Report of Intelligent Patient Monitoring System - Copy

7/25/2019 Report of Intelligent Patient Monitoring System - Copy

1/86

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1


2/86

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 MEASUREMENT OF RESPIRATORY RATE

Thermistor is used for the measurement of body temperature and respiratory temperature. This

thermistor is a passive transducer and its resistance depends on the beat being applied on it. We have

arranged the sensor in the potential divider circuit. This sensor exhibits a large change in resistance

with a change in body temperature. The respiratory rate is determined by holding the sensor near the

nose. The temperature sensor part is attached to the patient whose temperature has to be measured,

which changes the values and thus the corresponding change in the temperature is displayed on the

monitor graphically. Also all temperature measurements are updated in the patients database. Here

in our proect we use bead temperature sensor.

1.2 SALINE MONITORING SYSTEM

!or saline monitoring the infrared emitter and detector are placed in a position such that the saline

bottle passes between them. They are placed near the next of the saline bottle. As long as the saline is

present, the path of the infrared rays is bloc"ed and the infrared detector is bloc"ed from collecting

infrared rays from the emitter. And so the output will indicate normal saline status. The software is

written to give an audio alert when saline level falls below the safe level.

1.3 PATIENT CALLING SYSTEM

The patient calling system consists of four switches which when pressed gives display on the screen

and activities an audio alert indicating that patient is calling. These switches are placed in the

vicinity of the patient to enable medical access in an emergency.

#


3/86


4/86

1.( DIAGRAM OF PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM

Figur 2! Di&gr&' #) *&+i,+ '#,i+#ri,g

(


5/86

1.-CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figur 3! Cir$ui+ i&gr&'

)


6/86

1./ CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

1./.1 H&r+ B&+ R&+ S,0#r Cir$ui+

*onitoring the heart beat rate of the patient can be easily accomplished by analy+ing the $%& pulse.

Here, the $%& pulse is amplified and the average time interval or the instantaneous time interval

between two successive pea"s is measured, from which the heart beat rate is derived. -ut this

method fails to indicate heart bloc"s immediately and so photo electric pulse transducers are used.

The pulse rate monitoring method indicates a heart bloc" immediately by sensing the cessation of

blood circulation in the limb terminals. This techniue uses photoelectric transducers which are easy

to apply then the ' $%& electrodes. Also the output signal amplitude is large with better signal tonoise ratio.

The finger probe used for pulse pic" up consists of a &aAs infrared /$0 and a silicon 2

phototransistor mounted in an enclosure that fits over the tip of the patients finger. The pea" spectral

emission of the /$0 is at 3.4( mm with a 3.535 pea" bandwidth of 3.3(mm. The silicon

phototransistor is sensitive to radiation between 3.( and 1.1.mm. 0ue to the narrow bond of the

spectrum involved the radiation heat output is minimi+ed. The photo transistor is used as an emitter

follower configuration. The 6 signal from the /$0 is transmitted through the finger tip of the

patients finger and the conductivity of the phototransistor depends on the amount of radiation

reaching it with each contraction of the heart, blood is forced to the extremities and amount of blood

in finger increases.

1./.2 SALINE STATUS MONITORING CIRCUIT

The saline water inection plays a "ey role in the treatment and recovery of many a patient that

reuires constant monitoring. This condition can be fulfilled by using 6 sensors which can detect a

drop in the saline below the uantity. -y means of annunciation systems, the hospital staff can be

informed and an action of replacing the saline can be easily accomplished before the bottle becomes

empty. Also the usage of the &7* modem facilitates sending of saline status to the doctor concerned

for any further action reuired. The circuit uses an 6 emitter and an 6 detector which are placed in

8


7/86

a straight line with the saline bottle in between, at the point representing the preset saline level. The

presence of saline water, in a full bottle, refracts the emitted radiation, thus generating no output at

the 6 detector. When the saline level falls below the preset value9 the emitted 6 radiation causes a

photoelectric current from the detector. The detector output is an analog uantity which is made to

drive a switching 2 transistor -%135 to get a binary output from the collector of the transistor.

This digital output is fed to the pin #' of the 26% micro controller, corresponding to port bit (. The

signal is processed and the saline status is displayed on the screen. 6n case of the saline becoming

empty the annunciation systems are activated.

1./.3 PATIENT CALL SITCHES CIRCUIT

The patient calling system consists of four switches when pressed gives display on the screen and

activates an audio alert indicating that a patient is calling. These switches are placed in the vicinity

of the patient to enable medical access in an emergency.

