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1'1993

ob'r/cIr/ hydrOglirph fie ilu Holt

1-\

Rollo ol amtitttc tf total tatedirll fiji I


1994 1995

-1350

lIte mility of long hydrometric

wcords can he greativ increased l-ty

die application of qualit). assurance

pnicedures. The relevance of ,..uch

techniqutrH has beten

demont,trated ill a recent 5Illd

flow data Ibr the lhame:,pne ormosiintensively studied

hydndttgical dattHets in the veiricI.

L itht-tantial changc> in land usenver

cnijileering. land duintige and

111)(tdplain management imply that

t.ignilicant regime changes would he

extected over the last 1Sn years

:Application of die HIACRESrunon methodologN. to the IRS-

I monrhly HoW record for

.I39.1(191441cn \\,(1,ir clar15 1 indicates

that t-tuclt changes are insuffictenr

mask a systematic underestimadon

of the historical li nv flows It

3p19::119 diat convetilional

correction,: applied to acenunt, for

weir lettkage ind It5ckage lo,..ses arc

quite inadequateespedall arpund

2.5 . •1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1930 1960 1970 1980 1990

ON Om Kt /561-1994110 It Hum me r)

1007 I1 ( , : )(Tc i_ ii 05 19


20

1 he Thomm al 7eddingma

darbm 1921 drought

(Hp) aml Hie f moire

IICRIVC/1 modelled and

immolated manial ollmi

lOr Thalne.s ni Kinf.moni

rei:da

Entering the Internet

and CD-ROM design

era

The aliiliiy is, inar)hall an

manipulate inlormation is an

essential prituqiii>iir alineisi all

seienhitie iine-,tigations and an

indispensahly in the decisi-da-

making proce,s 1/uukin:.,,,

exploit advances in inrormation

technology to ensure [La analy,5i.s,

he they researchers, managers or

pohey maker,. limy ready access 10

relevani daaisei, and the mean, ka

eapitalke on them lb sf.rvice the

neud, il a rapidl expanWng user-

(-limn-Inn Ind ii hclp realise the

pnential clecircnie

publkhing, disinhunon and

dam clissL-minaiion, Ill Ims recently

Liken dvlisery }1 Cl) 111/M Nriter

and initiated ininriliali lii pro\ imion

dir<n•->, Ihn ( fld aie N.\

CD-ROM publication: the pebbles

have started to roll!

sin edirrenL rei-liiiu,lluui\ it )-

ROM (Jp:IL tv in >,iore.

Lie Inn id il[eeeiii n rv ...nka_

made 1,-)

Linn/wry-cite [lie eddy

widercHimatiL,n cl rho\ s. r ime

rclatn c severiiv ol modern drouglii>

in( rua-ics maikedly: Ihe iOO I( 55

llos‘s lia‘v ii, cloNe parallel and

accumillawd runon over die Ig88

pyriod heo mien comparalll s‘ith

[hi... I 155 e 1 tn1

Contact:Terry Marsh

cheapl and rehaNy, approximatuk

Gbil IR tes u.il un.'oinpressed data

sn[ ll eieni .tote th, enure 11\

Nan( maI Riker Eli Av Archive

lechnoHical improvirawni

e \pecretl I'm hir"ducLI an order or

ina.griitucle incruase. in stonw

capacity. CI) Wills represent a great

InIWZIrd in compurer-hased data

deli\ ninv e:15y 1.0

cn innotr: damsels. at

ill()dent. Lai* ssiihout the need ror

large minihers uil lloppy disk>. (ir rot

large amouni, rat- hard clink :spa( imi

lie pernianendv alIDeated tc

paiticular data set One ke

advantage til CD-ROI\1. ,Ipan Fro

and didrahilny,

daLi can hn held ori-line and

siraightfurs) arils

\\ hut) .1(‘).<, 5 Ynnnired.

(het ilk' la* ivw (ears the La

imnmaship mml ti 01)-Rnm chin:ha.:

Fallen drainznie,dl\ and

rapidly uStending through the

mific. business a nd academic

communities,: domestic usage is also

burgeoning The Crist of manufacture

of the CD-ROM media itself has

fallen at the same time, and it is

possible to produce a CD-ROM with

relath:e ease: Mc hardware required

nowt costs less than :5000

Following the trial developme

CD-RONI layoui . featuring a

previous Annual Report, the Institute

plans to inake early use of CD-ROM

technolop to disseminate its science

and data. Initially information

delivery will focus on three areas:

• The distribution of large

datasets, such as those available

in die National Water Archive. It

is envisaged that the basic data

The World Wide Web is a facility dia l

allows text, pictures and data to be

accessed more easily across the

global computer network, Internet. It

seems destined to he a powerful

disSemination tool whereby software

allows users to search the network

for inibrmation or interest. The

World Wide Web's information base

is expanding rapidly, can he

updated immediately and is

accessible to a world-wide audience.

Infornlation available can now be

accessed using the address opposite.

The ability to update material almost

instantaneously allows II-I software

users ro he kept informed about

syst•m enhancements find new

developments: the WWW also

enables potential 1.1.SerS tCI aCULiaint

themselves with facilities on offer.

We have recently extended the use

of VAX-ANI facilities for tile whole of

the Institute, with information on

research initiatives, publications and

wttulcl be sin TO ped

reference 21nd descriptive

matenal [0 inCreuse its tintip

guide the interpretation ot

ana Ivies; work is well advanced

on developing an on-line

gauging station registrm

incorporating net Nyork maps to

nicilitate station selection.

• The publication of reports.

papers and packages, a number

of which could List/11111y exploit

the exciting opportunities that

exist lot a 'multimedia' approach

USing •sonnet and pictures to

maximise the impact of the

material. Froin the perspective

of Lhetarget audience. the

contrast with traditional

also the provision of selected

datasms across the Internet. Details

of the services available through the

National Water Archive and summary

material relating to the monthly

national hytnological monitoring

programme are already accessible.

We are also researching hydrological

WWW addresses and developing an

on-line index allowing rapid access

to hydrological information.

Contact: Robert Flavin or

Charlotte Allen

Institute of Hydrology

The 111 Habib page. World Wide


publications will also he

emphasised by the ability Jo

nipiclly search doeumeniS and

the direct computer accessibility

of accttmpanying da Ea Sets

• The distribution ot software.

Although most IH, softy:21re

products only occupy a few

floppy disks, the possibihty of

encrypting them and placing

them all on a single CD-ROAl is

under investigation. This would

result in greater convenience

for hoth our internal software

developnient and for the

customer. who could purchase

a special code to unlock a

specific product bn the CD.

Contact: Kevin Black

Exploring the World

Wide Web

The II-I liane page can be accessed

using the Univemal Resource Locator

(ORD

http://www.Hwl.ag.uk ih

The Hydrology Software section's

email address is:

[email protected]

ASTCFUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT I9t0-95 2 I


The Library service

IAHS Press


The Institute's Library is home to a

comprehensive collection of books,

reports and journals in the hydro-

sciences. It is also the focus for a

variety of information services

including retrospective bibliographic

retrieval from on-line and CD-ROM

sources. Updating and extending the

information holdings is a continuing

task and particular efforts are made

to ensure there is good coverage of

world hydrological literature.

The library's collection of CD-ROMs

is increasing steadily and is proving

a popular information source.

Library users now have access to a

range of bibliographic hydroscience

databases from around the world.

Recent acquisitions include: Delft

Hydro (Netherlands), Aquaref

(Canada), and Waterlit (South

Africa). Selective dissemination of

information is provided via 151

Current Contents on Diskette and

the number of staff wishing to

update themselves on recent

scientific developments in particular

fields has shown a healthy increase

over the last year. As contact point

for the BIDS ISI service the Library

has also seen a brisk growth in new

registrations of staff wishing to

interrogate on-line Citation Indexes,

The Library is responsible for the

sale and distribution of the majority

IAHS Press, the publishing house of

the International Association of

Hydrological Sciences, has been

based at IH for over 20 years.

Uydrological Sciences Journal, the

bimonthly scientific journal of 1AHS,

and the "Redbook" Series qf

Proceedings and Reports are the

dominant publications. The output

peaks in "odd" years when either a

IAHS Scientific Assembly or a

General Assembly of the

International Union of Gtaxlesy and

of the Institute's publications. Overall

sales are approaching three times

those of five years ago and questions

concerning the range and contents

of IH publications form a significant

proportion of the external queries

handled each year. A third member

of staff has proved extremely

valuable, directly improving the

service to Library users. Literature

searches were at record levels in

1994 and a retrospective conversion

of the old card-based catalogue

records into the Library holdings

database IHUB is well advanced.

External requests to use the Library

facilities — over 150 in 1994/95 —

continue to rise. The strain this

places on cramped study facilities,

together with the limited amount of

stock that can currently be held on

the available shelf space, underlines

the priority need for larger premises.

More accommodation, especially

reception and reading areas, is

essential to maintain a responsive

service to a broadening community

of users and it is heartening that

NERC's Business Plan allows for the

necessary new building works

beginning in FY 1996/97.

Contact Sue Wharton

Geophysics (IUGG), the parent body

of IAHS, is held as the proceedings

of up to six symposia held at such

Assemblies are pre-published in the

Redbook series. All the papers in

IAHS Redbooks are reviewed, edited

and presented in a consistent format

and the books themselves sold

internationally.

The Redbooks prepared in 1994

provide an excellent example of a

well balanced publishing

programme for an inter-Assembly

year Iwo large p!e-pu'oltshed

proceedings and 'LILL post-publisheJ

proceedings were pa Iduced:

Enure Ciro/op/ay/et - kesonrces

Risk (pre-published for the Helsinki

FGR Pa Conlqrence held in June),

ilririt.iijfliifi fl i Shcm EIVS1011 aria

Sealingag Tratzspotil (pie -published

Ibr the Symposium held at Canhena

in December);

Cbenncal. and

Biological Processes gf

Ti.ansIbrnialion. anti Transpoli of

Comarninanls fl i -4qm:ilk.

Environments (post-published for

the HYDROCHEMISTRY 1993

Symposium held at Rostov-on-Donl,

Ca.itunclaWer 02gallt• Main4geniein

(post-published for the CQM

Conference held at Tallinn); FR/EAD:

'Scientific reseal-ch is only as good

as the dissemination of the results:

So said Christopher Patten when he

was Minister for Overseas

Developalent and it is a sentiment

taken very seriously by the Institute.

During the year we have continued

to ensure the effectiveness of

technoktgy transfer between

research scientists and our user

community. always bearing in mind

each particular audience and their

special needs. Several lengthy

research reports, technical brochures

and specialist leaflets have been

produced as well as continuing

production of high-calibre audio

visual aids for Se ientisIs presenting

material to international audiences.

Conferences_ symposia and seminars

a re the traditional fora for the

exchange or knowledge within the

scientific community and we were

pleased to organise a highly

successful international meeting in

the Lake District during October

Row /eqt, efi DUCT? bird

Egpernneiaal evict :\e/ ion* Data

(post-published for the •FRIEND

Conference held al Braunschweig)

andl

Snow and Ice Col 'et 5: c/ hills

ii-gb Eh? stono.spbere ciii d

(post-published proceedings 0f . two

symposia held at Yokohama).

The major event for 1AHS in 1995

Was the NXI General Assembly of

ILI.GC, held at Boulder. Colorado. in

July. Under the umbrella of a

'Geophysics and the Environment:

theme a vei-y wide range of

symposia were scheduled including

six organised by 1AHS. all pre-

published in the Redbook series..

An encouraging development over

the recent past has been all increase

1994 on Ecos .1 Vern Eanipidation

Egpernnents on behalf of the

Commission of the Europe:in

Communities and with financial

assistance I join Environment

Canada. Both the oral papers and

the poster presentations were

subsequently edited at Wallingford

for publication in the CRC series as

Ecosystems Research Report No. 20.

This followed rapidly on the heels of

an international conl'erence

Integrated River Basin Development,

organised jointly with FIR

W'alhngford and co-sponsored by

ODA. Papers presented at this

September meeting were published

by •ohn Wiley Sc. Sons /Ad

(ISBN: 0-171-95361-X).

Links with post-graduate cottrses

have continued, with visits from

several UK MSc courses and

overseas including students from the

universities of Freiburg and

reningen.


in the number or papeN featured

t he Hydigihtgifeal Sciences Jonrnal

and a stead} eduction in the time

lag ben\ een receipt of the papers

and their acceptance and final

publication. The Journal is the oldest

and 1110.5t international of all the

hydiolo,!_w journals. In addition to

pro\ idling a foal In for origindf

papers and SIX n dica nt developments

in hydrology, it includes

ann011n cem en is on lAHS-(rganised

or sponsored meetings. hook

reviews and a diary on worldwide

hydrology-related events.

Contact: Penny Kisby

Information services

INIST:ijtt or HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT I 994-95 23


1994/95 Highlights


Support for professional hydrologists

is provided through the Institute's

hnks with the British Hydrological

Society, with the editing and

production of the society's quarterly

newsletter and Occasional Papers

series.

We have a good rapport with both

local press, radio and television

outlets and also the science

Partitioning of water resources is

a key component of the Middle

East peace process. The facilities

of the National Water Archive

have been used to help

resurrect the Lebanese River

Flow Archive and allow a very

valuable information resource to

be fully exploited.

Licensing of IH spatial data

holdings continues to grow. A

new user of the dMa is the

Countryside Council for Wales

who lease the 1:50000 digital

rivers. This set, the IHDTM and

the Flood Studies Report

datasets can be supplied in most

popular formats and on most

Magnetic media.

HYDATA has been established in

each of the ten southern African

countries participating in the

FRIEND project. This has

involved provision of HYDATA,

training in its installation and

use, and assistance in loading

national datasets.

SWIPS, a database and analysis

package for storing soil

moisture data from a variety of

instruments, is now available.

The feasibility of mapping

floodplain boundaries has

been studied in conjunction

with a major insurance broker.

Further to this, work with the

correspondents of the national

papers, to the extent that every time

the weather displays unseasonable

traiLs, we field a large nuMber of

calls seeking professional comment,

greatly in demand because of our

expert position and our itnpartial

viewpoint.

Contact: Celia Kirby

British Geological survey has

involved preliminary investi-

gations into a digital terrain

model suitable for the hydraulic

modelling of the flood plain.

Transfer of time-series chemistry

can be problematical. A generic

system for this has been

designed and implemented. This

system takes simple spreadsheet

files used in laboratories and

adds to them the extra

necessary information for their

easy exchange.

Sussex Ouse resource

optimisation Ardingly

regulating reservoir operates

under complex licence

conditions for refilling, local

direct supply and maintenance

of tidal limit abstractions.

Sensitivity to those rules

through historic and synthetic

droughts was examined.

The acquisition, appraisal and

archiving of a number of

hitherto neglected lengthy river

flow records has.provided the

research community with an

important perspective on long-

term runoff variability. A

monthly series for the Wendover

springs — the longest extant

record in the UK — provides a

unique insight into hydrological

conditions throughout most of

the Cl9th.

WHAT ARE

HYDROLOGICAL

PROCESSES ?

Jim Wallace

Precipitationover land over sea

110,000 km' j 390,000 km'

Snow and'ice29 million km'

It is something of a paradox that whereas most people

would claim some knowledge and concern about moderw

day environmental issues, they would not normally cite

hydrologists as key players in the search for solutions.

Hydrologists are seen as people who deal with water

supply and manage reservoirs. This is but one aspect

of the many facets of hydrology. Process hydrologists,

concerned with the exchange of water throughout the

complete kydrological cycle and the physical and

biological fiwtors which control these exchanges play

a major part in NERC's advance of hydrological sciences.

HydrologicalProcessesIt is not the vwg quantities of water

which are held in the oce:ins /and on

the land which arc signiliLant. since

/L k almost, tissim either saline or

inaccecsible, Ratheu it is the changes

in these quantilic, brought .‘thout hy

the fluxes of preciphation,

evaporation and rniu)If between

these vast re/-4..1k/Oits which matter.

Lakes and rivers200.000 km'

004

Water vapourIn atmosphere13,000 km'

Evaporation

from land from sea70,000 km' 430,000 km'

Run-ott from land40,000 km'

OdtiansL

HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES

These Iluxes are orders of

niagnitude smaller than the total

storage, hut iondamentally sustain

all ille Limn. on earth. Proecss

hydn il()gy 1-, concerned therefore

with the study of the kind surkice

factor', which affect rates oI

precipitation, N:apol•ation and tunol)

()tir ability to accurately describe

these rates over realistically complex

and heterogeneous terugn

extremely limited and is one /11/1/ot

drives ill ill re>,earch,

lunun perciption of envir<mmental

i01 )illem). tends to change like

kishion. currently, great interest is

locUsed on/ elinnne change, yet u

not long since we were encolli //Age/

Lo Won'y about global winters and

new icc ages. Acid rain \A as

pc-reeked as the scourge of Europe

decale :igo and despite heroic

elfoits tc reduce SOemissions twin

coal burning INnver stations. this

environmental pn-blem has no/

heell Sol \-e(r. it simply became les5

lashionahle and attention moved on

to the next (more fashionable)

2 5


problem. It is arguably possible to

make defensible links benveen

hydrological processes :And almost

any current environmental issue —

our climate is after all much more

dependant on the water vapour in

our atmosphere than any of the

other 'greenhouse' gases.

Fundamentally, since water is the

life blood of the entire earth

system, we need to know about the

exchange between the vast

reservoirs stored in the land and sea

if we are to cope with most current

environmental problems,

understand the past and anticipate

the future.

Whereas fashions come and go,

there is an underlying constancy to

the approach required to sustain

the development of hydrological

process science so that the

techniques and information are

available for application to the next

environmental problem. Most

progress has been made by the

combination of experimentation —

making measurements of rates of

precipitation, evaporation or runoff

— with developing models which

can adequately explain these

observations.

This basic'principle defines the type

of approach and skills required to

sustain the development of this

science. Instruments continue to be

needed to allow the necessary

measurements to be made. For

example, the neutron probe,

developed to allow reliable and

routine measurements of the water

content of soils, has generated the

data which have increased our

understanding of the water use of

crops and trees in a wide range of

environments and led to practical

models of their water requirements

and growth.

Devices to measure evaporation

such as lysimeters and


micrometeorological instruments,

have provided the information on

which current understanding of the

important roles that soil physical and

plant physiological processes play in

controlling the rate at which water

vapour is transferred to the

atmosphere. Modern formulae for

calculating evaporation are, and

continue to be, based on these

observations and the insight gained

from them. Since over the entire

land surface of the globe around

two thirds of rainfall is returned to

the atmosphere as evaporation, it is

not surprising that great emphasis

continues to be placed on its

measurement and modelling.

Having the instruments alone is not

sufficient. It is also necessary to be

able to deploy and maintain these

instruments in many field

environments. The skill and

experience to do this is far from

trivial and as the complexity,

harshness and remoteness of the

environments where data are now

required become more acute,

experimental skills need to be even

more highly developed. Training of

hydrological scientists in practical

field research is therefore a

fundamental and constant

requirement in this area of

hydrological science.

Once good, reliable observations

have been sustained, hypotheses

concerning the processes which

control rates of exchange can be

tested and 'models' of the system

developed. Strictly speaking, a

hypothesis or model can never be

proved or 'validated'. Properly

trained scientists seek observations

which their current model cannotexplain: They then refine their

model to account for these new

observations and proceed to obtain

further data which the revised model

will no longer explain.

The final essential skill required to

advance hydrological process

science is the ability to model

exchange processes. This requires a

sound understanding of the

underlying physics and physiology

and the mathematical skills to

describe these processes in

appropriate models.