1./.4 BODY RESPIRATORY RATE CIRCUIT

The rate measuring circuit uses a temperature sensor for measuring the respiration rate. A thermistor

is a ceramic semiconductor which exhibits a large change in resistance with a change in its body

temperature. The thermistors have much better sensitivity than T0s and are therefore better suited

for precision temperature measurements. The availability of high resistance values allows the

thermistors to be used with long extension leads since the lead resistance or contact resistance effects

can be greatly diminished. The non:linearity of the thermistor resistance:temperature characteristics

outs a practical limit on the temperature span over which a thermistor can be operated in

measurement or control circuit T0s have lower sensitivity and are more linear and can therefore

be used in applications, where the temperature spans are very wide. Thermistors has other important

advantages over T0s in that they are available in smaller si+es, with faster response times, at lower

costs and with greater resistance to shoc" and vibration effects

5


8/86


9/86


10/86

R

VI =

where > is the voltage ?or potential difference@ across the wire in volts, 6 is the current through the

wire in amperes, and , in ohms, is a constant called the resistance in fact this is only asimplification of the original


11/86


12/86

electrical. A light dependent resistor, or /0, is an example of an input transducer. %hanges in the

brightness of the light shining onto the surface of the /0 result in changes in its resistance. As will

be explained later, an input transducer is most often connected along with a resistor to ma"e a circuit

called a potential divider. *ost electronic circuits reuire resistors to ma"e them wor" properly and

it is obviously important to find out something about the different types of resistor available, and to

be able to choose the correct resistor value, in , , or * , for a particular application.

2.5 C#"#ur0 $#

umber %olour

3 -lac"

1 -rown

# ed

' iolet

How can the value of a resistor be wor"ed out from the colours of the bandsD $ach colour represents

a number according to the following scheme= The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the !67T

06&6T of the resistor value. !or the resistor shown below, the first band is yellow, so the first digit is

(=

1#


13/86

The second band gives the 7$%


14/86

can store energy in the electric fieldbetween a pair of closely:spaced conductors ?called plates@.

When voltage is applied to the capacitor, electric chargesof eual magnitude, but opposite polarity,

build up on each plate. %apacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy:storage devices. They can

also be used to differentiate between high:freuency and low:freuency signals and this ma"es them

useful in electronic filters. %apacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This is now

considered an antiuated term. A capacitor consists of two conductive electrodes, or plates, separated

by an insulator.

2.- C&*&$i+&,$

When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an electric fieldis created in the region between the

plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge. This electric field creates a potential

difference > L $Cd between the plates of this simple parallel:plate capacitor. The capacitors

capacitance?%@ is a measure of the amount of charge?M@ stored on each plate for a givenpotential

differenceor voltage ?>@ which appears between the plates=

6n 76units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one faradwhen one coulomb of charge is stored due to

one voltapplied potential difference across the plates. 7ince the farad is a very large unit, values of

capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads ?N!@, nanofarads ?n!@, or picofarads [email protected]

capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to

the distance between the plates. 6t is also proportional to the permittivityof the dielectric ?that is,

1(
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filtershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_insulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Capacitor.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filtershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_insulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric


15/86


16/86

capacitor, the dielectric is in direct contact with the plates. %apacitors also allow A% current to flow

and bloc" 0% current.

2.18 T*0 #) $&*&$i+#r0! 9

2.18.1 MICA CAPACITOR

*ica is such a material, which is available in a thin layer in the nature. 6ts dielectric constant is very

high. $specially for high freuency. 6t wor"s as a good insulator even on high temperature. There is

very low freuency loss in it, because of these silient features it is used as dielectric material in the

capacitors. These types of capacitors are "nown as mica capacitor. 7ince winding of mica is not

possible therefore mica capacitor are always flat in shape. These capacitors are used where more

accuracy and high dielectric constant is needed.

*ica capacitors are of various types.

18


17/86

Figur (! MICA CAPACITOR

2.18.2 PAPER CAPACITOR

Figur -!PAPER CAPACITOR

15


18/86

6t is such a capacitor which is used for high voltage 0%PA% on medium loss and medium accuracy

of capacitance stability. Wrapping thin layer of aluminum with the layers of tissue paper ma"es it

and to remove the moisture from paper, thin layer of wax is used on it. 6n the matellised paper

capacitor, metal film is used in place of aluminum for electrodes. The value of paper capacitor is

generally in between 3.331 microfarad to 3.# microfarad. Their voltage capacity is maximum up to

133 >. now: a: days9 polyester plastic film is used on the tissue paper in the paper capacitors.

2.18.3 CERAMIC CAPACITORS

7uch capacitors, which have ceramic material as a dielectric, are "nown as ceramic capacitors. The

functions of these capacitors are decided according to the electrical characteristics of the used

ceramic material. The si+e of the ceramic capacitors is very small as compared to the other

capacitors due to their high dielectric constant. %eramic material is a very good insulator and high

dielectric constant can be received from it by mixing various types of silicates in it.

1;


19/86

Figur /! CERAMIC CAPACITORS

2.11 TRANSISTORS

14


20/86

Figur 7! TYPES OFTRANSISTORS

2.11.1 A00#r+ i0$r+ +r&,0i0+#r0

A transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used as an amplifier. The transistor is the

fundamental building bloc" of the circuitrythat governs the operation of computers, cellular phones,

and all other modern electronics.-ecause of its fast response and accuracy, the transistor may be

used in a wide variety of digitaland analogfunctions, including amplification, switching, voltage

regulation, signal modulation, and oscillators. Transistors may be pac"aged individually or as part of

an integrated circuitchip, which may hold thousands of transistors in a very small area.