Observational techniques, the skill

to use these in the field and the

ability to synthesise the results in

models of the system under study —

these are the fundamental elements

which have sustained the

development of hydrological process

science thus far and are the basic

skills which will sustain the

contribution of this area of science

in the future. They are invariant with

fashions in environmental issues.

th.tileniAe ii4

--cienta: Gin-rite Ina a rtalgin

!rani t‘ all a

cenlhan 1J;

cen the land ,tinlAt y nii11 die

Emeiging understanding-,

),I diese feedhasiss. IggegiCI %%Ph d-1()

Nerk Lug): scale nature id

:amospheric pr()cesses. [Gild)

experiments ‘vidi Cl()Hal (arculati n

Modek (GCMs) the only leasilde

inethod ci predicting hiture (Urn:de

(I( :NI predictions arc sensitive to

!cpresenution nt he Lind surfase

t'llaNicittlaSties and. t() phi\ ale

J(egrate forecasts. ieguae realistic

partimeleruations the processes

c(introlling the energy and water

halance cit i.lic land siirliiee. I hire ;it

111 We concentrate oil

cialinleilit Mary " suiements

lit derhe tilese stirf.tce properties

Glide ,il the same time developing

models :Ind modelling techniques t()

use [Rite data ztt r.inge ()I scales up

to that of the GCM grid situagys.

( ;Hiatt s.hangu Ina\ ()cog thiough

Itinges in the composititd) ot !he

(itagisphere or .,)))) a result GI

tdespread change>. in Elie land

suiface energy Inlanee — such )ist

1111)SC which re:AA front lauge scale

vegetation change. 1)ek)resttaion and

deseinfufation are G\ () cGmiples

hanges in land ri,e stttrltisi at 11-1

vhiJt tit t tir 0\ el' ;1 larg; enount,h

area it, product, llannte, in t

tisiiinattng the ellgos ()I) nfl,f()nian

del 'station has been tale (lithe

lutist aLlive areas ()fapplicatiGn

(1N \ Nut the di:curacy ;MU the

( rechlal0 of these predienuns has

heen limited by the laYk it iaLl

IIVCded iii USUIblkh the land surface

properties of the Igisture Ghich

generally replaces the It west. In

AIWAGX.)),

OINery;

Stud% I Ili hat. nnillithcralet1 ith

snsrral ISfazthan tn)stitiat ins u)

prto.Ided linder,,tantling (it three

pa>4

tia -usue i dd.- kg.

has :dread heen applied t(

I ladle% re CICX1 gh in));

impaGed estimates cd

deudAsstaG

that di:tore-NJ

)1:ill itt he

mafonia» basm. with the

change urring dround the it I)

Lit die Ailiiizon, otitside the

dckulv -led area hut Where numt

people live and grow crop,.

d he sahel is another area GI I

expected to He parocularkv

susceptible to any change ill Jiticlial

clinnile 111 rilayntn1 a central role in

the i IAPE Sahel (livdroligjeal and

EXerinieni in die

Saheb, in international experiment

designed to improve understanding

the unk. Hemeen land

tientrad,ith in and climate ( hany

semi-and wead.

Nletiguivinents lii evaprtt'atii in From

three intensively nlonitored 'super-

sites. Igne all(G),e(3 the variation

evapt n.tth in resulting hi ttil

dilliTences itt \ egetation to He

separated from those controlled

the distrilgaion cl raingill and its

effect on soil moisture. Differences

in soil itinitiluint. have hcen shiGvn

pronitice large short terill

in evapiwation. but: longer [Lulu

(.111ferk.ncer) in C\ rmorahon vcere


Global change and

forecasting

Men! <,illY warn, ni TOin HilarOniel

27


250

200

150

Hydrological

processes in complex

vegetation

tiger bushfallowmillet

28 INS IIIUIL dr I-IYDRul (t)Ctr AlttmtlAl ,ttpoR

0220 230 240 250 260 270

Day of year280 290 300

Cnouilatire apailahh, coycyy (m). lbws) (calculated ar: sum of

evapulatio)? arid se,2s ible 1.:Val fly tv) and (vapor (lhon ((lashed lines)

.lbr Vc•A etar /on Sun/ben? Slu)ouSile

result of different vegetation types

reflecting and emitting different

amounts of radiative ctnergy. A range

of meteorological inodels are being

used to investigate the aggregation

of fluxes from the scale orthe held

measurements up to the GCM grid

square scale.

Il has long been recognised that the

key to predicting the water use of

vegetation is to model the behaViolir

of the stomata, the small apertures

in plant leaves which control

simultaneously their rate of water

vapour loSs Wad the rate of (...irbon

dioxide uptake for photosynthesis.

Until recently evaporation was

Large expanses ol heterogeneous

vegetative OiL Ct — particulady

rainwest and savannah — have

important roles in hydrological

pmcesses by virt Lie of the iniltlenCeof their surface fluxes on the

atmosphere and water balance, lnss

of water 1.rom plant surfaces through

st(tmata. i.e, transpiration. is a 11

important process in partitioning

available ehergY Oar ability tolb re ca st responses el SUCh

vegetation to any kind ol

disturbance is Mien limited by lack

modelled in terms oF empirical

functions ol the controls on homatal

behaviour hy aurmIspheric and soil

variables, but increasingly it is being

realised that carkin dioxide and

water lapt air [luxe>, cannot be

treated as separate processes and

that new models toV needed which

acknowledge the interdependence

(ti these flsixtrti.

Work in ec1lalboration with the

Ehdley Centre for Chmate Prediction

and Research has therefore been

initiated to develop, test and

calibrate coml)ined carbon and

water flux models, working towards

the goal of a GCM which contains

ii we'radil egein hon, respiinding to

dinnging levels of a nil)ient carbon

dioxide.

Recently, instrument technology has

developed to the pt)int where

simultaneous measurements of nacer

vapour and carbon dioxide flux ean

he made in the field on a routine

btt sis. and current and lilt UR?

measurement programmes include

the llSe (A- these devices to allow

the further development and

calibration of combined carbon;

water flux models.

Contact: John Gash

of information and understanding

abom the different comhbutions

Pie total system function by

individual components Or gutups

within it. and most imponantly

how they each might respond to

such change

The stability of ecosystems and

their tolerance of environmental

stresses is related lo !heir diversity,

i-i owever. wc have verY ponyunderstanding of the phy4ological

functioning of individual species

prodesse:-., ill cornpley vegetation

undcrw:mdIw4 il hew

stulYiiN and heno.:'. ty', prt-dict

vndironmenta:

impacty

I ieiercl 4tiilctitis ve2eladol

dominHies the land surlacv ropical

1:n[11-crests, sawirinaly. and \ edands

aie regarded as the nii1H cE,Inpler

ion tyl-s but helen,geneity

nrin‘fci egetUr

lype,; iffiereropping and die

rorins i il Hgoiforestry stk.]]

Hani:gions or paddand s:wannahs

ire HUMUrer, or specie!, C waled or

manipulated tor the henvnt of

mankind. 'Fhe Stu:cuss Lii lailure

the 111:111l pOSI- IllIde tree (1'1)1)t

i1f41 .il lreSrrlC depends ill ii Lirge

extent on the dcgree b) which

components or t•e mixture arc

complementaty in Hieir (4 water,

light and nutrients. 'Ilk'

measurement and mcdelling

watei I.He by component specie:,

and the below-ground compoition

For %%aler in agroionestr) :Aston>, has

lundamental role in the planning

and management ol sustainalile

agn)loiVSI r • SVSLCIIIS.

II I is collaborating with the

internatiintd Center tin. Research in

Agrolorestrv (ICRAI.) in Ken\ a and

the 1-niversitv of Nottingham in a

comprelumsive experitnent

examine the partitioning of light and

water in a typical hill slope tree/

crop mixture. Initial ny.uhs show

how file free canon can save on

wHer lost as soil evaporation,

li Avever the introducti,m iii true!,

increases interceptim li sses.

net. effect on the complete wate•

balance of introducing trees has still

to he evaluated hut resulN5 fnmi this

esperitnent should help in :Nscssing

the utility of agrolciresirv systems

(Idler Sites,

0

50

30-

20

10. 1

—if -am• • •

Growingseason

0 - 1 I

Jan 1. 94 Apr 194 Jul 1. 94

rslimeilca h

(15 1ilernli1p2Irce. 4/earibe

Cemplex vegetation mixtures are

:H2o studied in the ABRACOS

experiment in ltrazil. Here detailed

measureinents or stomatai

conductance were made with an

inki-red :4:15 analyser throughcut the

compleN (anopies (It Writ(MICR:Ili

illitikAresis aertbs Amazonia '1"hu>,e

observaticas have revealed less

vaUfaii in between rainforests For a

panicular cillopy position btu

substantial. dillerenees between

canotw po>,itiuns (see right). Equally

important for modelling rain 1-orc‘tt

evapomtion are ilic consisient

!legal ive Medllacks til stomfaal

solucliince Had air dryness

(humidity duficitl which is most

pronininced in the species with the

highcst conductances. 'Ibis impliv>

that the component species lia‘e

mechaffism LEE re.trict

'Sr- Growing season • ff.

Oct 1, 94 Jan , 95 Apr 1. 95 Jul 1. 95

/9,. /1540 a OIIIXWIIEI (ElitE ulle

In, 1. le bucCS el VI

r non

7.5ro

0.25

0.20

015

0

o -10a.)2a)

0_05

0

Evaporation frombare sof 676 mm

579 mm

/-

Evaporation from

soil under trees

0 e,

Growingseason

0 400 800 1200 1600Annual rainfall (mm)

Enon»Ic f Mc tin ?ma/ fradion yj

irli/UIIll /ILO (Is 911c9c9R199. Mack fly

(Sing (bu Gash ei )1995) Spa rSeP

intenrep fro model rainfidl data from

1984 to 19811from Machakos. Kenya

1.) y/i-renl (liNrcus ytc-nirr (Dv lo

siml flak! (101.5c I IGO% •5(tv: V/ cl;Hisparse

109. •/ CaUopieS.

14,4011i 190 29


30 :051 1i 1i1L OF Hanr<al catatt: xraaff

Evapw-ation chamber i ,c-”qtre Viiralion

from sum nnali kiLf.c.LLLL

their g ',Alec loss when the

;atmospheric demand is xery high.

have also been successful in

using these derailed leaf

conduct:mac data to estimate total

rainforest transpiration as well as its

distribution through the canopy.

500

- Manaus- Maraba

Cf

•

400 - Ji-Parana

-6

•

Upper---- 300

cti

200

7415 100

0

•

LowerCD

0 2

7berchatouship twiny ?

cun /do Nee din/ air spn fit

defil'ii »Jr ilppC (Ma hInT 4.(111,P1'

SPCI CS Cad) rg IlnrCM/rOSI

Mixed vegeta n stem, h

been studied in the Sahel Here Ihe

separation o• the uttinTiraiion and

e aporation domponents in spiffy

crops .ind savannah •as been

Acomplished using a range of

tuchniques. For example.

transpiration from individual

saiannah but-lies (»herd

scn egrams iv I has been measUred

using die stein heat balance

approach and the evaporation

eompnnent nil' herb and grat,s

layer heneallt (he bushes has heen

measuryd Using Lill evaponaion

chamber (see left/ In cropped areas

()I the Sand evaporation from hare

Soil Unnittil tiles a suhstantial fraction

of the yavtour flu from the land

surface. particularly soon after

rainstorms and therefore needs to he

explicitly accounted for in

suhsequent modelling of this land

type

-e success of vegetation m

such as agrotorestiv SI-Steil/5 is

dependent on the complementarity

of the two or mottu species invoked.

Complementarily will he a Rine/ion

of both ahove- and helow-grotind

compeLARMI hat the resources

neeessaty for growth Ahove-ground

processessuch as hght Interception

and stomata responses. nrc

comp:IraLi\ el Wen lint lUistood.

however. below-grtffind processes

such as the root luncnoning

different components of a species

mixture is \ inually unknown. is

planning to use a range of tracing

techniques (using stable isotopes

and heltt balance methods) In

directly tackle the problem ol

Ihtaining auer uptake ffata fromcomplex multi-species mot systems.

6 8 10 12 Contact:John Roberts

Specific humidity deficit (g kg-1)

'Li.sL'aitTai.l]e n lageluent OF naturst

resources i a IV cu i nne theme in

many ot the conventions and policy

initiatives that resulted from die MN

Conference on tile Environment and

Development held in Rio de Janeiro

in 1O92 Policy makers ancl funding

agencies alike are recognising that a

more integrawd approach must be

taken in the management and

conservation ol natural resources

particularly in areas where

environmental degiaciation is already

a major concern.

Developing methods and models for

improving the management of

natural reSOurces and the

suswinability of agriculture in a

numl)er of different agnkmlirna

zones is now a key feature of

research undertaken by TH. An

imponant feature of this work is the

collaboration with other NERO

institutes. 15fE1s and a numher of

overseas agricultural research

institutes as well as the participation

of farmers alld local communities

An example of 5LICI1 a project iR all

ODA-funded research pi gramme in

sourh-east Zimbabwe in

collabortition With the British

Geological Survey, the Lowveld

Research Station and Reading

L i rs y llle research Within this

programme has been successful in

demonstrating the most efficient

Walis f() CS tract and Use groundwater

to establish small irrigated

community Or allotment type

gardens. To date, ten such

community gardens and collector

Wells have been implemented as

part of a pilot project. The total

manher of households taking

domestic water from these wells is

1 5 1 and the total number of families

with allotments On the associated

community gardens is 731. The

project has developed decision-

making models that can lse used tn

siting and designing wells and

gardens and ensuring that the

ri,,cedL iFeS ailOpted sate,gli:/ rd the

interactive partteiparion of local

tiliiital3331S and 0.311M131111

An important component of dle

research programme in Zimbabwe is

am:cmsing the impact orgn5undwater development on the

onwronment. the local economy and

the quality of life ot rural

communities. Detailed process

studies are aka, quantifying and

modelling the effects of land Lase

and land management on

groundwater recharge and the

TI proYeinents al water use

effidency that can be achieved by

adopting improved inigation or

ramrcd farming practices.

Replication of the research

rectminlendations on a wide scale is

now planned Isv the Government Or

'Zimbabwe and ODA and nine NCOs

have expressed interest in lunding

MO extra schemes.

Another ekample of research LO

improve natural resource

managenient involves collaboration

with research groups in France.

Denmark. Spain and Belgium. TlFs

project has successfully developed

software that can be used for

inlproving the tactical and strategic

management of limited water

resources for irrigation. The main

contribution by [FI has heel] the

comparative evaluation of a number

of soil water balance and crop

production models. Research linked

to this project has also led to the

development of a model [hat can he

used in real time kir estimating soil

water availability in crop root zones

using daily rainfall and eLaporation

data Lis well as intermittent values or

surface soil moisture obtained fwyri

rermaelv-sellsed microwa te data.

This model has been shown to work

with crops that maintain

complete canopy cover Sal eh as

ilaSiLl re.

Contact: Charles Batchelor


Sustainable natural

resource management

II! science gerwaues la many WS!'

Here billage,:s li i Zimbabwe demonsirale

01).1 3 lawaraneril SCITeklly.;10511

; cloniesac purchased

tnt b sales iiflirialace fiLln an UVEGS

colleclor cblaliti 11WI' ga rilen

INST TOTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPOR1 199 -1- 95 31


Satellite radar for soil

moisture monitoring

9

0

32 15151 LiLJit Cli I I 03301 ANUAL

Soil moisture plays a key role in the

hyd“)logical cycle as it is one of the

most important terms which controls

the IC ti isle r energy and water

between the land surfitce and the

am.lospherc, rivers and aquifers. The

availability of soil moisttire :Us()

determines the rate of transpiration

and therefore controls ille gilt-Will ()I

vegetation. Evaporation and

transpiration are the only sources of

atmospheric water vapour and

therefore have a crucial effect on

climate dynamics. The surface soil

layer is where the largest changes in

moisture take place and this strongly

influences energy exchange. This is

also the regf )11 which may he

detected by remote sensing, so the

potennal for monitodng soil

moisture fluxes over Very large area,

is all exciting possibility.

The active micKtwave instnlment 11

the European Space Agency FRS- I

Satellite 01,15 the first satellite

instr Li ment to provide l'adar data for

long-term Earth observation. Radar

has a number of advantages Over

conventional sensors for the

aSsesSalent of soil moisture, such as

the ability to acquire data at

frequent and predicrahle intervals

thanks to its penetration of cloud. In

particular, at microwave frequencies,

ci

ID 20 30 40

Effective Water Content (M1/4,- Wit I itter63

Relationshi)i ERS- I satellite Mdt11- baenscauar

el/echo! soil wilier conical over shivip-,enin'(0)(IsItilliSittW

oil •all and (.10,1, sOlk

ci

ci

fifi.

50

there is a direct phy ic.(d link, via the

sc)il dielectric. between soil moisture

and radar hackscatter. I )i-v soil has a

dielectric constant (Ed) of about 3

whilst water has an el of about SO.

When these two materials are

mixed, the resulting dielectric

constant can range from 3 (for

completely dry soil) to over 25 (for

wet soil). This relationship is

essentially independent of ambient

conditions such as tenlpefattlre and

ilfinnination levels which means that

soil moisture can he inferred from

the radar backseatter. However, Wall

radar other factors slid.' as surface

roughlless and vegetation effects

must he either quantified or

minimised heft ic soil moisture

effects can he isolated.

.fo test the use of ERS- I Synthetic

Aperture Radar (SARI data for

monitoring soil nloisture. SAR

precision processed images w(ere

acquired at 35-day intervals for three

test sites of sheep-grazed pasture in

the U.K. around 20 hectares each,

selected on the IX 1 :its Or contrasting

soils. Both automatic and manually

read instnunents were installed to

monitor clianges in surface and

profile so I moisture, and vegetatit.m

was sampled at the time ol satellite

overpzisses to detennine i151110isture

content and bulk density.

Because microwave radar

frequencies only interact with the

top layer of soil. an integral part of

these studies has been the modelling

of surface/profile soil moisture

relationships which enable moisture

levels within the entire root-zone

region to be estimated fromsatellite

data. The main objective has been to

develop an operati()nal system for

vegetated soils that integrates the

renlote sellSing intormatfirn into a

dynamic soil water balance model A

oEtidll continuous soil moisture

profiles from intermittent still surface

moisture measurements.

Surface and profile soil Mositure

data from the FRs-1 test sites were

used to rest the inodelling

approaches which resulted in the

de elopment of :In operational two-Hve,- model. The Figures on the right

clemonstrate the excellent agreement

between the incidel and observed

surface/profile sod moisture for both

die sandy loam and clay test sites

Contact: Ken Blyth

I 994/95 highlights

77,e re/al/unship baarver, root

zone (0-50 70 water sfolage

and sail Motslure culaenl gnaa

0R5cnr horer ef a sanclu soil

(above) al id a Clay soil (ithi

010,2

200

150

Meso-scale modelling of the Sahel

A meso-scale meteorological

model . with gdd size of 10 kin

and a domain size of 1000 km

by 1000 km, has been used to

investigate the effects on the

atmosphere of land surface

variability in the Sahel.

Simulations show that at the

end of the dry season spatial

variations of soil moisture cause

significant variations in the

height of the atmospheric

boundary layer and circulations

in the lower atmosphere.

Arctic tundra Measurements of

energy and water budgets have

been initiated on Svalbard island

in the northern extreme of the

arctic tundra. Forecasts predict

that makw warming \y in occur

in these latitudes creating the

possil-rility of adclitnril

atmospheric carbon being

0


hatsd

e Observed

0.2 04 06

Soil moisture of 0 - 5 cm layer Onraed

released hy thawing of the

permafrcist. euperimental data

will be used to improve the

modelling of this feedback on

global climate change.

The stem heat balance approach

has been used very successfully

to distinguish rates of

transpiration in different poplar

clones grown as candidates for

biofuels. This -approach is

proving well suited to

continuous (1(1-15 clays)

measurements r)f transpira n.

Measurement of actual evapo-

ration in Mexico A second

CEC-funded project in Mexico

has started with measurements

of actual evaporation over

irrigated cotton to check satellite

estimates of potential

evaporation.

ARSTITUTE OS HYDROLOGY ANHIJA[ REFORI

0.3

15 33



Hydrological classification of

dambos in Zimbabwe Satellite

measurements in the thermal

infrared band at high and

medium resolution were used to

determine the difference

between surface and air

temperatures. The magnitude of

this difference,and its temporal

variation during the developing

dry season indicates

hydrological differences

between dambo regions.

Estimation of mean annual

groundwater recharge A

review (for NRA) of existing

practices and a comparison of

models allowed nomographs to

be developed for the rapid

estimation of mean annual

groundwater recharge at drift-

free sites on the Chalk and

Permo-Triassic Sandstone

aquifers of England and Wales.

Mapping suspended sediments

from airborne data As part of

the LOIS programme, airborne

spectral images are being

combined with ground data to

map suspended sediments and

temperature in reaches of the

Rivers Ouse and Trent and some

of their tributaries.

Climate change and water

resources (for NRA, EC and

ODA). Creating climate change

scenarios at a spatial scale

suitable for catchment-scale

hydrological studies and

developing water balance

models which can be applied

across a large geographical

domain, such as a continent.

Satellite radar for monitoring

fluvial and coastal floods

Severe flooding in central

Europe during January 1995 was

successfully recorded by the

European ERS-1 satellite

synthetic aperture radar and

methods for improved

processing and dissemination of

the data are being evaluated. An

EC-supported study with the

Philippines Atmospheric,

Geophysical and Astronomical

Services Administration and

Sheffield University addressed

the problems of flood mapping

following tropical cyclone and

monsoonal rainfall events.

Soil moisture estimation using

ERS-I satellite radar A NERC

Special Topic Study to

determine the feasibility of

modelling soil moisture from

surface dielectric information

recorded by satellite SAR.

Instrumented test sites were

used to determine the effects of

soil and vegetation moisture,

surface roughness and soil type

on radar backscatter. Optimal

modelling was developed to

relate surface to Lirofile soil

moisture. Field validation

measurements for the NASA SIR-

C \ X-SAR Shuttle radar

experiment were undertaken in

Norfolk during April and

October 1994.

Advances in evaporation theory

Synthesis of evaporation and

water balance data recorded in

a number of vegetation types

has led to improvements in

evaporation models. For

example, the control of

evaporation by soil moisture

supply is being examined in a

new model being developed

jointly with the Institute of

Terrestrial Ecology. Also, the

first coupled model for

combining radiation,

interception and transpiration in

mixed species has been

developed. This should have

wide application in the broad

range of mixed vegetation

systems which are typical of

most of the world's vegetation.

REGIONAL WATER

QUALITY

Alice Robson

Environmentministen

fish in troubledffaters

tionestSon me

i-vesWitisbad n

The Environmental Hydrology Division seeks to provide

an understanding of the dynamics and key processes

controlling pollution of surface water systems. By

representing the key processes within mathematical

models, our aim is to promote scientific understanding

and to facilitate improved water quality and

environmental management.

EnvironmentalHydrology

rfters transport many thektsands

of tonnes of Ma feria] to the oceans

each yeal Included in this load are

anthropogenically derived pollutants

such as Mt vients. heaNy inetals and

organic chemicals. These impact

upon both river and ocean

ecosystems and are or particular

concern for confined ocean zones

such as tlk: North Sea. A nlajor

requirement in tinderstanding such

systems is the identification of

riverine inputsincluding scenarios

or land use,

climatic,

demographic and

industrial change,

uft" sti.11

l"ain Poll°"eNoitti-Ittet.y

aSea

'Fhe NFImC l.and

Ocean Interaction

Study (LOIS) is at

the forelront

1:uropeon researcli

into the scientific

issues 01 controlling

the Noilh Sea

environment. It MS

10 10ok at the

ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY

movement of chelnicats From the

land to rivers. to estuaries and then

out to the continental shelf and deep

seas. An important component is to

model river systems and examine

how fluxes to the oceans may

change. it has a pivotal role in

hringing together regional data and

detailed studies or niL er processes

(undertaken in collaboration with

universities and other NERO research

institutes') and in linking these into

the modelhng work.

Interpretation of reg till tin i (la 111

crucial. Water quality data is

routinely collected by the NRA

regions and the Scadtish River

Purificmion Boards and the Insnture

is working with these authorities to

explore this ektensive resource. The

data incorporate regional time series

records of many pollutant

ccanponen Ls and incluck inform:Hon

on sewage and industrial effluents as

well as river water quality. The

resource is further strengthened by

11MA1 aid studies to provide more

derailed information at sinttegic

iNS7TUTE OE HYDROLOGY ANNUA,.. REPORT :99,1-9b 3 5


Chromium

Mean river vettage and trade olliune

(uincentratiou at ate Ai le and Ouse

catchmenis. Daia jinni loth NRA and 1.(.1.IS

•ai•es ant shown. UrIrm Ilreas ant shaded

pint. The Aire and Calder lung high levels al

(haunter:. curl 1711117eMleS seeaga and mule

(fiSdlarge5 relative to the ntral Ouse .sorent.

,

cc '

36 I. .1NuAL -9

L

cc -rer-,

`r-'

-:Calder

0

01. C ccl, AS' 01 ir

propmanaltcsit.muen(tints moll CO

1aniiits lbr a wide raw.

pollutnnts. 'Il ic flee, • data will Be

used as the has(' klY hCller eslialatC's

of flux and to descrihe the dynamics

()I' chemical transfers. \VOW

nac-dsurenlents sprCad aerOSS Many

hundreds of sites [And including igier

50 chemical determinands, effective

data presentata in is critical to

pnIctical regi inal interpretation,

d he LOB study area extends troill

die Tweed ni lice \Nash_

incorporating .1 tin ersitv of

environment:, and related water

quality issues. Thuregion includes

extmaptes of rural areas (e.g. the

Rivers Tweed, I )tie and Denvent

:rid highly industrialised catchment,

g. Rivers Aire, Fent and Tyne)

which htne varied geologies, soil

and vegetation types. From this

diverSiB. a regit)fraI perspective on

water quality ifing

devidoug_id which Hi a vitai prLig

tu esrablishing how yi-dients sill gild

hi:- modelled Whl ilffiv water qua

may chdrige and t [he lutare.

Regional difteRTICeS [hid

develop:id Ureas and rural

catehment., arc prinlaril

heearlsecai sitttailieala[ effluent

dkeharges Inan •ewtig,e works and

industrial pnweases. There are

exiensive data onhophosphaie «)

demonstnita this, with ‘er) high

levels in Sow h Voi.kshire noel the

upper Trent regipfts resulting Boni

heavv pollutant loads deriving 11%)111

lilies such as heelh. Sheffield, I terby

and Birmingham. The same regional

pattern of increwied concentrations

in the urlyinfindusirial areas is

common to many other chemical

speciei, lor example. in

industrial Pt en, rnn he as much a•

WI order ot magnitude higher thdo

the background rural level. The

Iigiire on the len presents 1,015 and

NRA erage 11\ er waier quaky lur

chromium lid 1‘ ri contrasiiing

VC) rksh ire rkurs Ole Aire and the

Ou5e. Trade And sew,ige

arc also slamn On the Ouse there

are few measured sources and the

ensuing river concentrations are very

low (Below deternon limits in Many

eases/. The Afte receives numerous

effluvial dii-ichirgc,. many very high

ill Chloffill1111. Rivet c'oneentrana ns

increase down the course a theAire

reflecting die incremental inputs

from Keighley.lSradford and Leeds

on the Laltler, man t. (at the sewage

discharges, arc high in chromium

too. especially arotaad the Dew shury

region. The chnattiull) in these

sewage discharges is likely to he H.

industrial origin: although some

(livenl unde discharges do ik-cur.

most indu.strial enluent is sent I(.

sewers and treated in comhinathat

\villa domestic diluent.

Exceptions ira the general pattern of

.97

40

70

10

= Upper Swale52 = Lower Swale

= UreN =Niogl0 = OuseW WharfDe= DerwentA = AireC = CalderD= DonT= Trent

Boren

Manganese

Barium

Chromium

Wicket

Lead

high concentrations in highR

populited areas arc illustraTn

importa nee tit geOlOgietll sollfcCS

for some chunnea Is. For example.

peek Libre lead is Vely high orl

Swale due IC igigeralittgliOn in the

area (this is an old lead mining

regli inc Barium too is higher in the

north Yorkshire riNers and this is

because Of a geologically relmed

groundwater :301.1re:e wit ide is not

present further St Tuth.

Although many of the industrial

catchments are dominated by point

source inputs, there are also diffuse

groundwater and soil sources of

many substances. Although the

diffuse component may be

comparaTively small, nevenheless

is of signincance when considering

long term changes in water quality.

Rural areas, where clingise sources

are dominank are ideal for

characterising the nature of diffuse

input, Nitrate data on the Tweed

show regional variations which call

be linked to land use and to the

hydrological characte riS tics of die

soils. The particularly high diffuse

nitrate source in the lowland arahle

areas rebtes to high fertiliser

application and to runoff from slurry

and silage.

Differences between industrial and

ruRd areas extend further than the

average concentrations variations

presented above. Contrasting flow

dynamics and chemical prOggesses

apply because the characteristics of

the sources are different. More

polluted rivers cany a Lit higher

proportion of metals in particulate

Anerme dissolved I total metal concentratiom for the LOIS monitoring viles.

Dissolved conceit() is are drown as stolid bars, total concourinions

dissolved acid extract-erne meld) are shaded. Boani. cit romium. manganese and

nickel show (wind patterns of highesr concenirations in the southern "dirty-

rivers, and lowest concentrations in Me norlhern "dean- rivers. Barium and lead

are nr0 exceplions lo this (see text), Barium has a grainichater source in die noon

and, apparemix fee industrial granites in Me south, Note Marlin- chrmnium the

spin betweeitiond and dissolved is 'mist-SLIM-cur in Me "dirty" rivers.


form hecausc, of tile high particulate

content of sewage ediLoeur. This

explains wl-n lees than half of the

to ital suspended chromium in

Sourhem catchments is in dissolved

form. whereas alni0St a li ChrOlgitill)

diss011 ecl form to the north.

Contrasting relauons.hips with tlow

are also ohserved FOY many species.

for evample. nickel ccmcentratit.ms

increase with now on the clean

upper Swale. with the dominant

source from [le ttlirfa CC Soli Waters

which mainly contribute during high

flows. However, nickel shows a

decreasing relationship with flow o

the Calder: there is increased

dilution of the polluting point

discharges as fireg increases,

Overall, LOlti has made it [possible

to bring together a vast amount ol

data so allowing fundamental

qiiestions ro He resolved alxgit

regional water qualhy issues and the

hydrochemical functioning of

catchments. Rgther investigation

can now follow of specific scientific

issues such as the fare and chemical

transtbrinations of pollutant

components. The study provides the

basis for approaching the broader

issues of how complex

environments should be modelled

and h enviii)nnlental

tat tnagement and legislation can

contribute to tl healthy river, coastal

and Inarine environment.

•NSTi7Lil E HYDROLOGY NNUAL REPORT i99'1GG) 3 7


Water resource

management in Nepal

30 II\FC lvii IL Dr O'ffWolf,f-iy Af,J,f. LAI

A thice year pr oject

land Use, soil conservation and

vater resource management in the

Nepal Ntliddle Inns has recently

been completed. Hydrological

aspects of this project centred OH

chta collected from six catchments

il bemeen 2 atx1 $ km: all located

within tlie Likhu Nhola watershed

to die north el Kathmandue late

cfiat descrihe both the physical and

the chemical aspects of die

catchments. hydrology (i.e. rainf al.l

told How, quantities and

chemistries). filese data were used

to study the short and long-term

conseqUenCeS Of current agricUltUrtil

practices. and the likely eftects of

expanding agricultural tie\ elopment

to meet the demands Of LI rising

population. A panic ular concern

watt, that unsuitable land was hieing

developed that would have a very

limited productive lifespan and

could lead in a destabilisation of a

finely I Ydlanced landscape.

Current- latld LiSe practices htn

seen the replacement or the na tive

lorest with grazing land and two

types of terrace system: Hooded

1,-Oet terraces. maMly used for rice

production, and gently sloping ban

teITUCeS used for inaizir. millet

mustard, pt)iato and yvhcat. Within

the 1.ileho Kluala the farmers and

local conhnunities Wefe, in general.

found to have adopted good kind

t

Application o.1 fcrtiliter mix a side chrssing

C:' LiV I Ind- 4',

nianagenlent practices. such as the

US' 01 farmyard ill:must- to improve

stal structure and Meruase its organic

content, :md the replanting and

careful management of forctSts

maintain a valuable resource and

Prevent degradtaitin.

Hydrochemical studies involved the

application OE two water quality

models. Nicyle is a nitmgen cycling

mt.idel based On mass-balance

principles and adapted R) account

for the approphate nitrogen

transformation>, within nce terraces.

Magic-AI:rind is a long term lumped.

process-based mcKlel or soil and

water acidification. nere were three

main conclusions of practical ttJt.eto

ille litcal tanners:

• tlhe long-term benelits of

fannyard nlante application

would he oil -Set hsi resulting

problems of soil acidification

that may be further exacerlted

andiropogenic acidic oxide

deposition horn the atnlosphere.

• Application of fertiliser :IS a side

dressing to flooded terraces

should not continue as the

fertiliser is quickly washed off

.ind is not available to promote

plant growth.

• The use of tmtmonitall sulphate

as a fertiliser should be stopped,

as ir is likely to cause severe soil

acidification problems. It should

he teplaced with an alternative

nitrogenous fertiliser

Complementary components of this

ODA-funded project invet,tigated

effeos of land use on aquatic

biology (University of Wales,

college mil Cardiff) and

morphological studies or lancklide

susceptibility and gully fonnation

(led hy QLmeeil Mary and Westfield

College/

Contact: David Boorman

a he benefit 1,11 ilfeCis of can ths\ until

Jett\ try in Intonlaining >toll tttructure

httse long been realised. `u.ti-face and

sub-surkLee feeders have been

shown to kith increase and

dismibute Organic inatIC through We

soil profile. Cast prodtkaion and the

excavation tit burn iws contribute to

improved soil strikIttle and profile

development while surface and sub-

surface casting can increase We

amount of water-stable aggregates

which. in turn, may decrease liability

to soil el'OSIOn The InflUell(V of SJil

structure on hydrological processes

such as infiltration and water flow

through soils may be reflected in We

pore size distribution. Numbers of

Hinpores have been directly related

10 total nunahers ot earthworms and

file Virosity of ikkts has been shown

to be increased bv earthworm

burrows.

It is very disturbing, tlaerekare. that

the recent introductior a o the British

Isles ol- da e Nesv Zeiiland flittworm

tilrlikpostbia triatigniakt) has Iacen

foundro be a ‘orticious Freda tor ofilldigenous earttlwonal species. In a

number orst tidies A. /1161;1ga/eta has

been slkown to be drastically

reducing earthworm populations

from observed sites. I lading no

natural predators in the British Isles.

the spread of A. iriali,gulata has

been rapid since its first sighting in

Belfast in 1963. Although A.

likinga la is now most prevalent in

Scotland arid N. Irdand there have

been some sightings in the Republic

of Ireland. and increasing nombers

found in England. This suggests that

A. triangulate is prtagressing skiwly

further south and populating new

areas.

The absence of Ca rthw()mnas has

shOwn tO have drainniC

influences on soil structure. In view

of the threat- posed to indigenous

earthworm populations. we are

assessing the indirect effects of A.

Iriangulala on hydrological

processe.,: cvia ich ma \ otr or a, a

colmecluence of em-thw orin

depleuon Potential changes in

ctitelament hydi. oHy could have

subsequent and dramatic long-term

repercussions.

Laboratoty studies wure conducted

on soil cores taken Cram a three-year

bin experiment conducted hy the

Department cif Agriculture lbr

Northern Ireland (DANI) and the

Queen's University of Belfast. The

bins were packed with a MA naix

and had replicated treatmenN

containing worms only tart 2). A.

In'auwelcita added sik nkatlis after

worms were established (trt 21). and

a control wall no earthworms tar A

t)iiaiktutlatzt (tit 1) — see figure on

next page Significant differences in

the water release characteristic and

bulk density between treatments

were recorded. Thc figure shows the

greater water holding capacity of the-

soil with the eardmforms only,

whereas the lreatment with A.

Icia Jag HIala showed 2 similar soil

structure to the control because of

earthworm predation. There was

also a signilic lilt increase in soil

bulk density observed in the

earthworm-only treatment as

compared to the others -This again

suggests limited structural

development following the removal

of earthworms lay A. triangulate

Field fale:isureitients in Nonheim

Irelandusing the C.S1120 disc:

RerfnedltaCter demonstrated

diflrences in saturated hydraulic

conductivity between sites over-run

lay A. Iliangulala and neighbouring

unaffected sites. It

nOW seems evident

rhaI /I. Iciangulala

is sUccessful in

i-educing earthwort

populations to a

degree where soil

structure and its

related influence can

hyd rol ogica


Hydrological and

environmental impact

of earthworm

depletion by the New

Zealand flatworm

(Artioposthia

triangulata)

INS ITetitc OF HYDROLOGYANNUAL REPORT Istss Qs 39


ik

Predicting bacterial

water quality

$andwell hydraulic conduclivics

tlIeclSllreflleIIlS using a disc pennecanefer

40 INS [milli OF HYDROI 009 ANNOAL RPODI 991 '23

properties are aflected. The main

conclusion of this work is rhat a

change in earthworm activity may

reduce saturated In/di-auk

conductivity and infiltration igaes.

inducing more extreme surface

runoff.

A numlna.r of catchment models have

already demonstrned the sensitivity

of rainfall-runoff relationships to

these soil hydraulic parameters. This

process could well lead to

environinental damage.. Increased

runoff may result in increased

agntehemical pollution and flood

hazards is more water passes

directly overland to rivers and

streams. In areas subject to

acidification the change in flow path

could be very significant. Other

a)

25

20

lainecrelease c

E.coll bacteria are found in the

intestines of warm-blooded aninlals

such as cows, sheep and humans.

The organisms enter the natural

envimnment when excreted

faeces and reach the river in su rla

runoff from rainfall, in water

percolating from land adjacent to the

channel, or in effluent discharges.

Only a small proportion of the

inisms initially released will

ret icIl the eimitod. glag vast majority

are either killed on the land surface

hy sunlight or dehydration, or

studies have demonstrated Mat

increased surlaice or near surhace

runoff would greatly enhance

hydrogen ion and aluminium

concentrations in acidified

catchments. This would increase

streatn acidification, impacting on

fisherieS and streRrn invertebrate

populations. In heavier soils where

Major hydrological pathways are

along inacropores created by

earthWornas, reduced drainage may

mean severe waterlogging resulting

in a reduction in agricultural

productivity. The severity of these

hydrological changes on land use

and existing :igricultural practices

when emrapolated to catchment

scale may he extreme.