2.11.2 I,+r#u$+i#,

*odern transistors are divided into two main categories= bipolar unction transistors ?-GTs@ and field

effect transistors?!$Ts@. Application of current in -GTs and voltage in !$Ts between the input and

common terminals increases the conductivitybetween the common and output terminals, thereby

controlling current flow between them. The transistor characteristics depend on their type. 6n analog

circuits, transistors are used in amplifiers, ?direct current amplifiers, audio amplifiers, radio

freuency amplifiers@, and linear regulated power supplies. Transistors are also used in digital

circuits where they function as electronic switches, but rarely as discrete devices, almost always

being incorporated in monolithic 6ntegrated %ircuits. 0igital circuits include logic gates, random

access memory?A*@, microprocessors, and digital signal processors?072s@.

#3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_amplifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_effect_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_effect_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_amplifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transistors.agr.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_amplifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_effect_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_effect_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_amplifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processors


21/86

2.12 T*0

2.12.1 Tr&,0i0+#r0 &r $&+g#ri: ;!9

7emiconductor material= germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide

7tructure= -GT,G!$T, 6&!$T ?*


22/86

-oth types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre section is called the

base, one of the outside sections:the emitter and the other outside section:the collector. The direction

of the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward bias on the emitter.

The conventional flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow.

2.13 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

Figur 18= TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

A switching amplifier or class:0 amplifier is apower amplifierwhere the active devices ?especially

in the output stage@ are operated in onRoff mode ?i.e., as switches@. The term Q%lass:0Q is often

assumed to mean QdigitalQ amplifier. The uanti+ationof the output signal implies samplingli"e that

done in AR0 conversion, but such amplifiers input and output signals are still analog.


23/86


24/86

shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High:freuency crystals are typically cut in

the shape of a simple, rectangular plate.

2.14.2 E"$+ri$&" '#"

2.14.3 E"$+r#,i$ 0';#")#r & *i:#"$+ri$ $r0+&" r0#,&+#r

S$'&+i$ 0';#" &,


25/86


26/86


27/86


28/86

Figur 14! I,,r #r%i,g0 #) &, LED

Figur 15! >9I Gr&* #) LED

2.15.5 C#"#r0 &, '&+ri&"0

%onventional /$0s are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following

table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material=

#;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diode-IV-Curve.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PnJunction-LED-E.PNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_materials


29/86

C#"#r&6",g+

?,'@>#"+&g?>@ S'i$#,u$+#r M&+ri&"

I,)r&r -(8 > 1.7 G&""iu' &r0,iG&A0A"u'i,iu' g&""iu' &r0,iA"G&A0

R (18 -(81.(3 >

2.83

A"u'i,iu' g&""iu' &r0,iA"G&A0

G&""iu' &r0,i *#0*iG&A0P

A"u'i,iu' g&""iu' i,iu' *#0*iA"G&I,P

G&""iu'III *#0*iG&P

Or&,g 578 (18 2.83 > 2.18

G&""iu' &r0,i *#0*iG&A0P

A"u'i,iu' g&""iu' i,iu' *#0*iA"G&I,PG&""iu'III *#0*iG&P

Y""# 5-8 5782.18 >

2.1/

G&""iu' &r0,i *#0*iG&A0P


G&""iu'III *#0*iG&P

Gr, 588 5-8 2.1/ > 4.8

I,iu' g&""iu' ,i+riI,G&N G&""iu'III

,i+riG&N

G&""iu'III *#0*iG&P


A"u'i,iu' g&""iu' *#0*iA"G&P

B"u 458 5882.4/ >

3.-

i,$ 0",i,S

I,iu' g&""iu' ,i+riI,G&N

Si"i$#, $&r;iSiC &0 0u;0+r&+

Si"i$#,Si &0 0u;0+r&+ u,r 6"#*',+

>i#"+ 488 4582.-( >

4.8I,iu' g&""iu' ,i+riI,G&N

Pur*" 'u"+i*" +*0 2.4/ >

3.-

Du&" ;"ur LED0=

;"u i+ r *#0*#r=

#4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_(letter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(colour)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_selenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violet_(color)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_(letter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(colour)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_phosphidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_selenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violet_(color)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple


30/86

#r i+ i+ *ur*" *"&0+i$

U"+r&6i#"+ 488 3.1 > 4.4

i&'#,C

A"u'i,iu' ,i+riA"NA"u'i,iu' g&""iu' ,i+riA"G&N

A"u'i,iu' g&""iu' i,iu' ,i+riA"G&I,N

#, +# 218 ,'?2-@

i+ Br#& 0*$+ru'> J 3.5 B"uU> i# i+ ""# *#0*#r

2.15.( U"+r&6i#"+ &, ;"u LED0

Figur 1(!U"+r&6i#"+ &, ;"u LED0

B"uLED0

-lue /$0s are based on the wide band gap semiconductors &a ?gallium nitride@ and 6n&a

?indium gallium nitride@. They can be added to existing red and green /$0s to produce the

impression of whitelight, though white /$0s today rarely use this principle. The first blue /$0s

were made in 1451 by Gacues 2an"ove ?inventor of the gallium nitride /$0@ at %A /aboratories.X