Contact: Atul Haria

ad the three lilian, louts studied

trtl

_ 112— trt4

0 50 100 150 200 250Suction (cm H20)

filtered out in the soil. On entering

the sircalli the orpnisnis are

immediately in competition w h the

native michbes whc se hostile

activity is increased at warmer

temperatures. They are also under

attack from their own immediate

environment since sunlight hailing

on them damages their In\ A.

rendering them incapalne of

inultiplication and kith acid and

alkaline waters inhihit their ahilny to

IRl<t2 UP ItUFI and cxclelewastes. 'the main sun ival strtiley

inruge

1). Cht len and Juthpitl:,2,

hiR Lan mask them lrom Hunan!

dtinlight andl ationl pin:,i(

pit declion lrom preying Huila /huh ha

parts of the rhcr its here there is lade

turlmlenee. within meanders r(}1.

example. the organism, attaches; to

idatit Ism t lump:did It tatuthur

defile en the river bed ing

lier,.% Lie-) and riding her

increased turbulence disturb:, the

stores or organggyr, in die lied,

shish:ping them back into We

settlenient entrainment proc.c.,:,

may repeat a number or timesiteligethe organi,,ms en her die u r

UR' WLisbed out into the sea.

c;nen this eotulpic.'xitv. tue hallenge

was to provale an unproved meth( id

piedicting tile bacterial waler

quality of streams ;Ind rivers .\ new

Lodi triode] has been developed

tinder contract to the I )epart teent

the Frivironment and the National

Niece, Authiorire with great potential

lot Latur supplt prou talon and the

estimation nrbacterial loads to the

coa q S L I ere comphanee with

luthing waters regulwions may EX'

ot concern.

In general. existing ril )dek, for »

dynamics in rivers make certain

,..imphlying assumptions. First. thai

bacterial die-off occurs at a c, nsLtnt

raw anLl ..;ccond. that organi,ins

!,ettled oti thc river bed (lirl

inger alleet the concentration in thy

water. The new niedel is not limited

hy such assuniptiorts and has terms

describing the exponential increase

in Ecoli (.he-ofl with temperature.

Linear equations relate die oh to

sunlight intenstry. and the reduction

light penetration to the

tincentration of particles rite

relationship with acidity I pl I I uses a

Ityped/Au' cosine law, such that rime-

oil is a minimum :it neutral pl 'Ilte

incklel also exists in a simplilied

Ss:laidea C4-,

in:elections atleatirin catchments

Genendised thtttytrtte highlighting sources gi 13. told Iheir

(et survival on the land emel (it lite atinty

version in \\ )if is treated as

se:e.onal cosine function. Field

experiments have slit ne t that the

wash-out of organisms from the riv er

bed does not tecur at iny one

threshold now. NA isa continuous

process occurring over ilk! lull range

of flows observed This behaviour is

achieved in Elie model liv sphtting-

up the ri er hed :.torage into a large

number ttl Laib-st(lres which Jig

flushed Cilit sequence :Is Ihe How

rises. These features are

incorporated into a siiitpie river

mixing model and represent a

considerable improvement in the

aluilitv I() F.Ctif hehLiviOLIr

in LEK streams and rkers,

Future mtppiieatitttis ineioch the

modelling ol filter ina.robial

indicators stg h as laecal

streptococei. Apphcation ol die

model to mini microbial

contaminants such as heavy metals

and pesticides would also be of

interest. new contaminants, like

EcalL heo tme attac hed to panicles

in the \viler and the entrainment

!"eulement inchanisin used in this

model slugthl lie til s alue in

predicting their et ncentrations

Contact: Jeremy Wilkinson

sne of he

Die-ofit caused by dehy drationand the sun's harmful rays

Inputs kohl seworks

I .


ge

Dis-off caused by sunlight

fekDeposition in faeces

Suffece 11,run-off

.."1"

Cent :divan with native microbesr gem

ItS/PPmatc._Chemical attack

Transpon downstream

!PM

e

41


1994195 highlights


Trends in surface water acidifi-

cation A five-year review of the

data collected as part of the

DoE-funded UK Acid Waters

Monitoring Network shows

trends towards increasing acidity

in areas most affected by acid

deposition, most likely clue to

increased mineralisation of

organic matter during the hot

dry years at the start of the

monitoring programme.

Assessing the role of nitrogen

deposition As a major input to

the UK's participation in the

international negotiations on

reducing acidic deposition, the

dynamic model MAGIC has

been further developed to assess

long-term responses to nitrogen

deposition.

Water source areas and flowpaths

Extension of the borehole

network at Plynlimon has

identified the existence of

dynamic and chemically variable

groundwater as an important

component of stream chemistry

in an area classically regarded as

essentially impermeable.

Pesticide movement in catch-

ments Recently completed field

monitoring has found pesticide

transport to streams to be a

function of (towpath, soil type

and drainage. Pesticide

degradation and adsorption

during transport through the

unsaturated zone has been

found to be insignificant.

Climate change impacts First

results from the climate change

manipulation facility (CLIMEX)

confirms a rapid and significant

change in leaf gas exchange

responses and increased,

although not significant, stem

biomass in ground vegetation.

New methodology for flood

estimation Continuous

simulation of runoff using the

TATE and PDM models, coupled

with a peaks-over-threshold

analysis, has provided flood

estimates in a small range of

catchments, a substantial

improvement on the existing

design package approach.

Big basin models A number of

ways of representing

hydrological processes at the

large scale are being explored

and assembled with applicationg

in flood hydrology (MAI:I:-

funded), climate modelling

(TIGER), and water quality

(LOIS). As part of the TIGER

work, a river routing model that

can be applied globally has

been developed and plans to

implement this within coupled

land-ocean GCMs are being.

pursued with the UK

Meteorological Office.

MODELLING

EVAPORATIVE

LOSSES FROM THE

UPLANDS OF

SCOTLAND

David Price

Affin<

LAND USE AND EXPERIMENTAL HYDROLOGY

With memories of the recent drought still prominent.

water resource management in the UN, and water

quantity in particular; is a key issue. Whilst climate

modification, if achievable through reduced carbon

emissions, remains a long-term and perhaps uncertain

strategy in relation to improving water resources, it is

known that the management qf land use and land-use

change can have direct and — in some cases —

immediate impacts on the hydrological regime.

Land Use anderimental

Hydrologyhx

Since the 10‘.015 5 it

upland 13riLitn [Lieu !seen identified

as being re:tonsihic bit increased

rates c4 ev.iporatii ni \vliun compared

\ ith gr,isslands aticI Oi Her loss•

vegeratk in co\ crs /hat they ogen

rephwe. lie magnitude of this

enhanced r/iie (ire‘:iporation

sufficient to lug et caicliment g-ater

yields and hence has economic

inmlications /kw the water resource

in /he Kirknm Glen. Bolgultichlen

The extent_ ttf lorestry in

remarkably sin:ill a/though

eLttTentiV higher than it has /seen It.'

ggeral hitniircd yews, covering 2..3

itt hectares, g hid] represents

just Inss ol the land area'i the turn

of the century the coverage was

only m55 Ale main expansh in

occurred after the 1940s and has

heel) om(cnintted in the itpkirlds

pt :is a result of fa/leg\ ing

policy of a/log-sting only

aglictilturally potsr ground. Conifers

lit Favoured, imd Sitka spruce in

particular has gained prominent u.

011 goinomie grounds, for its ability

itt ihrive pOCH upland soils in the

wet H. climate Howet

agricultur.t1 surpluses within the

European t Ilion have recently led lc,

rcl;ix;tiiln cit thepmcice

.inore/rting only marginal lanck and

h.ge sgmiilated the provic,ion

i iii:tttctai tcentis Cs. in the form ot

Woodkind thsinis. roi new

go(ydland This, coupled with

the nation's continued teqctiretll ent

43


ISLl1LLe its umluu 011111 ill> . svill

puutuahl \ lead to nurIller

tree covet in hoth the ephndit rnd

Ii twlands t )1. Pu it.un

•[ht. LlpIllIlds

important itt the nation's water

re,.0111rt-. 111151 In 11

hilier rainfall .11111 C

clean waten iLleal lpr ruppl

Chtlurly the iml3lut on "tort'

:di ore3tatk tn needs li lie underst u

anri eltectirel in,urtged if

signilicant conflict I leuns cell the

dtrustr anti v, ater supplt. industricu

is to hc JvHded isues •dre( I

the hyrIrourlet tric industry w

has all (Ili\ intriest in

tr the water vivid Pont itt,

catchment und reset.", oirs he

recent incentives to use non-lossil

Stirrall:Ited

LUlICIreSI in the potential and elkslive

mallagenlent Lal hydro-electric

schemes.

Forestr !need rednetit tn3 in

n111011

i/I1 inn

aquatic ironments st llILiTl their

tInlifrage notvorlts. and ha sr:d

irripat.a>, titi ‘.11Strv.all

Itydnatt:E2.,iCal

•Itci i as dependent V, el land,. Theimpact ol alForettratioll till VINCI.-

Colaillik-; at He an ittsue LII 11)1 ert' 1

ls lifer rest urree manager,.

4.4 •ISH II I

50 100 150 200 250

Julian day number.

ier.agraph yllowin::, prcdielcul ehlat WW1 egapora tire luAlds• fo

Kirkton kwcyl, Brultpiltidefri: Nhadila: »Ls

inreireplum

and \ 'n managers :dire

and demands mellutth

CilIslille ( 1 predit Ling

onsetutlent.es

11,11Itre

IS apt tue rattt 't Haan lorc

Ititr,hcs than those iron) lIass leve

\ egel.ttion LIiS ti rudi as glass.

hecattre L li .u,reater

intereeplho Etts,e,. Interception hurt..

the evils uation pi 1)Ruin:uni(in

tater hump the plant s rurlace is

dependent uptIn hi rh the canop s

aliihty to -intercept' told su 're

precipitantIn :Intl its aerodynamic

tughness l)ineurnces between

egetation pruppirallon vales, the

other main evaporation procest. Are

turrdler rnd lend 10 Ili: leSS

We 'NO upland

()lie ,q)pnytch Ibllowed hy tile

Jett:TO-line Ille impact or

land-use change in the uplands has

been to investigate in detail the

en aportaion resulting norn

111111 transpiration

pnicesses futin each ot tIle nuatur

tYlies Ill LIIIILI11LIsegel-alion cover.Pntress sus:lies

:4111:1111:1 ray attenuation Techniques,

lnon sites and soil moisture

TilLmitoring were rtifiducted

representative silcs ill mid \\. ales,

nortli 1iy,rlcshire and at several

300 350

f 1992,

in Hum and

locations in the I

scotland. \\Uruher Haw Ills welt11151I

HSI:Wed at I liu l l hi l lilIlcEL's 1t illIpn,ye

ille taltitaalancling LII Wt.

Ill upland mortot-ologitrl conditit Ins

These investigunpn reppined the

crap tratir e ellhlluieleri.slics of mature

cont/evons It Ut'Sl, ilehIl I ItO, aplind

grafts. hrtph ,ind co5r1 l'nun

th ti drrernittuslic it Ill

model turated IC hind in,C

el WY:Ilk:Ind tilininlal t1.11.1

.1011 t Iw uset

generally to predict corporatitql

!rpm upland tat, hments Vitt. nu del

requires onlv estimates ot trek.

rainft111. drid Penman potential

evapolation, and

WILL-re !la:\ lint Ill.:griller 551111 the

prop( trtional to‘ crag,: ot ear h land

use.

Output tu trn the all slel is in the

l'itrm ordady losses associated w

trach of the key evaporative

processes for each uI the different

land-use types The model can

therefore lie used It t investigate the

sell3onality and magnitude of the

indk idual evaporation ptocerses.

The model has non horn tested

over a range III Scottish dintatie

conditions Itty applyinm it to stu cut

upland headwater catchments and

comparing ihe predictions \vith the

measured water balances, which

thIelil sel can only pro‘ ide

estimates ith the alusolute water

losses 1 hese MI]

Ilk' range ol rriniall pattern,.

esperienced hutni the drier east to

the wentir wt2t,lern hills ot scodand,

,Ind a range of other climatir it:torus

Including potential ek atxtratiun and

the putlualtility ol rarer

During the pent tti 19K- to 19911 the

Kelp- catchment incl the three

catchments tit lot h I hie purient

averige anneal rainfttll3

>2.7,00 nim whilur ciinsicr

received little morc [11:m 111111,

ancl the Eurick and Uinta received

approximately 2000 nun. Thy

catchments in the sata heta L.Ipizinds

expenenLed little snow_ whilst the

keity and particularly the Girnock

cuchment were affected hv snow

cc u er. 'I he land uses of the

carchMentS vain. with forest canopy

coverage kingMg •rom

Model predictions of the evaporative

losses ale shown he i together

ii 1 t.l ti ti. ike deduced from the

catchment water balances A good

correlation is evident, ing

support fur the validity of (he

modelling ,ipproach and its

usefulness as a predictive tool.

.1he model can also he used to

assess the Sensitivity of catchment

evaporative losses to change in land

use. either on an annual basis or on

a seasonal basis to assess whether a

land-Use alteratiOn May Change not

only the overall quantity evaporated

hut also its seasonal distribution.

The data !Or the Tiina catchment in

the Borders of Scotliind predicts an

increase in evaporation of

approximately 50 nun per 100ci of

the catchment converted lirom mixed

mciorland to forest. "This rate of

increase, however, is not applicable

to Other locatituss that experience

different climatic conditions.

To illustrate this in more detail. the

prediued evaporative losses ol

upland grass. heather and mature

— 1200

— 1000te)

caw 800

tia 600

.76 400 •

1500

1000

500

0

Preilirted no& IV(”er

Ito Tuna

HiLosses dehved from catchment P-Q

L_iModel predictions

Model mediations of evaporative losses compared to catelene


100% Coniferous forest

100% Heather

100% Upland grass

1000

,-'1-FRC a 150mm

No RC

RC =100mm

coniferous forest are shown above.

Here the model is repeatedly run

using rainfall input derived from an

incrementally scaled rainfall chra set

from the Balquhidder field site in

the central Highlands. with the

simplistic assumption that the

potential evaporation remains

unaltered. The modelled rainfall

range corresponds to that likely to

he observed across the uplands of

Scotland. The analysis predicts a

non-linear relationship between

annital losses and rainfall fiir forest,

and that the magnitude of the losses

associated with forestry are

dependent upon the amount of

rainfall.

- nautff hies (3 yea, average, 1987-1990)

RC = Root constant

Penman potential evaporation

2000 3000 4000 5000

Rainfall (mm)

iodated over a range of rahilalls ng co/-tOrill

Pounan patenual evaporation

The lumped deterministic model is

currently being modified to allow it

to run within a GIS. This will allow

the convolution of the rainfall and

evigioration patterns with the aCtlIal

pattern of the land use wilich shotild

lead to both .5 incire general

framework for operating the model

and better predictkms of the impacts

of land use change.

7.11—

Gimock

Loch DeeKeltv

A ,C0w •Dargall Lane » 44. 11P \

Green Burn --/White Laggan Ettnck_

' Tima

Upland areasEi Major forestry areas

INSTITUTE Or HYDROLOGY ANiNLIAL RSPOPT I 901-95 45


Interception losses

from immature forest

in northern England

46 iNtYt FUTE

1500

1000

500

('i tin it mit e

Gross rainfallNet rainfall

IDRC) •Dtli ANNt1A )k I IC"

Whilst there ha e been a number of

studies of interception losses hum

tngand forests they have

concentrated on mat tire planiati

:hid there is very little informwion

available on losses from ?lung trees.

The inanagement of ciinlinCrcial

[crest plantations has reduced tile

period from planting to felhng,

the crop rotation may AV he only

SO years, As a result, the immature

forest stage is becoming a significant

part (perhaps a third LO a han orrhe

total planted area.

The Institute's afforest:1h ku swdy at

Coalburn hi Cumbria provides an

ideal opportunity to study these

losses, within a voung coniferous

forest under 1(1 ir in height. In

conjunction with the NRA. the

Forestry Authority and North West

Water plc. an interception study at

Coalburn was estahlishe(i in sumnter

1991, with measurement ornet

rainfall lthroughfall and stemllow)

heneath the tree canopy. The

difl'erence between die quantity of

rainfall actually reaching the ground

and the total rainfall, as measured by

a ground level raingauge in an

unplanted area, is the amount of

water intercepted on tlte tree

canopy and then evaporated.

The choice of technique tor any

intercept-lc/11 experiment will he

dependent upon a number of

factors. With immature trees there is

much greater spatial variability in

100 200 300 400 500 600

Time (days from 1/1/94)

an4 ner rainfall Me tu eel at Coalimirn

Ha.) 1994 - Mtn. /995

the tree canopy coverage and hence

no rainfall, than is the case for

mature closed canopy forest. It is

therefore partictilar important to

adequately sample the net rainiall to

obtain a representative average a.real

value. Consequently, it was decided

Lo Use larS4C plastic sheet net-rainlall

gauges capahle pf collecting all the

stentil ( AV and thrr i ni ghfatl 1 wer areas

of 20-rS0 mj. Flows from the sheets

are recorded using large ( I litre

capacity) Lipping buckets. In

addition. an automatic \veadter

station WLIS installed ort a towcr

provide information on Iscir canopy

clinlate para-MeLers needed for

detailed modelling work.

Two sites, both under Sitka spruce,

were chosen with contrasting forest:

growth: one site with 7111 high trees

and a second site with 9 m high

trees. Both sites wn-re at least -SO III

from Ihe nearest forest edge to

provide representative cimditions

not unduly hilluenced by 'edge'

effects. From exatiamation of the top

leader shoots, it was estimated that

the growth orthe trees is currently

about one metre per velar. Oyer the

three-year study th.e trees would he

expected to grow to heights of 10 m

at the fin:4 site ; i.nd 1.2 111 at the

second site, thus providing infor-

mation on losses from trees o\ -er at

total range in heights of 7-12 m.

Four interception gauges were

installed, wilh replication undcr

each sire of iree, to determine

whether \ atiiitionti in catch were

due to the diflerent size of the trues

or simply because of random errors

Oyer the Ilist year there has been

good agreement hem L'Cll all four

gauges and their response to rainfall

events Rh:\ een measurement dates

is almost identical.

The mean annual rainfall ti tt

Coalburn is about 1100 mm and is

evenly thstributed throughout the

year. For the 12-nonrh period under

ihs, ussion t, id I IF, mm was

tetiorded compared :nith li 20 1010

11:11 rainfall The tinnual inte•c•ption

loss amounted to 200. of the iirross

imn This itried horn :11-'1,01 28'0. 10

010111er months, iiluly-Augusti to

132i in winter ikovemben

e are finding that interception Ms

at Coalburn Mini these irnITULLInr.

trees is 111L1C11 lower than has

generally been reported from studies

on rnature trees within the t K for

similar dindatie conditions where

annual values. typically of about

35221, have been found. The

interception losses noted here

amount 10 nearly 200 min ' less

e r m

The sedinlent outputs 1.rom large

scale river catchnlenrs are

particularly difficult fluxes to

Ineasure as most of tile sediment is

conveyed downstream during a

small proportionof the time, i.e.

during high river flows. ne

monitoring Of these intermittent

events requires the use or a large

network of automated flow-related

bulk sampling. continuous turbidity

illeasuremeilts and manual

sampling_ These monitoring

technologies have been integrated

into ate wISER twailingroro

integrated System Mr Environmental

NIonitoring in Rivers) system. Real-

time river now and suspended

sediment transport data provided by

Contact: Mark Robinson


than expected It ira nialulv forest

This hds clear financial impliyari, ins

for Svarer U1111110, artLl '-110V0, lion an

understanding of the hydrological

effects 0( kiHiestry ] i la 'la I i.le lit may

help 10 derive an optinlum overall

production ii wood and water from

the same land

A nlodelling exercise is being canied

out to determine which particular

attributes of die Mint:time forest are

responsible lor the reduced

interception losses. Initial studies

indic-ate that the higher aerodynamic

resiStance (nun the shorter forest is

likely to be die 1110st imponant

determinand. However, °Mel site

factors are also being investigated

which may lead to reduced

interception. such as the possibility

that high V 1111.1. speeds e Li il On

drainage rates Irom the canopy

through shaking of the blanches.

and the possibility of cloud W1111:1-

deposition providing am additional

input to the canopy that is not

recorded by the ritingauge.

telemetry Main the LOIS river

monitoring networks in the Trent

and Yorkshire rivers (see page

and through collaboration with the

NRA, pnwide essential inlinination

to determine sampling strategies

used by the field Learn based at the

LOIS York Laboratory

The flood events over the period 29

January to 3 February 1995 were diemost significant flows in the Humber

catcholent since the field

programme began in summer 1993.