However, these devices had too little light output to be of much practical use. 6n the late 14;3s, "ey

brea"throughs in &a epitaxialgrowth andp:typedoping by 6samu A"asa"iand Hiroshi Amano

?agoya, Gapan@ ushered in the modern era of &a:based optoelectronic devices. -uilding upon this

'3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aluminium_gallium_indium_nitride&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InGaNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitaxialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isamu_Akasakihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_LED_and_Reflection.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aluminium_gallium_indium_nitride&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InGaNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitaxialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki


31/86

foundation, in 144' high brightness blue /$0s were demonstrated through the wor" of 7hui

a"amuraat ichia %orporation. Wavelengths down to #13 nm were obtained in laboratories using

aluminium nitride.While not an /$0 as such, an ordinary 2 bipolar transistor will emit violet

light if its emitter:base unction is subected to non:destructive reverse brea"down. This is easy to

demonstrate by filing the top off a metal:can transistor ?-%135, ##### or similar@ and biasing it

well above emitter:base brea"down ?Y #3 >@ via a current:limiting resistor.

2.15.- Di0&6&,+&g0 #) u0i,g LED0

/$0s are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than

more conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the

relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.

/$0s typically cast light in one direction at a narrow angle compared to an incandescent or

fluorescent lamp of the same lumen level.

Thespectrum of some white /$0sdiffers significantly from ablac":body radiator, such as

the sun or an incandescent light.

At present the spectrum of emitted light from white /$0s falls outside the natural range

provided by incandescent bulbs, ma"ing them less suited for domestic lighting.

2.1(.1 Di#0

Figur 1-! T*0 #) i#0

'1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuji_Nakamurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuji_Nakamurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichia_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode#Ultraviolet.2C_Blue_and_white_LEDshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode-photo.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuji_Nakamurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuji_Nakamurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichia_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode#Ultraviolet.2C_Blue_and_white_LEDshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body


32/86

Figur 1/! C"#09u*= 0#i,g gr'&,iu' $r0+&"

6n electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of flow of charge carriers.

$ssentially, it allows an electric current to flow in one direction, but bloc"s it in the opposite

direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a chec" valve. %ircuits that

reuire current flow in only one direction will typically include one or more diodes in the circuit

design. $arly diodes included Qcats whis"erQ crystalsandvacuum tubedevices ?called thermionic

valves in -ritish $nglish0ialect@. Today the most common diodes are made from semiconductor

materials such as silicon or germanium.Thermionic and solid state diodes developed in parallel. The

principle of operation of thermionic diodes was discovered by !rederic" &uthrie in 1;5'. The

principle of operation of crystal diodes was discovered in 1;5( by the &erman scientist, Farl

!erdinand -raun.

2.1(.2 S'i$#,u$+#r i#0

0iode schematic symbol. %onventional current can flow from the anode to the cathode, but not the

other way around.*ost modern diodes are based on semiconductorp:n unctions. 6n a p:n diode,

conventional currentflows from the p:type side ?the anode@ to the n:type side ?the cathode@, but not

in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the 7chott"y diode, is formed from

the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p:n unction. A semiconductor

diodes current:voltage, or 6:>, characteristic curve is described to the behavior of the so:called

depletion layer or depletion +one which exists at the p:n unction between the differing

semiconductors. When a p:n unction is first created, conduction band ?mobile@ electrons from the

:doped region diffuse into the 2:doped region where there is a large population of holes ?places for

electrons in which no electron is present@ with which the electrons QrecombineQ. When a mobile

'#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat's_whisker_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_valveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_valveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_emissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Guthriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current-voltage_characteristichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode_symbol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode-closeup.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat's_whisker_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_valveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_valveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_emissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Guthriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current-voltage_characteristichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junction


33/86

electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two

charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p:n unction becomes depleted of charge

carriersand thus behaves as an insulator.

Figur 17! I9> $&r&$+ri0+i$0 #) & P9N u,$+i#, i#

A diodes 6:> characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. -elow a certain

difference in potential between the two leads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diodecan be thought of as an open ?non:conductive@ circuit. As the potential difference is increased, at

some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be

thought of as a connection with +ero ?or at least very low@ resistance. 6n a normal silicon diode at

rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 3.8 to 3.5volts.

''
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rectifier_vi_curve.GIFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt


34/86

2.1(.3 Tr &r 06r&" +*0 #) 0'i$#,u$+#r u,$+i#, i#0

2.1(.4 N#r'&" *9, i#0

Which operate as described above. Esually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, &ermanium.

-efore the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxideand later selenium

was used9 its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop ?typically 1.(Z1.5 > per

Qcell,Q with multiple cells stac"ed to increase the pea" inverse voltage rating in high voltage

rectifiers@, and reuired a large heat sin" ?often an extension of the diodes metal substrate@, much

larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would reuire.

2.1(.5 S$#++% i#0

7chott"ydiodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward

voltage drop than a standard 2 unction diode. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of

about 1 mA is in the range 3.1) > to 3.() >, which ma"es them useful in voltage clamping

applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers

although their reverse lea"age current is generally much higher than non 7chott"y rectifiers.