They provided both valuable

scientific data and a res1 0l . the

reliability of die inunitoring

techntilogies, checked against

paridlel monthal sampling runs, In

Sediment transport

research: high

magnitude floods in

the Yorkshire rivers

INSIDOTE OF HYDROL ORD," ANNDAI RFPORT ! 999 95 47


The Rh'er Beal inflood

500

450

400

350

1 300

g 250

48 iNls V. ULF Or lertDROLOGT ANNUAL RPM 199,1

the nit in. dle floodsconsisted of d

double peak. .11he linu peal, \\ as

mainly due to snor%melt hum die

Pennines and the second peak was

triggered hv a deluge of rain over

the entire catchment. Data lrom

NRA indicated that precipitation

totals at "lbw 11111 in die headwaters

of the Ilre (near fhiwes) ex( eeLled

nin in one 21-hour period,

resulting in river flows on the lire

Ouse system greater than the

Hooding ol 1991, although not us

great as in 1982. River discharges

tended to hu greater on the Ouse

systenl for the second event (well in

excess ol 100 cumecs at Skelton on

the Olisel, whereas the River Aire

peaked during We first event. On

the Ouse at York, this v.as die hlth

largest flow event in the 120-year

now record

During the 1:1(Rls, nranual bulk rh.er

water samples were ()brained night

und day in a successful hid to cover

high flows on us mtinv of the rivers

whim 11 die experilriental region as

Continliolis monitoring

equipment for winer chemistiy and

turbidity were activated during We

events. Water discharge and

sediment lauds are shown down

river on the Ouse at York. On the

Swale at Leckhy. samples obtained

1.romautomatic hulk samplers

indicated sediment concentrations

more than 1500 mg I I at die peak of

the Foods. This emphasises the need

200

150

100

50

0

24th Nov 1994

Disrlicil (blur md I ds

to ensure good coverage orsuch

intermittent high Inagnitude evenis,

as these sediment concentrations

and Rinses were much 1Rgher than

any previous LOIS river

iiie:isuiremetnisi\il iriuegn-ntf iii o fcalibrated turbidity reiord with flow

data gives all overall value of

25N'9 N JO' kg for sediment

discharge in the tipper Swale and

very similar cattie For the Lower

Ouse (26.89 x 11.Y kg) despite major

inputs From the Lire. Nidd and other

tributaries. This indicates a knge

waimchannel storage component

to the sediment budget, which inay

he very important with regard to

chemical translbrinations and

biological mediation.

There are also losses of manerial due

to (wet-topping of flood

enalxinkinents. recorded by s-err ica l

air photograph ccwer;igu on 2

February 11,/95.This Survey yielded

hill colour stereo pairs which were

processed to indicate flood coverage

and combined in a GIS format with

the hit land use map to indicate

areas of particular land use. The

source of this material in the study

catchment is being identified in a

joint IFI/Lbliversilies of Exeter and

Coventry inveshgation of a range o1

radionuclide and geochemical

SU:Tended SerkineM

Contact: Graham Leeks

Oust York

40

26th Feb 1995

During the course of the mid-Wales

Llanbrynmair afforestation study

(1982-presen0 chemical data from

various streamflow sites showed

larger than expected spatial

variations. From the pattern of

distribution it was possible to

identify a considerable reduction in

nutrient concentrations, acidic

anions and levels of metal pollution

in the Ceunant Ddu tributary of the

Cwm experimental catchment as it

passed through an area of riparian

wetland. An intensive study of this

wetland, funded by the Welsh

Office, revealed that the perceived

benefits inferred from the original

black-box hydrochemical study were

not solely due to the action of the

wetland, but were also affected by

the exposure of well buffered

material in the base of forestry

drainage lines and pkiugh furrows in

the lower part of the catchment. For

some determinands, particularly

nitrogen species, the benefits were

not consistent and depended on

prevailing climatic conditions in

particular years. Nevertheless, the

study was able to identify the active

hydrological pathways in the

catchment, and to suggest that the

degree of change in streamflow

chemistry was remarkable

considering the small size of the

wetland in relation to its feeder

catchment.

The project raised two important

issues: CO climatic variability,

leading to reduced wetness, may be

a major control on the effectiveness

of wetlands as water purifiers, and

(2) there may be important links

between water quality changes and

gaSeous losses from wetlands.

However, the flow pathways within

the Ceunant Ddu tributary were

considered too complex for a well-

controlled manipulation study,

where the aim would be to elucidate

the biochemical processes involved

in locking up or releasing nutrients,

acidic anions, associated cations and


greenhouse gases in the wetland. A

gully in the Wye catchment at

Plynlimon. Cerrig yr Wyn,

containing a discontinuous flush

wetland system, was found to be

hydrologically simple and therefore

more suitable for such a study. The

experiment was based on a novel

technique of simulating predicted

scenarios of climatic change, to drier

or wetter conditions, by

manipulating flows through small

patches of wetland and monitoring

the consequences for drainage water

quality and gaseous emissions. The

latter clearly have implications as

potential feedback mechanisms for

climate change through the

greenhouse effect, as well as

providing a 'safety valve' role for

water quality.

During the simulated droughts, 11(wv

through the wetland was reduced to

about a thnd of normal, effectively

curtailing the recharge of peat from

below and allowing the wetland

hydrological system to split into two

vertically-separated compartments.

Water level deficits of up to 350 mm

built up in the experimental wetland

compared to 150-200mm in the

control. In the first year the peat

appeared to become hydroplic,bic

on rewetting following the drought,

a feature implicated in the significant

suppression of emissions of methane

(CH) from the wetland. It was

perhaps expected that CH4

emissions would decline as the

wetland became more aerobic. It

now appears that an additional

agent inhibiting methanogenesis

could be either the direct effect of

increased sulphate concentrations in

soil water, from oxidation of

sulphides, or the associated increase

in acidity.

Drying of organic soils often leads to

mineralisation of nitrate (N0)

which is then washed out in

subsequent wet periods, and losses

of NO4 from the wetland followed

Upland wetlands,

climate and water

quality in Wales

INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY ANNUAL REPORT 1994-95 49


S 0

In pi ,1

ni ludo tca IL r ri u C

non

this rule in the lirst winter. While it

\vas expected tka the minemlisatic n

ornitrogen would eventually decline

over a numher ol years a,4ihe

re:whir-avail:11,1e nrganie-N substrate

exhausR:.ci. the raradtty

duchne in this case is unu,;Ual. This

may He the result of efficient uptake

of NO. Hy certain types or

vegetation diat were thriving in the

drier auditions at die expense ol

pure wer land species. Alternatively,

denitriheation ()I NO may have

increased IN the liacterial D Tula(

built up ill respoI1SeIC) irlert'aSrai

ailabik' Ilitraba Np lain stippwt

•the denitriheation theory, ;.is •NO,

emissions were suppressed in the

first year hy nonA, compared to the

control wetland but hi 011b 22,ar, in

the ,o.ontl manipulation year

hLie the .0;]

wetland wen.' het_

aciche the re\ eise happenIng

ihe .strealnlltwv stiesitilliws

increased nurkedly IS the le:iching

coute foi sulphate rein( w al lam the

hotly ()I thy weiland was blocked,

and as the aniac t lint( hutt\ een

,lreanirlow incl the more highl

huifered riiinec,fl depcsits

surrounding the natur.t1 pipe symem

111111 drains the wetland inkaviHed.

til littiv pathway was

ASO a natural di5-weather feature of

the Ceunant 1)du Wetland at

1,1anhr nmaii, altliough the chd.nnel

iele WaS011 Ihe surtace Father than

sLib-,urbice In I ilior respects the

Ceirig yr ( un:int 1)clu

wetlands hehme verv

terms ol the retention or release of

ions, though the Iluxes diner

considerably in magnitude. loss nr

phosphor*. it, A Wiliflr eepli011.

the Ceffig yr wetland actin?,

ii sirtirce po-,s11,1‘.innI1 ',HI eliiSiclIi

cli' 11eAt Wasta:.ge ChArIlb.3, Ike drought.

and the Cennant nklu :is an effective

sink. In general, the ellectiveness

the Ceunant Ddu wetland is greater

panicularly IN tt siik or nutrients

and metals, prohalilv due i(1 its

larger in relattiin 2 ils upstream

c:itchmeni

I his is a „nriiid indicathal that hclth

natural and :trufis riparian

WO-lands en il be Hart I As all agetit

intprcAed staler (plahl

11pOrtarll 110 \\ever ihe area of

riparian wetland it, Ritstmibly large

itt cillulplii'isl iii With it, catchment

area and dui diwinage liainagement

is carried out io ensure that slope

runoff is routed through the wetland

ensuring maXimum t (intact time.

Contact: Jim Hudson

in

luith i 111115 scl ihe irt,t

a rotary rig that cun operate

(Diu cess I CI' Hnii, Is ill

I. Ic dud ahroad 1 hr. itig is tit Ide

aU u-k: and diinn-We-

t HID t drilling •hese X-C fk'

tin-denied ineduids in -ilinuiridei-

lediutlugivial invesiigatk \\idler

ur /Mid lludi moluirk are likely in

contaminate tile <kli)S111 latV

\ dlt itt lSiiLiI el -1k 31.1111.2111

prfriit ,1111) hiir t•e rig are

installiginn nit deep neutnin prnbe

dkeriss tubes — techniques lint which

have :dreads been dirveluped and

Used al Set erffi Ineaiinn,s and

of shallow grountHater

monitoring was. the rig k

designed in auger drill :11 151i n

diameter 15 m depth, rlianu

(cite ui 1(1 ran, (hanleler I, I,H)nI

and 1)11-1 hammer drill di Inc) min

diameter to HO in depth.

The rig has hddin use rissfully

in alsiall gIl t ] n -titer inn

lls , aidess win is

s% Ain the lnsnurints esitentilenittl

ile lIIlleilt'S tit Plynlininn ds part id a

Hint research programme ninded hy

NNW and NRA. Used together with

a. ll'ailer-11101Jra.CLI POC011 'Traveller

ilk ginuncl\\ ',tier has heel) pri Is Cd in

ail 22 seells drilled tu depths id Lip

er. in in mainit, ',Hunan

mudsionery 1 his [Ds confirmed We

" "coin's" s' 1.11tgroondwalet in fissures in the

bedinek wah a Tull range 5-4) 7

Surface soil water The SU HWY

(apacitance Insertinn Pinhe

ISCIP) has under,gone lusting.

I51111 in-house and hi sChielt'd

k6.7, trn er,e;H [UI:,

included the use id We peihe

produce ground Huth data Inn

5 HI

ten, dega 1,11

sit-eat-ram itritr\ has shenu

that baseilinin is ii,ire alkaline tidin

nut,. line. The nutuater

, ibse

ThC1V1,1,2 :IC in pi inuisis

Mai te liasetli ss is gllliinci\\: iter

red. Deeper svells 111 these

alr surprisingly

puirluone and have yiekled

IS 1114i1 »10 I min iw ith Odzi

du", dc"ni Ce(911)i'1ical kiggingrattled nut du l.3GS ',IN pan rit I in:

iI)i ll plingrninme haS ShOVU1 lli A1

11,0111 i>.mIril”..; (kiss n nt

over 30 in

Contact: Andy Dixon


lhe new 11-1 driJiiiie /'

striae(' suil dielectric, enlist:Hill

iind water eurnent to compare

rentisely-sensed

the Eldsel

swellite \Vial: is proceeclin

iliaraelcrising pro,hes in 011115

dielectric con-darn and SOH', In

ill

(i n ,,ra VIII 71.

Improved drilling

capability for difficult

terrain

I 994/95 highlights

S I


the same terms to produce a

series of probe-independent

calibrations, as well as providing

a link with other dielectric-

based methods for measuring

water content, such as Time-

Domain Reflectometry.

IH capacitance probes used to

calculate SMD An Automatic

Soil Water Station .(ASWS) at

Wallingford uses probes at 5, 15

and 50 cm depths to estimate

the soil moisture deficit,

integrated over a depth of one

metre. Percentage volumetric

water deficits at each 'depth are

determined and compared with

other measurements

(gravimetric, neutron probe)

and with MORECS estimates.

These data are now

disseminated via the monthly

Hydrological Summary for Great

Britain (available from the

Institute: contact Shirley Black).

Water quality instrumentation

WISER (Wallingford Integrated

System for Environmental

monitoring in Rivers) systems

are capable of logging key

water quality data (including

pH, electrical cdnductivity and

turbidity). Automatic sampling,

with programmable triggering

routines, is a further feature.

Many uniLs have been deployed

in the LOIS programme and at

Plynlimon. Telemetry allows the

units to be interrogated

remotely.

Atmospheric Hp/CO, flux

instrumentation has been

recently developed, using a

LiCor closed-path infra-red gas

analyser and Solent 3-D

ultrasonic anemometer to

measure CO, and water vapour

fluxes. These are closely linked

through plant transpiration. One

system is being installed in

Svalbard in the Arctic Circle and


another in the Amazon

rainforest. The results \yin be of

value in furthering knowledge

of links between climate change

and the hydrological cycle.

ASWS measures flood hazard (for

NRA). The Institute's Automatic

Soil Water Station, reported

extensively in last year's Annual

Report, has been used to

investigate further the relation

between soil water content and

flood hazard in a clay-

dominated catchment. Nearly

five station-years of soil water

content data have been

collected. Using measured soil

water content at 0.15 m depth

as an input to the IHACRES

model, the predictive accuracy

of the rainfall-runoff model

improved and the period of

calibration data required

reduced markedly.

Catchment consultancy work in

Chile (for ODA). IH has been

subcontracted to give advice on

the selection, instrumentation

and operation of a number of

trial catchment studies whereby

Newcastle University will

transfer SHE model technology

to the Chilean forest service,

CONAF.

International links The Institute

participates closely in the

European network of

Repre'sentative and

Experimental catchments which

covers many countries in

western and central Europe. A

successful conference on

Temporal Variability in

Hydrology was held at

Barcelona University in the

autumn 1994.

"Septum" tensiometers Testing of

septum stoppered tensiometers

shows they operate under a

wide range of soil water

conditions, eliminating the need

for mercury filled manometers

in many situations.

Jersey catchment study A model to

predict groundwater recharge

and streamflow response in

Jersey is being developed and

tested on the accumulating data

from this catchment. An aerial

survey of land use was carried

out in May 1994 and the

monitoring network has been

expanded to include automatic

stream water quality sampling.

Hydrological impact model for Sri

Lanka Experimental studies

initiated in 1993 have continued

at two hydrologically distinct

regions.within the Mahaweli

Catchment. The data are being

used to calibrate a process-

based hydrological impact

model and will be linked to a

GIS as an aid to rationalising

land-use planning and

reforestation in the area.

IH Plynlimon staff commissioned

by Powergen plc to study flood

risk in the catchment of the

Nant y Moch reservoir, mid-

Wales. There was a need to

update risk assessments using

the Flood Studies Report

techniques and incorporating

hydrometric data (mainly

rainfall) that had become

available since the dam was

originally built and the

operating rules defined.

Hydro-power assessment in

developing countries is often

hampered by a lack of local

data and the difficulties of using

sophisticated flow gauging

techniques in remote areas.

Dulas Engineering, a small firm

operating in mid-Wales, together

with Plynlimon staff, have

develiiped a suitable gauging

metlaid using pressure

transducer water level sensors in

stream sections rated by salt

gulp dilution techniques. Two

of the test sites were adjacent to

flow gauging structures in the

Plynlimon catchments and a

third site at Abergynolwyn

where the salt method was

checked by IH using the more

sophisticated, accurate and

reliable technique of constant

rate dilution gauging using

sodium iodide.

The EC LIFE initiative provides

funding for projects to

demonstrate methods for

improving the environtnent. IH

Plynlimon is providing

hydrological and

hydrogeological expertise to

Somerset County Council, the

RSPB and English Nature, who

are re-creating reedbed habitat

in worked-out peat areas.

Impact of groundwater

abstraction on wetlands inEast Anglia is being studied by

Plynlimon and the

Hydrogeology Division of the

British Geological survey for the

Anglian Region of the NRA, in

particular the connections

between groundwater-fed

wetlands and major aquifers. An

innovative approach, based on a

water budget model and a

limited amount of wetland

water level data, was used to

predict the effect of changes in

groundwater levels on wetland

hahitats.

Optical disdrometer.rainfall

simulator studies in India and

Sri Lanka have confirmed the

importance of raindrop size in

determining the wetting

response and interception loss

from forests.


Coa !burn afforestation study

findings have been incorporated

in the latest edition of the

Forestry Agency's Forest and

Water Guidelines for woodland

owners and managers.

Sediment outputs associated withtimber harvesting has been

commissioned by the NRA to

measure sediment transport in

forested streams in England and

Wales, including impacts on

channels, water quality and

stream habitat.


á

APPENDIX I

STAFF LIST

as at 31 July 1995

A. G. P. Debney, BSc"

Director

h i. Nk'jiiislI cis Gil Secretary

AL It. Punnalls. MSc- Marketing Manager

The first name in each section is rh ti he Section Head


i. P tham. PhD

Divisional [leas]

B. A. HawkerPersonal sectetar.

Global Processes"J. LI. C. Gash. PhD

- mierometts wology

It J. Harding, PhD- inemor;ilogisi

A. D. Cud, PhD- boundary Dyer metei indngv

C. R. Lloyd. BA

P"Pdbillon PhystetsI. R. Wright. BSc

- micrometeorologyF. M. Blyth. NLN

- climate modelling researchC. I luntingfordi PhD

- climate modelling researchC. M. Taylor. MSc

- inr;sosiale modelling research

Vegetationand Soil Processes.1. NI Rolterts. PhD

- plant physiology, transpirationS. J. Allen, PhD

- evaporatii in From semt-aridvegetation

IT L. I Ldl. PhD- evaporation model

M. G. t.todnen. BSc- Sot I water Pukes

C. J. PED- evaporation from s id

vegetationN. A. Jackson. MSc

- water use in agrolbre.

Sustainable AgrohydrologyC. H. Batchelor, PhD

- irrigation studies. crop wider use

J. Bromley. PhD- groundwater resources

C. J. Lovell, PhD- and wider isonsentation

R. Ragah. PhD- JR tysies its alelling

H. G. Bastalde. PhD

-

water halance modellingWitighniy. MSc- environmental economist

K. Sage- sustainable agnthyclrologist

Impacts of Global EnvironmentalChangeG. Roherts. PI [I)

- surface hedroHy, remote sensingJ. B. Stewart. PhD

- evaporation and radiation studiesD. S. Big:gin. BA

- microwave and thenhal studiesK. Blyth, MPhil

- microwave remote statisillg

J. A. Finch.- groundwater and LP-,

N. S. Reynard, :Use- hydromelsonybgis


A. Jenkins PhD

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J. A. ChampkinPent-gaud Secretary

Water Quality SystemsA. Jenkins, PhD

- hydrochemical inocletittig andassessment

LT B. Boorman, PhDwsuer quality modelling

R. P. Collins. MSc- climate change inipacts on water

quality

A. Eatherall. PhD- water quality inodelling

IL R. Lewis. PhD- river quality modelling

R. Rowe. phD

- water quality modelling

C. E. NI. Sermon, BEng- environmental modelling

M. RensItaw. MSc- ails] deposition

R. i. Wilkinson. BSc- wilier quality modelling

S. Tolchard- database and graphical support

Pollution HydrologyJ. Wilhanis, BSc,• water quality modeller

A. C. Johnson, PhD- environmental microldologisi

A. Hada. BSc- soil physics

Besien, MSc- pollution hydrologist

C. White, BSC- pollution hydrMogist

HydrochemistryC. Neal. PhD

- chemical hydrologyR Ohiso„

- mathematical modellingI I. lassie, BSc

hydrochemistry

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NI I.. Ilar:anv- a ittlytical chemistry

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hydrologyS. CoN112:5

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- engineering hydrolaigyR. 1. Stewart. MSc

I- rainfall studiesA. C. Bayliss. HND

- flood analysisI. I. Dwyea A 1St

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APPENDIX II

Scientific papers

Allen, SJ., Wallace, J.S., Gash, J.H.C.and Sivakumar. M.V.K. 1994. Measure-ments of albedo variation over naturalvegetation in the Sahel. Int."ClimatoL 14. 625-636.

Arnell, N.W. 1994. Hydrology andclimate change. In: Calow. R andPens, G.E. (eds) Ricers Handbook.Blackwell. Oxford. Vol. 2: 173-186.

Austin, B.N. and Cluckie. I.D. 1995.Using radar data and storm models toassist in the estimation of the probablemaximum flood. In: British Hydrologi-cal Society Occasional Paper No. 5.

Batchelor, C.H., Lovell, C.J. andSemple, A.J. 1994. Garden irrigationfor improving agricu/tural sustainabilityin dryland areas.' Land Use Policy 11,286-293.

Batchlelor, C.H. and Sooprarnanien, G.C.1994. \\rater use and irrigation controlof drip-irrigated sugar canc. Proc. 5thInternational Micro-irrigation Confer-ence. ASHE Publications,

Batchlelor, C.H., Lovell, C.J., Murata, M.and McGrath, S.P.M. 1995. Improvingwater use effectiveness by subsurfaceirrigation. Aspects of Appl. BioL 38,269-278.

Bell, V.A. 1994. Thin film flows withevaporation. PhD thesis, University ofSt.Andrews. 149 pp.

Bell V A. and Moore, R.J. 1994. Adistributed flood forecasting modelusing weather radar and digital terra ndata. Ann. Geophsicae 12, supp.C393.

Black, A.R. 1994. Seasonality of Floodingin the White Laggan Burn,Kircudbrightshire. Scott. Geogr Mag.110, 162-167.

Black, A.R. and Anderson, J.L. 1994. TheGreat Tay Flood of January 1993. In:Hydrological Data UK. 1993 Yearbook.Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford. 25-34.

Blackie, J.R. 1995. The effects of coniferplantations on catchment streamflow.In: Forests and lifer 1994. Institute ofChartered Foresters, Edinburgh, 23-43.

Blackie, J.R. and Wilkinson, W.B. 1995.Land use and hydrology. 7he Globe 23,1-4.

Blyth, E.M. and Harding, R.J. 1995.Application of aggregation models tosurface heat flux from the Saheliantiger bush. Agric. For Met, 72, 213-235.

Blyth, E.M., Noilhan, J. and Dolman, AT1994. The effect of forest onmesoscale rainfall: an example fromHAPEX-Mobilhy. J. Appl.Meteorol. 33,445-454,

Blyth, EM. 1994. The effect of small-

scale heterogeneity on surface heatand moisture fluxes. PhD Thesis,Reading Universitr

Blyth, E.M. and Dolman. AT 1995. Theroughness length for heat of sparsevegetation. J. Appl.Meteorol. 34. 583-585.

Bradford, A.B. 1994. Chapter 3 BaselineMonitoring: Handbook on groundwatermonitoring in semi-arid countries.UAESCO.

Bullock, A. 1994. Hydrological studiesfor policy formulation in ZimbabweCommunal Areas. In: Owen, R.,Verbeek, K., Jackson, J. and Steenhuis,T. (eds)Dambo farming in Zimbabwe:water management, cropping and soilpotentials for smallholder farming inwetlands. CIEAD and University ofZimbabwe, 69-82.

Calder, I.R. 1994. Eucalyptus, Water andSustainability. ODA Forestry SeriesNo, 6, 14pp.

Christopherson, N., Clair, TA., Driscoll.CT., Jeffries, D.S., Neal, C., andSemkin, R.G. 1994. Hydrochemicalstudies. In: Molden, B. and Cerny, J.(eds) Biochemistry of Small C'atch-ments: A Tool for EnvironmentalResearch. J.Wiley and Sons Ltd.

APPENDICES

Crooks, S. M. 1994. Changing flood peaklevels on the River Thames. Proc.Instn. Civ, Engrs. War. Marit. & Energy106, 267-279.

Culf, AD. and Gash J H C. 1994.Comment on the paper 'Daily patternsof dew-point temperature in a semi-arid climate' by 13 R Butler. Agric. ForMet, 68, 107-111.

Cult AD. 1994. Equilibrium evaporationbeneath a growing convectiveboundary layer. Boundary Layer Met.70, 37-49.

DiGuardo, A., Williams, R.J.,Matthiessen, P., Brooke, D.N. andCalamari. D. 1994. Simulation ofpesticide runoff at Rosemaund Farm(UK) using the SOILFUG model.Environmental Science and FollutiOnResearch 1, 151-160.

Dolman, AJ. and Gash, J.H.C. 1994.Tropical rainforests: hydrology andclimate, In: Arntzen, CJ. (ed.).Encyclopædia of Agricultural Science,Vol. 4, 405-411. Academic Press Inc.Orlando, USA.

Down, K. 1994. Small size and thefunctioning of phototrophicEukaryotes: studies on Pycnococcusprovasolii Guillard 1991,(Prasinophyceae, Mamiellies). MScThesis, Dundee University.

Down, K., Sene, KJ. and Parks, V.P.1994. The dissemination of theHYDATA database system throughout


APPENDICES

southern and eastern Africa. Proceed-

ings of Water Africa '94 Conference,Accra, Ghana.

Dronkers, J. Herman, C., Chardy, M.,Leeks, G.J.L. and Nolan, C. 1994.Methodology and implementation ofELOISE. In: ELOISE (European Land-

Ocean Interaction Studies)SciencePlan, Ecosystems Research Report No,11, European Commission. Chap. 7,38-43. H

Dwyer, LI. 199$. Correcting meanannual maxima for data disretization.Proc. Sixth Int. Meeting on StatisticalClimatology, Galway, Ireland. 447-450.

Dwyer, L J. and Payne. J. 1995. Floodestimation at river confluences: aijeview and case discussion. Proc. 5th

BUS Nat, Hydrology Symp., Edin-burgh. 3.21I-3.26.

Dwyer, I.J. and Reed, D.W. 199$.Allowance for discretization inhydrological and environmental riskassessment. IH Rept. No, 123, Instituteof Hydrology, Wallingford.

Ellis, JD, Hall, MA and Packman, J.C.1995. Modelling water quality forurban flood storage reservoirs.Environ. Int. 21, 177-186.

Fattorelli, S. Borga, M. and Moore, RJ.

1995. Storms, floods and radarhydrology. In: Hydrogeological

Hazards in the European Union, 1stReview Meeting, CEC, Brussels, 30-31January 1995. 13 pp.

Faulkner, D.S., Onaf, G.J. and Wheater,H.S. 1995. Simulating storms for flooddesign with a Poisson cluster rainfallmodel. Ann. Geophysicae 13, Supp 11,C532,

Finch, J.W. and Roberts, G. 1994. Thedetection of land degradation in anarea of Niger, West Africa, usingmulti-temporal Landsat MSS images.Proc. ISPRS Commission VII Sympo-sium, "Resource and EnvironmentalMonitoring", Rio de Janeiro.

Finch, J.W., Gliddon, D., Khamis, A. andLoughlin, W.I'. 1994. Locatingoffshore freshwater springs in Qatarusing Daedalus ATM imagery. Proc.First International Airborne RemoteSensing Conference, Strasbourg.

Fisch, G., Wright, I.R. and Bastable,H.G. 1994. Albedo of tropical grass: acase study of pre- and post-burning.In/I. Climat, 14, 103-107.

Freeman, C., Chapman, EA Gilman, K.,Lock, M.A., Reynolds, 13. andWheater, H.S. 199$. Ion exchangemechanisms and the entrapment ofnutrients by river biofilms.Hydrobiologia 297, 61-65,

Gilman, K. 1994. Water balance ofwetland areas. In: Keane, T. and


Daly, E. (eds) 7he balance of watpresent and future. 123-141

Hall, R.L. and Kinniburgh, D.G. 1994.The hydrological effects of shortrotation energy coppice. (HESREC)Workshop Wood Fuel- The GreenDebate, 18-19 October, 1994.

Gilman, K. 1994. Cors Erddreiniog,Anglesey - a case study in wetlandconservation (North Wales). In: PattenB.C. (ed), Wetlands and shallowcontinental water bodies. Vol. 2, Case

Studies, SPB Academic Publishing bv.439-456.

Grace, J., Lloyd, J., McIntyre, J., Miranda,A.C., Meir, P., Miranda, H.S., Moncrieff,J.13., Massheder, J.M., Wright, I.R. andGash, J.H.C. 1995. Fluxes of carbondioxide and water vapour over anundisturbed tropical forest in south-west Amazonia. Global ChangeBiology 1, 1-12.

Hall, R.L. 1995. Hydrological aspects ofbroadleaved woodland: implicationsfor water supply. In: Forests and

Water 1994. Institute of CharteredForesters, Edinburgh.

Hall, R.L. and Kinniburgh, D.G. 1994.Broadleaved woodland, its water useand some aspects of water quality. In:Keane, T. and Daly, E. (eds). TheBalance of Water- l'resent andFuture, 143-162.

Hand, D.P., Freeborn, S., Hodgson, P.,Carolan, A., Quan, K.M., MacKenzie,WA. and Jones, J.D.C. 1995. Opticalfibre interferometry for photoacousticspectroscopy in liquids. Optic Letters

20,

Harding, RJ., Blyth, E.M. and Taylor,C.M. 1994. Issues in the aggregationof surface fluxes from a heterogeneouslandscape: from sparse canopies up tothe GCM grid scale. Proc. SEBEXConference, April 1994.

Hearne, J., Johnson, I.W. and Armitage,PD. 1994. Determination of ecologi-cally acceptable flows in rivers withseasonal changes in the density ofmacrophytes. Reg. Riven Res.&

Manage. 9, 177-184.

Hermans, E. 1994. Correlation betweencensus data and space syntax.Dissertation MSc GGIS.

Hohlov, YE.. I:lowison, SD.,Huntingford, C., Ockendon, J.K. andLacey, A.A. 1994. A model for non-smooth free boundaries in Hele-Shawflows. Q.J. Mechanics and App. Maths

47 ,107-128.

Hudson, J.A., Crane, S.B. andRobinson, M. 1994. The impact ofnew plantation forestry on the quantityand time-distribution of flow in theLlanbrynmair catchments, mid-Wales.Annales Geophysicae 12, Suppl.C429.

Huntingford, C. 1995. An exact solutionto the one-phase zero-surface-tensionHele-Shaw free-boundary problem.Computers Math. Applic. 29, 45-50.

Jenkins, A., Ferrier, R.C., Harriman, R.and Ogunkoya, Y.O. 1994. A casestudy in catchment hydrochemistry:conflicting interpretations fromhydrological and chemical observa-tions. Hydro/. Proc. 8, 335-349.

Jenkins, A., Peters, N., and Rodhe, A.1994. The hydrology of smallcatchments. In: Moldan, B. and Cerny,J. (eds). SCOPE 51: BiogeochemistrySmall Catchments: A Tool Jim Environ-

mental Research. John Wiley & Sons,Chichester,

Jenkins, A., Wright, RT., Berendse, E,van Breemen, N., Brussaard, L.,Schulze, ED., and Woodward, I. 1994.The "CLIMEX” project - using"greenhouses" to raise CO, andtemperature in whole catchmentecosystems. Proc. Symp. Climatechange and climate change impacts.Copenhagen.

Jones, D.A. 1994. Discussion of paper byCheng & Taylor J. Roy. Stat, Soc.,

Series B 57, 30-31.

Johnson, LW., Elliott, C.R.N. andGustard, A. 1994. Modelling the effectof groundwater abstrction on almonidhabitat availability in the River Allen,Dorset, England. Proc. Int. Symp. onFish and their habitat: Methods andApplications, Lyons, France,

Johnson, A.C. and Wood. M. 1994.Sulphate-reducing bacteria in deepaquifer sediments of the London Basin:their role in anaerobic mineralizationof organic matter./ App Bact, 75,190-197.

Johnson, I.W. and Law, F.M. 1995.Computer models for quantifying thehydro-ecology of British Rivers. J.

Instn.Wat. & Envir, Manage. 9, 290-297.

Johnson, R.C. 1995. Effects of uplandafforestation on water resources: theBalquhidder Experiment 1981-1991,Second Edition, IH Report 116,

Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford,

Johnson, R.C. 1994. Suspended sedimentfrom two small upland drainagebasins: using variability as an indicatorof change. ILIHS Pub 1 No. 224, 403-4 10.

Kalma, JD. and Calder, L.R. 1994. Land

surfixe processes in large-scalehydrology. World MeteonilogicalOrganization, Operational HydrologyReport No, 40, WMO-No, 803, OOpp.

Law, F.M. 199$. Letter to Editor concern-ing failure floods. NOR)Civil Engineer

16 Feb issue, p.I6.

Littlewood, I.G. 1994. Modellingcatchment-scale water balancedynamics using long time series ofrainfall. streamflow and air tempera-ture. In: T. Keane and E. Daly (Eds.)The Balance of Water- Present andFuture. AGMET Group MeteoroloigcalService, Dublin, 163-173.

Littlewood, I.G. 1995. Hydrologicalregimes, sampling strategies andassessment of errors in mass loadestimates for United Kingdom rivers.Environment International 21, 211-220.

Lloyd, C.R, 1995. The effect of heteroge-neous terrain on micrometeorologicalflux measurements: a case study fromHAPEN-SAHEL.Agric. For. Met. 73,209-216.

Loader, S.C. 1994, 1993 HydrologicalDiary. In: Hydrological data UK 799.3Yearbook. Institute of Hydrology,Wallingford. 21-24.

Lovell, C.J., Mharapara, I., Batchelor,C.H. and Brown, M.W. 1994. Smallscale irrigation in Zimbabwe usingshallow groundwater: an example ofthe need for integrated catchmentmanagement. Proc. XXV Congress IAI"1144ter Down UndeC; Adelaide,Australia, Vol. 1, 581-585.

Lovell, CJ., Batchelor, C.H., Semple,A,J., Murata, M., Mazhangara, E. andBrown. MAY. 1994. Garden irrigationusing collector wells: experiences froma first scheme in south-cast Zimbabwe.In: Owen, R., Verbeek, K., Jackson, J.and Steenhuis, T. (eds). DamboFarming in Zimbabwe: Watermanagement, cropping and soilpotentials for smallholder farmbig inthe wetlands. CHEAD, CornellUniversity, New York, 49-60.

Marks, S.D. 1994. Fluvial particulateinputs from afforested catchements:origins and impacts. In: Gibbins, C.N.and Turnbull, D.A. (eds) HumanImpact on Freshwater Systems: AnIntegrated Approach to Water Manage-ment, Department of Environment,University of Northumbria, 1-17.

Marsh, T.J. 1995. The Chilgrove andTrafalgar Sq. boreholes. In: Herschy,RW. (eft) Encyclopaedia of Hydrologyand Water Resources. Chapman andHall, London.

Marsh, T.J. 1995. Maximising the use andutility of hydrometric data. Proc.National Rivers Authority Seminar onHydrometry, Coventry, 1994.

Marsh, T.J. 1995. Yearbooks - dinosaursor dynamos? World MeteorologicalOrganization Bulletin 44, 60-63.

Marsh, T.J. 1995. Inland Water. In:Digest of Environmental Statistics No.17 (Chapter 3). Department of theEnvironment HMSO, 41-48.

Marsh, T.J. (Ed.). 1994. 1993 Yearbook,Hydrological Data UK series. Instituteof Hydrology. Wallingford. 174 pp.

Marshall, /3. and Wallace,JS. 1994.Water and agriculture - scaling fromsoil grains to regions. Prot, Fifth Int.Congress for Computer Technology inAgriculture: Enabling Technologies forland-use and resource management,Cambridge. July 1994. Royal Agricul-tural Society of England. 65-68.

McCartney, M.P. and Naden, P.S. 1995,A semi-empirical investigation of floodplain storage on flood flow./ ',ism,Wat. & Envir, Manage, 9, 236-246.

Meigh,J.R. 1995. The impact of smallfarm reservoirs on urban watersupplies in Botswana. NaturalResources Forum 19, 71-83.

Meigh, J.R. and Reynard, N.S. 1995.Probabilistic 8-day rainfall estimatesfor the snaga basin, Cameroon. Wat,Resour Manage. 9, 67-80.

Moore, R.J. 1995. Rainfall and flowforecasting using weather radar. In:Tilford, K. (ed.) Hydrological uses ofweather radar. British HydrologicalSociety Occasional paper No. 5.

Moore, R.J., Hotchkiss, DS., Jones,D.A. and Black, K. B.. 1994. Localrainfall forecasting using weatherradar: the London case study. In:Almeida-Teixeira, nE., Fantechni, FL,Moore, R, and Silva, V.M. (eds.)Advances in radar hydrology.European Commission Rept EHR14334 EN, 235-241,

Moore, R.J. and Bell, V.A. 1994. A gridsquare rainfall-nmoff model for usewith weather radar data. In: Almeida-Teixeira, M.E., Fantechi, R., Moore, R,and Silva, V.M. (eds.) Advances inradar hydrology. European Commis-sion Rept EHR 14334'EN, 303-311.

Moore, R.J., May, B.C., Jones, DA. andBlack, K.B 1994. Local calibration ofweather radar over London. In:Almeida-Teixeim, ME. , Fantechni, R.,Moore, R, and Silva, V.M. (eds.)Advances in radar hydrology.European Commission Rept EHR14334 EN, 186-195,

Moore, R.J. 1994. Integrated systems forthe hydrometeorological forecasting offloods. In: Proc. Int. Scientific Conf.EUROPROTECH Pt I: Science andTechnology for the Reduction ofNatural Risks, CSIM, Udine, Italy. 121-137.

Moore, R.J., Carrington, D.S., Jones,D.A.. Stewart, EJ., Hatton, R. andAlmon L. 1994. The UK HYREXproject. Ann. Geophysicae 12, Suppl.II, C402.

Moore, R.J., Jones, D.A., Black, K.B.,Austin, R.M., Carrington, D.S.,Tinnion. M. and Akhondi, A. 1994.

REFS and HYRAD: Integrated systemsfor rainfall and river flow forecastingin real-time and their application inYorkshire. MIS Occ, Paper No. 4.

Moore, RJ. 1995. Weather radar andstern, and flood hazard. In: Hydro-logical Hazards in the EuropeanUnion, 1st Review Meeting, CEC,Brussels,

Moore, R.V. 1994. The development ofenvironmental management informa-tion systems to monitor emissions towater. ITEMS94 Conference, London.