7chott"y diodes are maority carrierdevices

2.1(.( G#"#* i#0

As a dopant, gold ?orplatinum@ acts as recombination centers, which help a fast recombination of

minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal freuencies, at the expense of a higher

forward voltage drop. A typical example is the 141(.

2.1(.- S,&*9#))#r S+* r$#6r i#0

The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices.

After a forward current has been passing in an 70 and the current is interrupted or reversed, the

'(
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuprous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_H._Schottkyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuprous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_H._Schottkyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_recovery_diode


35/86

reverse conduction will cease very abruptly ?as in a step waveform@. 70s can therefore provide

very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.

2.1(./ P#i,+9$#,+&$+ i#0

These wor" the same as the unction semiconductor diodes described above, but its construction is

simpler. A bloc" of n:type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp:point contact made with

some group:' metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. 7ome metal migrates into the

semiconductor to ma"e a small region of p:type semiconductor near the contact. The long:popular

1'( germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in speciali+ed

analog electronics.

2.1(.7 C&+0 i0%r #r $r0+&" i#0

These are a type of point contact diode. The cats whis"er diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal

wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galenaor a lump of coal.The wire forms the

anode and the crystal forms the cathode.

2.1(.18 PIN i#0

A 26 diode has a central un:doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p:type R intrinsic R n:type

structure.They are used as radio freuency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more

sudden change in capacitance. They are also used as large volume ioni+ing radiation detectors and as

photodetectors. 26 diodes are also used inpower electronics, as their central layer can withstand

high voltages. !urthermore, the 26 structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices,

such as 6&-Ts, power *&ri$&*#r6&r&$+#r i#0

These are used as voltage:controlled capacitors. These are important in 2// ?phase:loc"ed loop@ and

!// ?freuency:loc"ed loop@ circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers,

')
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat's_whisker_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varactor_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-locked_loophttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frequency-locked_loop&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat's_whisker_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varactor_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-locked_loophttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frequency-locked_loop&action=edit


36/86

to loc" uic"ly, replacing older designs that too" a long time to warm up and loc". A 2// is faster

than a !//, but prone to integer harmonic loc"ing ?if one attempts to loc" to a broadband signal@.

They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but

fixed:freuency

2.1(.12 ,r i#0

0iodes that can be made to conduct bac"wards. This effect, called [ener brea"down, occurs at a

precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. 6n practical

voltage reference circuits [ener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions

to balance the temperature coefficient to near +ero.

2.1(.13 A6&"&,$ i#0

0iodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the brea"down

voltage. These are electrically very similar to [ener diodes, and are often mista"enly called [ener

diodes, but brea" down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse

electric field across the p:n unction causes a wave of ioni+ation, reminiscent of an avalanche,

leading to a large current..

2.1(.14 Si+$i,g i#0

7witching diodes, sometimes also called small signal diodes are a diode applied voltage it has high

resistance similar to an open switch, while above that voltage it suddenly changes to the low

resistance of a closed switch.

2.1(.15 P#+#i#0

7emiconductors are subect to optical charge carriergeneration and therefore most are pac"aged in

light bloc"ing material. 6f they are pac"aged in materials that allow light to pass, their

photosensitivity can be utili+ed. 2hotodiodes can be used as solar cells,and inphotometry.

'8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Switching_diode&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometry_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Switching_diode&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometry_(optics)


37/86

2.1(.1( Lig+9'i++i,g i#0LED0

6n a diode formed from a direct band:gapsemiconductor, such asgallium arsenide,carriers that cross

the unction emit photons when they recombine with the maority carrier on the other side.

0epending on the material, wavelengths ?or colors@ from the infraredto the near ultravioletmay be

produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelengthof the emitted photons=

1.# > corresponds to red, #.( to violet. The first /$0s were red and yellow, and higher:freuency

diodes have been developed over time.

2.1(.1- L&0r i#0

When an /$0:li"e structure is contained in a resonant cavityformed by polishing the parallel end

faces, a lasercan be formed. /aser diodes are commonly used in optical storagedevices and for high

speed optical communication.

2.1(.1/ E0&%i#r +u,," i#0

These have a region of operation showing negative resistancecaused by uantum tunneling, thus

allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type

most resistant to nuclear radiation.

2.1(.17 Gu,, i#0

These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as &aAs or 6n2 that exhibit

a region ofnegative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel

across the diode, allowing high freuencymicrowaveoscillators to be built.

'5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_bandgaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_cavityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esakihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunn_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_bandgaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_cavityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esakihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunn_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillator


38/86

2.1- RELAYS

Figur 28! Au+#'#+i6 0+" 'i,i&+ur r"&

A relay is an electrical switchthat opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. 6n

the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnetto open or close one or many sets of

contacts. 6t was invented by Goseph Henry in 1;'). -ecause a relay is able to control an output

circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of

an electrical amplifier. When a currentflows through the coil,the resulting magnetic fieldattracts an

armature that is mechanically lin"ed to a moving contact. The movement either ma"es or brea"s a

connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned

by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Esually this is a

spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. *ost relays are manufactured

to operate uic"ly. 6n a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. 6n a high voltage or high

current application, this is to reduce arcing.

2.1-.1 R"&0 &r u0!

To control a high:voltage circuit with a low:voltage signal, as in some types of modems,

To control a high:currentcircuit with a low:current signal, as in the starter solenoidof an

automobile,

To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different

potentials, for example when controlling a mains:powered device from a low:voltage switch.

The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily

';
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1835http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starter_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Relay.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1835http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starter_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile


39/86

installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be

controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

To perform logic functions. !or example, the -oolean A0 function is realised by

connecting < relay contacts in series, the arying the relative number of turns in the windings determines the ratio of their

voltages, thus transforming the voltage from one circuit to another.

2.1/.1 C#u*"i,g ; 'u+u&" i,u$+i#,

Figur 21! C#u*"i,g ; 'u+u&" i,u$+i#,

A, i&" 0+*9#, +r&,0)#r'r 0#i,g '&g,+i$ )"u i, + $#r

An electromotive force ?$*!@ is induced across each winding, an effect "nown as mutual

inductance..The windings in the ideal transformer have no resistance and so the $*!s are eual in

'4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_couplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_couplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance#Mutual_inductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance#Mutual_inductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer3d_col3.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_couplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_couplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance#Mutual_inductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance#Mutual_inductance


40/86

magnitude to the measured terminal voltages. 6n accordance with !aradays law of induction, they

are proportional to the rate of change of flux=

and

r!

and are the induced $*!s across primary and secondary windings,

and are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,

and are the time derivatives of the flux lin"ing the primary and secondary

windings.

All flux produced by the primary winding also lin"s the secondary, and so , from which

the well:"nown transformer euation follows=

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio of the number of turns

alternatively, that the volts:per:turn is the same in both windings.

2.1/.2 U,r "#&

6f a loadimpedanceis connected to the secondary winding, creating a secondary circuit, a current

will flow in it. The current forms an **! over the secondary winding in opposition to that of the

primary winding, so acting to cancel the flux in the core. The now reduced flux decreases the

primary $*!, causing current in the primary circuit to increase to exactly offset the effect of the

secondary **!, and returning the flux to its former value. 6n this way, the electrical energyfed into

the primary circuit is delivered to the secondary circuit. The primary and secondary **!s are eual,

and so= from which the transformer current relationship emerges=

(3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday's_law_of_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday's_law_of_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power


41/86

2.1/.3 Tr&,0)#r'r u,i6r0&" EMF


42/86

2.1/.5 U00 #) +r&,0)#r'r0

$lectric power transmissionover long distances.

/arge, specially constructed power transformers are used for electric arc furnacesused in

steelma"ing.

otating transformers are designed so that one winding turns while the other remains

stationary. A common use was the video head system as used in >H7 and -eta video tape

players. These can pass power or radio signals from a stationary mounting to a rotating

mechanism, or radar antenna.

Transformer:li"e device is used for position measurement. 7ee linear variable differential

transformer.

7ome rotary transformers are used to couple signals between two parts which rotate in

relation to each other.

2.17 1( 2 A"*&,u'ri$ LCD M#u"

This module includes a connector to plug directly into the 7TF#33 and 7TF'33 starter "its. 6t

features a transflective 7T type /%0, which provides excellent viewing angles and high contrast.

Figur 22!1( 2 A"*&,u'ri$ LCD M#u"

2.17.1 1( 2 A"*&,u'ri$ LCD M#u" F&+ur0

(#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc_furnacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelmakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_variable_differential_transformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_variable_differential_transformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_transformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc_furnacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelmakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_variable_differential_transformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_variable_differential_transformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_transformer


43/86

6ntelligent, with built:in Hitachi H0((5;3 compatible /%0 controller and A* providing simple

interfacing 81 x 1).; mm viewing area ) x 5 dot matrix format for #.48 x ).)8 mm characters, plus

cursor line %an display ##( different symbols /ow power consumption ?1 mA Typical@ 2owerful

command set and user:produced characters TT/ and %*


44/86

2.17.3 K*&

A "eypad is a set of buttons arranged in a bloc" which usually bear digits and other symbols but not

a complete set of alphabetical letters. 6f it mostly contains numbers then it can also be called a

numeric "eypad. Feypads are found on many alphanumeric "eyboards and on other devices such as

calculators, combination loc"s and telephones which reuire largely numeric input.

2.17.4 A +"*#, %*&

A computer "eyboard usually contains a small numeric "eypad with a calculator:style arrangement

of buttons duplicating the numeric and arithmetic "eys on the main "eyboard to allow efficient entry

of numerical data. This number pad ?commonly abbreviated to QnumpadQ@ is usually positioned on

the right side of the "eyboard because most people are right:handed. *any laptop computers have

special function "eys which turn part of the alphabetical "eyboard into a numerical "eypad as there

is insufficient space to allow a separate "eypad to be built into the laptops chassis. 7eparate plug:in

"eypads can be purchased.

2.17.5 A $&"$u"&+#r

-y convention, the "eys on calculator:style "eypads are arranged such that 1#' is on the bottom row.