Murata, M., Lovell, C.J. and Batchelor,CH. 1994. Improving water useefficiency in garden irrigation:experiences from the LowveldResearch Station, south-east Zimba-bwe. In: Owen, R., Verbeek, K.,Jackson," and Steenhuis, T. (eds).Dambo !arming in Zimbabwe: Watermanagement, cropping and soilpotentials fin- smallholder farming inthe wetlands. CIIFAD, CornellUniversity, New York, 39-48,

Naden, P. 1994. Core modelling of riversin RACS (R). LOIS Neuuletter 2, 3.

Naden, P. 1994:Floods in large basins.Mood and Coastal Dcfence. MAFF -Newsletter 5, 5,

Ragab, R. 1995. Approaches to model-ling nitrogen transformation andtransport in agrosystems. Proc. ofWorkshop Nitrogen Cycle inAgrosystems, Loan, France, 6-8 April,1994. Institut National de la Recher-che Agronomique 1NRA, Loan Cedex,France, 56-59.

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Reed, D.W. 1994. On the Gradex methodof estimating extreme floods. Dams &Reservoirs June, 17-19.

Reed, D.W. 1994. Some notes ongeneralised methods of flood estima-tion in the UK. In: (eds) G. Rossi et al.

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Reed, D.W., Rothwell. J. and Bennett,M.C. 1995. A study of inter-durationdependence in rainfall depths fordrought severity assessment. Ann.

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Roberts, J.M. and Rosier, P.T.W. 1994.Comparative estimates of transpirationof ash and beech forest at a chalk sitein southern Britain./ Hydro!. 162,229-245.

Robinson, DA., Bell, J.P.'and Batchelor,Cll. 1994. Influence of iron mineralson the determination of soil watercontent using dielectric techniques.Itdrol. 161, 169-180.

Robinson, M. & Stamm, M.H. 1994. Soilmoisture controls on streamflowbehaviour. In: Llorens, P., Gallart,(eds) Assessment of kvdrologicaltemporal variability and changes.ERB Conference, Barcelona, 165-177.

Robinson, M. and Blackie, J.R. 1994.Small catchment studies of foresthydrology in the UK. In: Landoll R.and Gilgien, J. (eds), Hydrologv ofSmall Catchments. Swiss Institute forHydrology and Limnology. Bern. 71-82.

Sene, KJ 1994. Land atmosphere•parameterisations for a growing sparsevine crop. Agdc. For Meteorol, 71, 1-18.

Sloan, W. T., Jenkins, A. and Eatherall,A. 1994. A simple model of streamnitrate concentrations in forested anddeforested catchments in Mid-Wales.Hydro!.158, 61-78.

Sokhi, R., Ellis, J., Burton, 13. and Leeks,Gj.L. (eds) 1995. Inland and CoastalWater Quality '93 - Measurement andModelling. Environnient International,21 (2), 250pp.

Stewart, E.J. 1995. Spatial and temporaldependence in rainfall extremes.Annal. Geophysicae 13, Supp. II,C536.

Stewart, J.B., Kustas, W.P., Humes, K.S.,Nichols, W.D., Moran, MS. and DeBruin, HAR. 1994. Sensible heat flux- radiometric surface temperaturerelationship for eight semi-arid areas.1. Appl. Meteorol. 33, 1110-1117.

Stewart, J.B. and Biggin, D.S. 1995.Spatial variation of sensible heat fluxover the HAPEX-Sahel southern supersite, derived from satellite data.European Geophysical Society XIXGeneral Assembly, Grenoble, April1994. Annal. Geophysicae 12 (11),454pp.

Stewart, J.B. 1994. Sensible heat fluxderived from radiometric surfacetemperature for sparse prairie grass.Proc. Symp. Thermal remote sensing of

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Stewart,J.B., Kustas, WY, Humes, KS.and De Bruin, HAR, 1994. Sensibleheat flux - radiometric surfacetemperature relationship for 8 semi-arid areas. Proc. Symp. Thermalremote sensing of the energy andwater balance owr vegetation inconjunction with other sensors. 20-23September, 1993, La Londe les Maures,France, CEMAGRERENGREE 27-30.

Sutcliffe, J.V. and Parks, Y.P. 1994. Therole of modern data processing in theNile Basin. Proc. Nile 2002 Confer-ence, Egypt.

Sutcliffe, J.V. and Parks, Y.P. 1995.Hydrology controls of Sudd ecology.

Acreman, M.C. (ed.) Hydrologicalmanagement and wetland conserva-tion. IUCN, Geneva.

Taugbol, G. and Neal, C. 1994. Soil andstream water chemistry variations onacidic soils. Application of a cationexchange and mixing model at thecatchment level. Sci. Tot, Environ. 149,

83-96.

Twort, A. C., Law, EM., Crowley, F.W.and Ratnayaka. D.D. 1994. WaterSuppfr (Fourth Edition). EdwardArnold, London,

Wallace,J.S. 1994. Hydrological strate-gies: from agroforestry in Kenya toirrigated gardens in Zimbabwe:development research insights forpolicy makers. Insights 12, 3.

Wallace, J.S. 1995. Review of "Growthand Water Use of Forest Plantations".Agric. For Met, 66, 122-126.

Wallace, J.S. 1995. Towards a coupledlight partitioning and transpirationmodel for use in intercrops andagroforestry. In: Sinoquet, H. andCmz, I'. (eds). Ecophysiology ofTropical Intercropping Guadeloupe,1994. INRA Editions, Paris, 153-162.

Wallace, J.S. 1995. Calculating evapora-tion: resistance to factors. Agric. ForMet, 73, 353-366.

Wallace, J.S. 1994. Hydrological proc-esses and chyland degradation. WMOBulletin 43, 23-28,

Watts, C.D. 1994. Implementing a 4-I)GIS: a utiliry company shows the way.Mapping Awareness 8, 28-31,

Whitehead, P.G., McCartney, M.P.,Williams, R.J. Lshemo, C.A.L. andThomas. R. 1995. A method tosimulate the impact of acid minedrainage on river systems./ burn.

& Envir Manage. 9. 119-131.

Wilkinson, W.B., Neal, C. and Leeks,Crj.L. 1994. A review of surface waterquality. In: Environmental

sedimentology the interaction of wateysediment and waste. PRIS, Centre forEarth and Atmospheric Sciences, Univ.of Reading. 45-48.

Wright, R. F., Cosby, J., Ferrier, B.C.,Jenkins, A., Bulger, A.J. andHarriman. R. 1994. Changes inacidification of lochs in Galloway,southwestern Scotland, 1979-1988:the MAGIC model used to evaluate therole of afforestation, calculate criticalloads, and predict fish status./Hydrol. 161, 257-285.

Xue, Y., Allen, Sj., Wallace, J.S. andShukla. J. 1995. Calibrating abiosphere model (SSiB) for the Sahelregion using SEBEX data. Abstract3.44: European Conference on GlobalEnergy and The Water Cycle. TheRoyal Society, July 1994

Xue, Y. and Allen, Sj. 1995. Testing abiosphere model (S,S111) for theSahelian semi-arid area using fielddata. In: Conference on HydrologyPreprints. 75th AMS Annual Meeting,January 15-20, 1995, Dallas, Texas,American Meteorological Society,Boston. 93-98.

Zhang, J. and Parks, Y.P. 1994. Dynamiclinking between GIS and surface waterdatabase. 5th ENVIROSOFf '94International Conference, Develop-ment and Application of ComputerTechniques to Environmental Studies,San Francisco, USA.

Zhang, J. and Parks, Y.P. 1994. HYQUALand HYQUAL GIS for today andtomorrow. Advances in WaterResources Technology and Manage-ment, Lisbon, Portugal. EuropeanWater Resources Association.

Andrews, AT & Bullock. A. 1994.Hydrological impact of afforesta-tion in Eastern Zimbabwe. (Inconjunction with the Ministry ofLand, Agriculture and WaterDevelopment) Overseas Develop-ment Achninistration.

Andrews. A.). & Bullock, A. 1994.Country Activity Reports: datacollection for Southern AfricaFRIEND (Feb-Aug 1994). Inassociation with National Hydro-logical Services of the SADC region.

Anon. 1994. National system forgroundwater rechange assessment.National Rivers Authority.

Anon. 1994. Strategic research anddevelopment needs andoportunities for real-time floodforecasting, warning and control.Ministry opgriculture, Fisheriesand Food.

Anon. 1994. Annual review of RiverFlood Protection Commission.Mbastry opgriculture, Fisheriesand Food Flood and CoastalDefence Division.

Anon, 1994. A flood forecasting andwarning system for the River Soar:Stage I. National Rivers AuthoritySevern Hen/ Region.

Anon, 1994. A flood forecasting andwarning system for the River Soar:Stage 2. National Rivers Authority,Severn Trent Region.

Anon. 1995. The hydrological/hydraulic investigation of the HungShui Kiu drainage channel. 2 vols.Drainage Services Dept., Govern-ment of Hong Kong,

Arnell, N. 1994. Global warming andwater resources: an update.National Rivers Authority.

Anon. 1995. Second report of theInteragency Research Committeeon the hydrological use of weatherradar. Natural EnvironmentResearch Council.

Anon. 1994. Studies of hydrology ofthe Lesotho Highlands waterproject. Progress Reports No. 10and 11. LesothoGovernment.

Bayliss, AC. On the variability offlood occurrences. Ministry ofAgriculture. Fisheries and Food.

Bell, V.A., Carrington, D.S. and Moore,R.J. 1994. Rainfall forecasting usinga simple advected cloud modelwith weather radar, satellite infra-red and surface weather observa-tions: an initial appraisal under UKconditions. HYREX project, NaturalEnvironment Research Council.

Black, A.R., Lees, M.L. Marsh. TT andDixon, J.M. 1994. A review of the

Northern Ireland hydrometric network.Northern Ireland Erwironment Service.

Black, A.R., Bronsdon, R.K. and Johnson,R.C. 1995. The effecTs of forestry onsummer low flows. Scottish andNorthern Ireland Fonim for Environ-mental Research.

Black, A.R., Bronsdon, R.K. and Johnson,R.C..I995. Advice notes on theimpacts of forestry, turbid waters,channel change and agriculture onriver catchments. Scottish NaturalHeritage.

13Iackie, IR. 1994. River basin manage-ment project, Chile. Report on anadvisory visit during the period 10Sept-2 Oct 1994. University ofNewcastle.

Blackie, IR.. and Moores JP. 1994. Landuse and water resources: UnitedKingdom Country Paper. EuraquaTechnical Review Meeting, Wallingford,

Blackie, TR., McCartney, M.P., Bird, M.J.and MacDonald, A.M. 1994. TheTrinity catchment study, Year I. jerseyStates Public Services apt.

Blackie, J.R. 1995. Ins,trument require-ments for the river basin management

. project, Chile. University of Newcastle.

Blyth, E.M. and Harding, 10. 1994.Preliminiuy investigation of theparameterisation of surface fluxes fromheterogeneo3Cs land cover for theEFEDA area. Commission of theEuropean Comtmenities,

Blyth, K. 1905. Concurrent use of Radarsatand ESR-2 SAR for increased temporalmonitoring of floods and soil moisture.Canadian Space Agency.

Boorman, D. B., Custard, A., Gannon, B.,Hollis, J.M., and Lilly, A. 1994.Hydrological aspects of the HOSTclassification of soils. Ministry ofAgriculture Fisheries and Food.

Boorman, D. B. 1994. Soil water datastudy - Part Il Use in design floodcalculations: Final report. NationalRivers Authority, Anglian Region.

Boorman, D. B. 1994. River Ythaneutrophication study: preliminaryhydrological report. Macaulay LandUse Research Institute.

Boortnan, D.B. 1994. The estimation ofpercentage runoff using soil watermeasurements on three Lincolnshirecatchments. National Rivers Authority

Bradford, R.B. 1994. Pumping test reportfor well TA0 of Dhira Wellfield, .Jordan. SirAlexander Gihh lid/ArabPotash Compahy.

Bradford, R.B. 1994. Ohor Safi groundwa-ter model study. Sir Alexander GillisLtd/Arah Potash Compahv.

Commissioned

research reports

APPENDICES


APPENDICES

Bradford, KB. 1994. River Lavant floodstudy. Phase 1. Groundwater study.Posjhrd-Duvivier/National RiversAuthority, Southern Region.

Bradford, R.B. 1995. Dhira groundwatermodel study, Phase 1. Sir Alexander

Gibb Ltd/Arab Potash Company.

Bradford, R.B. 1995. Ohira Wellfield -Summary report on well test pro-gramme. Sir Alexander Gihh Ltd/ArabPotash Company.

Bradford, RE. and Reynard, N. 1995.Climate and land use change scenariosfor flood estimation in the Severn,Thames and Trent basins. Ministry ofAgriculture, Piste fies and Food.

Bronsdon, R.K. and Johnson, R.C. 1995.The erosion of forest roads. NationalRivers Authority.

Bullock, A. 1994. Improving theassessments of hydrological potentialand yield in micro-catchment areas.(In conjunction with HR Wallingfordand Asiatic Consuka Ms Inc.) NationalIrrigation Administration, Republic ofthe Philippines.

Calder, I.R. and Bastable. H.G. 1994.Comments on the Malawi Governmentwater resources management policyand strategies. Overseas DevelopmentAdministration.

Calver, A. 1995. Continuous rainfall-runoffmodelling for flood estimation. Interimreport. Ministry of Agriculture.Fisheries and Food.

Carrington, D.S. and Moore, RT. 1995.Extension of the London weather radarlocal calibration procedure to theentire Thames Basin. National RiversAuthority, Thames Region.

Cole, GA. Progress Reports "Cooperationin Science and Technology withCentral and East European Countries"(i) Jan-June 1994; (ii) July-Dec 1994.Council of the European Commission.

Disc, N. B. and Jenkins. A, 1994. TheCOMEX project: whole catchmentmanipulation of CO2 and temperature.Commission uf the EuropeanCommunties.

Dixon, A.J. 1995 Record of wells installed:Langley's Lane meadow. DrinbwaterSabey

Dixon, I.M. and Rees, H.G. 1995.Pro(asion of river flow data to theNorth and Irish Seas (FRIEND).Department oDhe Enviroriment.

Dwyer, 1j. 1995. Confluence flood jointprobability. Ministry of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food.

Elliott, C.R.N., and Johnson, LW. 1995,IFIM/PHABSIM scoping study: RiverVyrnwy, Cound BrOok, Bow Brook,National Rivers Authority, Severn TrentRegion.


Eatherall, A. 1994. Demonstrating climatechange impacts in the UK. Departmentof the Environment.

Farquharson, FA. K., Houghton-Carr, HA.and Parkinson, T.E. 1994. Hydrologi-cal/hydraulic investigations of theHung Shui Kiu drainage channel:Report No, 2. Drainage Senrices Dept,Government of Hong Kong,

Farquharson, F.A.K. and Houghton-Carr.H.A. 1995. Preliminary report ondevelopment of a general integratedwater resources simulation model forriver basins. Oveweas DevelopmentAdministration.

Farquharson, FA.K., Houghton-Carr, H.A.and Parkinson, T.E. 1995. Hydrologi-cal/hydraulic Investigations of theHung Shui Kiu drainage channel: FinalReport. Drainage Services Dept.Government of Hong Kong.

Farquharson, P.A.K. 1995. Report ofWorking Group on implementation,technical issues and products ofWHYCOS. World MeteorologicalOrganization.

Finch, J.W., Calver, A.E, Harding, RJ. andRaga/a, R. 1994. National system forgroundwater recharge assessment.National Rivers Authority.

Flavin, R.W.l994, The Severn Trent andAnglian rivers and gauging stations(two maps). Hydropower.

Freeman, C., Hudson, TA. and Reynolds.B. 1994. Preliminary findings of thesecond field-based climate changesimulation (with Institute of TerrestrialEcology). Welsh Office.

Gash, J.H.C., Lloyd, CR., Culf, A.D.,Blyth, EM. a4c1 Holwill, CJ. 1995.SurOce and boundary layer measure-ments and upscale modelling inHAPEX-Sahel. 77GER project. NaturalElleironment Research Council,

Gilman, K. 1994. Coed Talon (Clwyd)hydrological monitoring - 1994.Countryside Council for Wales.

Gilman, K. 1994. Initial appraisal ofhydrological aspects of the proposedre-creation of reedbed habitat at HamWall, Somerset. Royal Society for theProtection of Birds.

Gilman, K. 1994. Gauging of the RiversDulas and Vyrnwy using the chetnicaltracer dilution method. National Rivers

Authority, Severn Trott Region.

Gilman, K. 1995. Hydrological impacts ofproposed drainage improvement atAnhog Bog, Gwynedd. CountrysideCouncil for Wales.

Gilman, K. 1995. Assessment of hydro-logical impacts of proposed borrow pitat Salbri Mire, Anglesey. SGS Environ-ment.

Gilman, K. 1995. Analysis ofhydrogeological evidence relating toproposed sand and gravel extractionnear Vicarage Moss SSSI, Wrexham.Countryside Council for Wales.

Custard. A. and Young, A.R. 1994.Scoping study to develop tools for lowflow estimations. National RiversA uthorily.

Hall, RI_ Allen, ST, Rosier. P.T.W.,Kinniburgh, I).G. and Gooddy, D.C.1995. Hydrological effects of shortrotation energy coppice. (with BritishGeological Survey) National RiversAuthority.

Hodnett, M.G. 1995. The Woburn soilmoisture study. Water Research Centre.

Houghton-Carr, HA. 1995. Consolidationof FSR rainfall-runoff method. ProgressReport 1994/5. Ministry of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food.

Houghton-CaIr. FLA. and Arnett. N.W.1994. Comparison of simple concep-tual daily rainfall-runoff models.Ministry o fAgriculture Fisheries andFood.

Houghton-Carr, HA. and Millington, R.J.1995. Floodplain mapping - modelstudy of the River Frome (Gloucester-shire): Hydrological study report.National Rivers Authority. Severn TrentRegion.

Houghton-Carr, HA. and McCartney, M.I'.1994. Tanzanian urban sectorengineering project. Yield estimatesfor Tanga and Morogoro. Gibb(Eastern Africa) Ltd.

Hudson, JA., Hill, RT. Crane, S.B..Hughes, \V.A. and Hill, T.J. 1995. TheCerrig yr Wyn wetland manipulationstudy. Welsh Office.

Hudson, TA. 1995. Critical assessment ofthe proposed improvements to themeteorological observation networksin the catchment areas feeding to theCumbrian coast in the Sellafield area.Entec Hydrotechnica Ltd.

Hudson, JA., Gilman, K., Crane, SE. andHill, T.J. 1995. Floods in the catch-ment of Nant-y-Moch reservoir -implications for water level control inthe reservoir and spillway design.Powergen

Hudson, TA. and Warwick, A. 1995.Design of a flow measuring structurefor the Snowdonia EnvironmentalChange Network site. CountrysideCouncil for Wiles.

Hughes, S.. Hudson, TA., Freeman, C.,Hill, P.J., Hughes, WA. and Reynolds,B. 1995. Annual report of the field-based climate change simulation.(with Institute of Terrestial Ecology).Welsh Office.

Huntingford, C., Blyth. E.M. and Dohnan.

A.J. 1994. lamd surface atmosphereinteractions. CEGB Research Fellousinprtlfron.

Irving, K.M., Young, A.R. and Gustard. A.1995. European atlas of small-scalehydropower resources. Proposal forPhase Ill (on behalf of ESHA).ALTEVER committee.