6n contrast, a telephone "eypad has the 1#' "eys at the top. 6t also has buttons labeled \ ?star@ and ]

?octothorpe, number sign, QpoundQ or QhashQ@ either side of the +ero. *ost of the "eys also bear

letters which have had several auxiliary uses, such as remembering area codes or whole telephone

numbers.

((


45/86

Feypads are a part of mobile phones that are replaceable and sit on a sensor board. 7ome multimedia

mobile phones have a small oystic" which has a cap to match the "eypad.

2.17.( EEPROM

$$2


46/86

typically has its own set of


47/86

2.28 MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES!

2.28.1 F&;ri$&+i#, +$,i


48/86

it fetches the data to support the instruction. The two separate fetches slows up the

controllers operation.

2.28.2.2 H&r6&r Ar$i+$+ur

*icrocontrollers based on the Harvard Architecture have span data bus and an instruction bus. This

allows execution to occur in parallel. As an instruction is being Qpre:fetchedQ the current

instruction is executing on the data bus. on:

eumann architecture, but there is some added silicon complexity.

2.28.2.3 CISC

Almost all of todays microcontrollers are based on the %67% ?%omplex 6nstruction 7et %omputer@

concept. The typical %67% microcontroller has well over ;3 instructions, many of them very

powerful and very speciali+ed for specific control tas"s. 6t is uite common for the instructions to all

behave uite differently. 7ome might only operate on certain address spaces or registers and others

might only recogni+e certain addressing modes. The advantages of the %67% architecture are that

many of the instructions are macro:li"e, allowing the programmer to use one instruction in place ofmany simpler instructions.

2.28.2.4 RISC

The industry trend for microprocessor design is for educed 6nstruction 7et %omputers ?67%@

designs. This is beginning to spill over into the microcontroller mar"et. -y implementing fewer

instructions, the chip designed is able to dedicate some of the precious silicon real:estate for

performance enhancing features The benefits of 67% design simplicity are a smaller chip, smaller

pin count, and very low power consumption.

(;


49/86

2.28.2.5 SISC

Actually a microcontroller is by definition a educed 6nstruction 7et %omputer ?at least in my

opinion@. 6t could really be called a 7pecific 6nstruction 7et %omputer ?767%@. *icrocontrollersnow come with a mind boggling array of features that aid the control engineer : watchdog timers,

sleepRwa"eup modes, power management, powerful 6R< channels, and so on. -y "eeping the

instruction set specific ?and reduced@, and thus saving valuable real estate, more and more of

these features can be added, while maintaining the economy of the microcontroller

2.21 A6&,$ M'#r #*+i#,0

$$2


50/86

2.21.3 Fi" *r#gr&''i,gr*r#gr&''i,g

Esing nonvolatile memory as a place to store program memory allows the device to be

reprogrammed in the field without removing the microcontroller from the system that itcontrols. fast to >.'(, or incorporate

new features such as voice control or a digital answering machine.

2.21.4 OTP 9 O, Ti' Pr#gr&''&;"

An


51/86

to read your %ode would be to rip the microcontroller apart with a scanning $lectron

microscope and how many people really have one of Those.

2.21.( P#r M&,&g',+ &, L# >#"+&g L# 6#"+&g *&r+0

7ince automotive applications have been the driving force behind most microcontrollers, and )

>olts is very easy to do in a car, most microcontrollers have only supported (.) : ).) > operation. 6n

the recent past, as consumer goods are beginning to drive maor 7egments of the microcontroller

mar"et, and as consumer goods -ecome portable and lightweight, the reuirement for ' volt ?and

lower@ microcontrollers has become urgent ?' volts L # battery solution R lower voltage L

longer battery life@. *ost low voltage parts in the mar"et today are simply ) volt parts that

were modified to operate at ' volts ?usually at a performance [email protected] micros being

released now are designed from the ground up operate properly at '.3 ?and lower@ voltages,

which offer comparable performance of the ) volt devices.

2.21.- Br#,#u+ Pr#+$+i#,

-rownout protection is usually an on:board protection circuit that resets the device when the

operating voltage ?>cc@ is lower than the brownout voltage. The device is held in reset and will

remain in reset when >cc stays below the -rownout voltage. The device will resume execution

?from reset@ after >cc has risen above the brownout >oltage.

2.21./ I"H&"+&%u*

The device can be placed into 60/$RHA/T mode by software control. 6n both Halt and 6dle

conditions the state of the microcontroller remains. A* is not cleared and any outputs are not

changed. The terms idle and halt often have different definitions, depending on the manufacturer.

What some call idle, others may call halt, and vice versa. 6t can be confusing, so chec" the data

sheet for the device in uestion to be sure.

)1


52/86

2.21.7 Mu"+i9I,*u+ &%u* N&+i#,&" S'i$#,u$+#r

The *ulti:6nput Wa"e up ?*6WE@ feature is used to return ?wa"eup@ the microcontroller from either

HA/T or 60/$ modes. Alternately *6WE may also be used to generate up to ; edge selectible

external interrupts. The user can select whether the trigger condition on the pins is going to be

either a positive edge ?low to high@ or a negative edge ?high to low@.