Irving. K.M.. Rees. H.G., Young. A.R. andGustard, A. 1994. European atlaxofsmall hydropower potential. InterimReport. ESIIA.

Jackson. NA. 1994. Water balance ofagroforestry systems on hillslopes.Overseas Development Administration.

Jenkins, A. 1994. Model acidification ofgroundwaters in catchments - withaggregated nitrogen dynamics: Magic-wand calibration and validation.National Rivers Authority.

Jenkins, A. Wright, RE and Cosby, B.J.1994. Modelling long-termhydrochemical response at ENCOREcatchments in the UK and Norway.Commission of the European Commu-nities.

Jenkins, A. et al. 1995. Land use, soilconservation and water resourcemanagemennt in the Nepal MiddleHills. 2 vols. Overseas DevelopmentAdministration.

Johnson, I.W., Elliott, C.R.N. and Gustard,A. 1994. Instream flow requirements:River Bray at Leehamford, River Barleat Perry Weir. National RiversAuthority.

Johnson, I.NV. and Elliott, C.R.N. 1994.Workshop guide to PHABSIM (PhysicalHabitat Simulation System). NRArelease version. National RiversAuthority.

Johnson, I.W. and Elliott. C.R.N. 1995.Habitat modelling and instream flowrequirements: River Piddle. NationalRivers Authority, , South WesternRegion.

Johnson, R.C. 1994. The River 'faycatchment study. Ove Amp 6:Mrs.

Johnson, R.C. 1995. Darwin Initiative:biodiversity in the Himalaya. Depart-ment of the Environment.

Johnson, R.C. 1995. Review of airbornepollution studies in the Cairngorms.Scottish Natural Heritage.

Johnson, R.C. 1994. Implementation ofthe Cairngorms ECN site. ScottishNatural Heritage.

Johnson, R.C., Harriman, R., Tervet, D.,Lees, E and Price, D.J. 1994. The LochDee and Balquhidder projects: futurecollaborative research. Scottish OfficeEnvironment Department.

Leeks, G.J.L. 1994. The effects of

agricultural soil erosion upon water-courses. National Rivers Authority,

Lewis. D. R. 1994. LOIS Working NoteNo. 1: Quality assurance of flows onthe River Ouse. Natural EnvironmentResearch Council.

Lewis, D. R. 1994. LOIS Working NoteNo. 3: Calculation of ungauged flowswithin the Ouse catchment. NaturalEnvironment Research Council.

Lewis, D. R. 1994. LOIS Working NoteNo. 2: Use of Micro Low Flows withinQUASAR. Natural EnvironmentResearch Council.

Loader, S. C. 1994. Significant hydrologi-cal events in the UK in 1993. WorldMeteorological Oorganizalion.

Lovell, C.J., Murata, M., Brown, nw.Batchelor, C.H., Thompson, D.M.,Dube, T., Semple, AT and Chilton, PT1994. Small-scale irrigation usingcollector wells pilot project: Zimba-bwe. 4th Progress Report. OverseasDevelopment Administration.

Marks, SD. and Leeks. G.J.L. 1994.Review of particulate outputsassociated with timber harvesting andpotential impacts upon water re-sources and aquatic ecology. NationalRiven- Authority.

Marks, S.D. and Leeks, GP,. 1995. Theimpact of particulate outputs associ-ated with timber harvesting. A'ationalRivers Authority.

McCartney, M.P. and Houghton-Carr, HA.1994. Hydrological review of theKafue River, Zambia. An investigationof the potential for the Zambian SugarIndustry to abstract more water forirrigation. Zanthimi Sitgar Compatry.

McCartney, M.P., Moores, J.P. and Blackie.J.R. 1995. The Trinity Catchment StudyYear 2. Progress report on the secondyear of a groundwater rechargeassessment project.Jersey States PublicServices Department.

McCartney, M.P. 1994. A study of dambohydrology in Southern Africa.Department of Research and SpecialistSenice.s, Zimbabwe,

McCartney, M.P. and Houghton-Carr. HA.1994. Hydroloigcal review of theKafue River, Zambia, Zambian SugarCb.

McCartney, M.P. and Whitehead, P.G.1994. Modelling acid mine dischargein the Pelenna Catchment, NationalRivers Authority, Welsh Region.

McKenzie, A.A.. Gale, IN. and Marsh, T.J.1994. National groundwater levelmonitoring network review. NationalRivers Authority,

Meigh, J.R. 1994. Water resourcesdevelopment project - Manual of

hydrological procedures. ELCElectroconsult/World Bank/NationalIrrigation Administration, Philippines.

Meigh, TR. 1994. Water resourcesdevelopment project - Task 1:Hydrological reassessment.ELCElectroconsult/World Bank/NationalIrrigation Administration. Philippines.

Meigh, TR. 1995. Regional flood estima-tion methods for developing countries.Overseas Development Adminisration.

Millington, RI and Houghton-Carr, HA.1995. Floodplain mapping - modelstudy of the River Dome (Gloucester-shire). Main report. National RiversAuthority. Severn Trent Region.

Moore, RJ. 1994. A flood forecasting andwarning system for the River Soar.National Rivers Authority. Severn TrentRegion.

Moore, R.J. 1994. Investigation into theflood warning methodology for theRiver Soar.Hydraulics Research Ltd.

Moore, R.J. 1994. Weather radar andstorm and flood hazards. Commissionof tbe European Communities.

Moore, R.J. 1995. Design of radar/ -raingauge networks for hydrologicaluse. HYREX project, Natural Environ-ment Resarch Council,

Moore, R.J., Bell, V., Roberts, GA. andMorris, D.G. 1994. Development ofdistributed flood forecasting modelsusing weather radar and digital terraindata. R&D Note 252. National RiversAuthority,

Moore, RT, Austin, R.M. and Carrington.D.S. 1995. Evaluation of FRONTIERSand local radar rainfall forecasts foruse in flood forecasting models:Operational Guidance Note. NRA R&DNote 387. National Rivers Authority.

Moore, R.V. 1995. The use of NationalTransfer Format for the exchange ofenvironmental time-series data.National Rivers Authority.

Moore, R.V. 1995. The ILI logical datamodel for river data. National RiversAuthority,

Moores, J.P. 1994, Sandpool Farm floodstudy. Hills Aggregates Ltd.

Moores, J.P. and Law, EM. 1994.Confidential report on preliminaryreservoir storage-yield analysis. RofeKennard and Lapwonh.

APPENDICES

Moore, R.V., Buesst, A.W.M., Watts, C.D.,Stewart, R. and Alexander, C.E. 1994.A feasibility study into a system for theassessment of an insurer's flood riskexposure (SATE). InternationalComputers Ltd.

Morris, D.G. add Flavin, R.W. 1995.Flood risk map for England and Wales.


APPENDICES

Ministry of Agriculture. Fisheries andFood.

Naden, P. 1994. Modelling strategyadopted in Mal 2. Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food.

Packman. J.C.. Shah, S.M.S., Wencel, K.and Altinad, I. 1995. Urban runoffanalysis & modelling — Lahore study.OverseasDevelopment Administrution.

Packman, J.C. 1995, The Bracknellinstrumented catchment. Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food.

Packman, J.C. 1995. Design storms andantecedent conditions for urbandrainage in the Republic of Ireland.Integrated HjdroSystents.

Price, DJ., Johnson, R.C. et al. 1994. Theeffects of forestry practices on waterquality and biota in the Balquhiddercatchments 1983-1993. Scottish OfficeEnvironment Dept.

Price, DJ., Calder, I.R. and Johnson. R.C.1995. Modelling the effect of afforesta-tion on water resources (Balquhidder).Scottish OfficeEnvironment Depart-ment.

Reed, D.W., Bayliss, AO., Tones, T.K.,Marshall. D.C.W. and 1111ollason, S.J.1994. Statistical flood frequencyestimation. Ministry of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food.

Rees. H. G. and Dixon, J. M. 1994Survey of hydrometric data provisionin Europe. National Rivers Authority

Rees, G., Gustard, A. and Spikers, T.1994. A review of water researchprogrammes in Europe — flooddefence and water resources. WaterResearch cntre/INRA.

Robinson, M., Moore, R.E. and Blackie,J.R. 1994. An analysis of 25 years ofdata from the Coalburn catchment,National Rivers Authority, North WestWater plc and Forestry Authority.


Robinson. M. 1995. Continuous monitor-ing of soil moisture. Natiorud /MY?ts

Authority.

Sene, K., Andrews, A., Mt ores, II) andParks, Y.P. 1995. HYDATA dissemina-tion 1994/95: summary of workperformed. Overseas DevelopmentAdministration.

Sene, K.J. 1995. Migration of data fromHYDATA and GRIPS to WAMS. Logicaland Technical Specification. NationalRivers Authority. Yorkshire Region

Sene, KJ. and Packman. J. 095. ESMD,MORECS and the Wallingford Proce-dure, Hydraulics Research Ltd.

Spilkers, T. and Naden, P. 1994. Datastorage and analysis for continuousrainfall-runoff modelling. Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food.

StewarL EJ. and Reynard. N.S. 1994.Rainfall frequency estimation inEngland and Wales. Phase la: Survey.R&D Note 175. National RiversAuthority.

Wallace, J.S. and Jackson. NA. 1994.Water balance of agroforestry systemson hillslopes, Second Annual Reportto the ODA Forestry Programme.Overseas Development Administration.

Watts, C.G., Grew, R and Young, A.R.Predicting artificially influenced flowstatistics using Micro LOW FLOWSv2.1. National Rivers Authority,

Wilkinson, R. 11., Jenkins, A., Wyer, M. andKay, D. 19194. Modelling faecalcoliforms in streams. Department of theEnvironment.

Williams, A. and Gilman, K. 1995. Theprotection of East Anglian wetlands -Phase 2. National Rivers Authority,Anglian Region.

Williams, K. J., Johnson, A.C. andBatchelor. C.H. 1994. PesticideBriefing Note Kr Director of EuropeanUnion DG XII. Coln mission (jibeEuropean Comnutnities.

Williams, R. J. 1994. Rosemaund pestidderunoff study at ADAS Rosemaund,Report of years 3 to 5. ADAS. aylbrd.

Wright, 1.R. and Gash, J.H.C. 1995.Carbon, water and energy of tropicalbiomes. Surface conductance andevaporation modelling of Amazonrainforest. 77GER project. NaturalEnvironnuott Research Council.

Young, A.R., Gustard, A. and Irving, K.M.1995. European atlas of small-scalehydropower resrouces. ALTENERcommittee.

Young. A.R. and Sekulin, A.E. 1994.Software requirements — Phase M.Study into the naturalised flow recordsin the Essex region. National RiversAuthority.

Bell. V.A.. Carrington, DS., Moore, RJ.1994. Rainfall forecasting using asimple advected cloud model withweather radar, satellite infra-red andsurface weather observations: Aninitial appraisal under UK conditions.Document HYREXI/IH/1. Version 1.0,December 1994. Institute of Hydrol-ogy, 58pp.

Flavin. R.W.1994. EDITDESC User Guideand Manual. Institute of Hydrology.

Flavin. R.W.1994. DGENER8 User Guideand Manual. Institute of Hydrology.

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APPENDICES

Software development


APPENDICES

APPENDIX III

Current research

projects

The Institute of Hydrology is a component

body me the UK Natural Environment

Research Council. Its science contributes to

the integrated research programmes of the

Centre for Ecology and Hydmlogy.

comprising

Institute of Freshwater Ecology

Institute of Hylrology

Institute of Terrestrial Ecology

and

Institute of Vimlogy and Eiwironmental

Microbiology

(see page 71)


Programme 3

Global Environmental Change

Surface and boundary layer measure-ments, Sahel

Joint fluxes in tropical forestsUnderstanding SVNIS for global modellingMacnimodelling (TIGER Ill)Automatic weather station, Wytham siteHydrological impacts modelling (TIGER

IV)Biome change as a climatic feedback

Tropical rainforest processesABRACOS: micrometeorology and

ch ma tolt igyABRACOS: plant physiology and soilsABRACOS: nopical rainforest pn messesApplicatkm of AIIRACOS to planning LBE

Climate changeClimate change and water resources in

East AfricaCLIMEX — climate change experimentHydroclimatology: atmosphere and

hydrology in EuropeEC climate chknge and water resources

Programme 4

Water Management and

Hydrological Extremes

Experimental catchmentsPlynlimon water useEffect of clear felling on upland runoffImpacts of riparian wetlands on stream

chemistryWater resources and afforestation in

Scotlandgectmorphology

Conservation management of wetlandsErosion of forest roadsThe protection of East Anglian wetlandsImpact of particulate outputs from timber

harvesting

Catchment dataPlynlinum data water information system

Hydrological modellingReal-time forecasting of river flowsDistributed hydrological and

hydrochemical modelsYorkshire river flow forecasting systemDevelopment of improved methods of

snowmen forecastingStorms, floods and radar hydrologyShon-term consultancies in hydrological

modellingHYRAD — Hydrological Radar SystemRiver Soar flood warning system

Consultancy, UKMinor repayment studiesSub-surface exploration contractsJersey catchment studyRiver Lavant flooding investigation,

ChichesterResource strategy planningPakistan flood course

Consultancy, overseasFUture water supply strategy, APC JordanSupport services for (werseas repayment

studiesWorld Flood Study — Phase IllReview of water resources in LesothoWater resource development, The

PhilippinesGlobal water scarcityI-lydrological review of the Kafue River,

ZambiaTanga and Morogoro water supply.

Tanzania

Surface Water ArchiveUK surface water dataWater resources research progress

Flood event modellingContinuous simulation nutdel for flood

estimationRepresentative basin databaseHydrological summaries for Great Britain

Flow regimesFlow regimes in Western EuropeMicro-low-flowsLow flow estimation in artificially

influenced catchmentsModelling faunal and fkmil responseEuropean small hydropower atlasSouthern Africa low flowsNaturalised flows in EssexUK low flow training courseEcologically acceptable flows

Storm hazards and hydrological

extremesMethods of statistical flood estimationFlood estimation methods: training

coursesRainfall forecasts, Cameroon hydroelectric

schemesRainfall frequency study: England and

WalesFlood response of large catchmentsADEPT - analysis of dependent time-

seriesStrategy for successor publications to the

Flood Studies ReportRestatement of ESRrainfall-mooff methodCatchment characterisation for flood

estimationConfluence flood: joint probability

Hydrological softwareSoftware developmentHYDATAHYRROM (hydrological rainfall runoff

model)GRIPS (groundwater information process-

ing systetn)QUASAR — VAX-version modelQUASAR — PC conversionMicro-FSRHAP (flood frequency analysis package)HYQUAI. (water quality database)Software trainingHYDATA disseminationHYDA1A for UgandaSWIPS sales and developmentIHACRES sales and developmentMicro-low-flows salesHYDATA — Windows development

Environmental Information SystemsDevelopment of a hydrogeographic

databaseWater Information SystemRedigitising the rivers of the NRA North

West RegionWIS for rivers affected by cooling water

AgrohydrologySmall-scale irrigation schemes: collector

wellsManagement of limited water resourcesLow-cost, high-efficiency irrigationIrrigation using collector wells

Urban hydrologyUrban impacts on flood runoff in

medium-scale mixedcatchments

Urban drainage in the developing world

Hydrological radar experiment

(HYREX)Short-period forecasting incorporating

radar dataRadar-raingauge networks for hydrologi-

cal use

Programme 5

Land/Ocean Interaction Study

(LOIS)

Operational management and preparationfor field science

Analytical chemistryDatabase/GIS for LOIS data centreLOIS core modellingLOIS - remote sensing of river corridorsInstream water quality twiddling

Programme 6

-- Hydrological Processes - -

Regional sc-ale modellingFIFE/BOREASUK Meteorological Office joint develop-

ment (MITRE)A model of seasonal vegetation growth

for GCMsDevelopment of SVAT models in EFEDATundra soil-vegetation-atmosphere

climate interaction

Dryland degradation processesPlant physk)logical amtnils of eVapora-

tionHillslope flow process study: ZimbabweWater resources in the Messara valley

Environmental impact of trees,Environmental implications of trees and

land-use systemsWater balance of African lakesLand-use change, Upper Mahaweli

catchment, Sri LankaHydrological effects of short-rotation

energy coppiceWater resource modelling for large

catchmentsWater resources in Southern Africa

Semi-arid zone water balanceWater use efficiency cif rainfed cropsWater use by vegetation in the SahelArid zone recharge (SAGRE)HAPEX II - Sahel: soilsRemote sensing of semi-arid regions

Water balance of agroforestry system

on hillslopesland-use change and over-exploitation of

water resources.Spain

Surface and subsurface processesBurnham Beechei; groundwater feasibility

studyStream hydrograph and storm runoff

mechanismsContinuous monitoring of soil moisture for

the NRAWorton Rectory Farm groundwater

investigationAnalysis of Coalburn catchment dataHerbicide degradation in the sub-surfaceDevelopment of a consistent procedure

for groundwaterestimation

Effect of forestry on summer baseflows

Remote sensingEuropean Space Agency ERS-I missionApplication of remote sensing to

hydrologyEvaporation input for GCMs from satellite

dataEC - ASEAN regional remote sensing.

ERS-I

Programme I I

Freshwater Biology and Water

Quality

Water quality--European network of catchments —

Pesticide pollution in catchmentsAcid waters monitoring networkOrganics in the aquatic environmentCritical loads of sulphur and nitrogenNepal research projectModelling E. coli concentrationsin

streamsEnvironmental change in ecosystemsNitrogen module for MAGICFate of pesticides in unsaturated/saturated

zonesBiodiversity in the I limalaya - Darwin

Initiative

HydrochemistryForestry impact on upland water qualityIdentifying hydrological flow pathways,

SpainAssessing hydrochemical flow pathwaysHydrochemical process studies - TES/13G5

Programme 13

Scientific Services

Hydrological instrumentationCapacitance probeAutomatic weather station

Field instrumentsMaintenance and development of Hydra

equipmentSoil laboratory physics equipment pool

and services

ODA coordinationODA programme coordinationIAHS/ODA UNESCO fundingHOMS activitiesInformation and dissemination activities

ODA hydrological adviserODA Resource Centres Scheme

Hydrochemistry laboratoryChemistry laboratoriesAcid waters central chemisu-yEnvironmental isotopes

APPENDICES


APPENDICES

APPENDIX IV

Finance

Em

10

8

6

2

10 INSTLFU I I 0: I IYDROLOCX ANN I RFPOR1 I q[.

Sources of income

The histogram i-Igiws the sources oF

the institute's .1lionic Over the past

eight years, adjusted U 1994

prftes

86/87 87/88 88/89 89/90 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95

Miscellaneous

Private

Public

III Govt. other

EEC

11.1 ODA

NRA

DoE

I 1

I 1

• MAFF

I I Tiger, LOIS +Special topics

• Science Budget

APPENDIX V

The NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology component institutes

.(77

et>

5

790----- /

r . \ nL.,--, ii.9 ( b 2

\ .:

'At?\ 13 »

7i

glif

150

4,9

1 t 6 iT

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH)1. Wallingford

Institute of Freshwater Ecology (IFE)2. Windermere

3. Wareham

4. Monks Wood

5. Edinburgh

Institute of Hydrology (IH)6. Wallingford7. Plynlimon

8. Stirling

Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE)9. Monks Wood

10. Edinburgh

11. Banchory

12, Bangor

13. Merlewood

14. Furzebrook

Institute of Virology and EnvironmentalMicrobiology (IVEM)

15. Oxfoid

Locations of recent research contracts undertaken by CEH institutes

71. ultlt2

7 1

á

á

'

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Report of the Institute of Hydrology 1994-95 - NERC Open ...

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