2.22 IO UART

A EAT ?Eniversal Asynchronous eceiver Transmitter@ is a serial port adapter for asynchronous serial

communications.

2.22.1 USART

A E7AT ?Eniversal 7ynchronousRAsynchronous eceiver Transmitter@ is a serial port adapter for

either asynchronous or synchronous serial communications. %ommunications using a E7AT are

typically much faster ?as much as 18 times@ than with a EAT.

2.22.2 S,$r#,#u0 0ri&" *#r+

A synchronous serial port doesnt reuire startRstop bits and can


53/86

2.22.3 I2C ;u0 9 I,+r9I,+gr&+ Cir$ui+ ;u0 Pi"i*0

The 6#% bus is a simple # wire serial interface developed by 2hilips. 6t was developed for ; bit

applications and is widely used in consumer electronics, automotive and industrial applications. 6n

addition to microcontrollers, several peripherals also exist that support the 6#% bus. The 6#% bus is a two

line, multi:master, multi:slave networ" 6nterface with collision detection. Ep to 1#; devices can exist olts@ L .458)8#)> on an ;:bit R ) >olt system.

2.22.( Pu"0 i+ '#u"&+#r


54/86

2.22.- Pu"0 &$$u'u"&+#r

A pulse accumulator is an event counter. $ach pulse increments the pulse accumulator register,

recording the number of times this event has occurred.

2.22./ I,*u+ C&*+ur

6nput %apture can measure external freuencies or time intervals by copying the value from a free

running timer into a register when an external event occurs.

2.22.7 C#'*&r&+#r


55/86

if it needs servicing. The peripheral sets a flag when it has data ready for transferring to the

controller, which the controller notices on its next poll.

2.22.2 I,+rru*+0

ather than have the microcontroller continually polling Z that is, as"ing peripherals

?timers R EAT7 R AR0s R external components@ whether they have any data available ?and

finding most of the time they do not@, a more efficient method is to have the peripherals tell

the controller when they have data ready. The controller can be carrying out its

normal function, only responding to peripherals when there is data to respond to. $+#r I,+rru*+0

7imple ?non:vectored@ interrupts is one of the simplest interrupt schemes there is ?7imple L less

silicon L more software L slower@. Whenever there is an interrupt, the program counter ?2%@

branches to one specific address .At this address, the system designer needs to chec" the

interrupts ?one at a time@ to see which peripheral has caused the interrupt to occur. This can

be very slow : and the time between the interrupt happening and the time the service routine

))


56/86

is entered, depends on how the system designer sets up their ran"ing 6n


57/86

and Accumulate@. The number of data bits a 072 can multiply and Accumulate will determine

the dynamic range ?and therefore the application@.

2.22./ C"#$% M#,i+#r

A cloc" monitor can shut the microcontroller down ?by holding the microcontroller in reset@ if the

input cloc" is too slow. This can usually be turned on or off under software control.

2.22.7 R0i,+ *r#gr&' "#&r

/oads a program by 6nitiali+ing programRdata memory from either serial or parallel port.%onvenient for prototyping or trying out new features, eliminates the eraseRburnRprogram cycle

typical with $2


58/86

tangible stimuli. This brea"through product is dubbed the *6/:W


59/86

C&*+r 3

SOFTARE REUIREMENT

)4


60/86


61/86

/%0 module initiali+ation.

6n %ode >ision A> we write the reuired coding of our proect. The steps involved in this process

are explained below=:

3.2 #r%i,g i+ *r#$+0!: The proect groups the source file?s@ and compiler setting that we

use for a building a particular program.

3.3 19 Cr&+i,g & N Pr#$+! 9 We can create a new proect using the Fi" N menu

command by pressing the specified button on the toolbar. A dialog box appears, in which we must

select Fi" T* Pr#$+ and press OKbutton.

Figur 23! Cr&+ , )i"

A dialog will open as"ing us to confirm if we would li"e to use the %odeWi+ardA> to create the

new proect.

81


62/86

Figur 24! Cr&+i,g A N Pr#$+

6f we select NO then the Cr&+ N Pr#$+ dialog window will open. We must specify the new

2roect file name and its location. The 2roect file will have the .pr extension.We can

configure the 2roect by using the Pr#$+C#,)igur menu command or by pressing the

toolbar button.

29O*,i,g &, Ei0+i,g Pr#$+!9We can open an existing proect file using the Fi" O*,

menu command. An O*,dialog window appears.

8#


63/86

C&*+r 4

MICROCONTROLLER AT 'g& 1(

8'


64/86


65/86

_ Advanced 67% Architecture

Z 1'1 2owerful 6nstructions Z *ost 7ingle:cloc" %ycle $xecution

Z '# x ; &eneral 2urpose Wor"ing egisters

Z !ully 7tatic


66/86

Z 2rogrammable 7erial E7AT

Z *asterR7lave 726 7erial 6nterface

Z 2rogrammable Watchdog Timer with 7eparate


67/86

4.2 Pi, D0$ri*+i#,0

Figur 25! Pi, Di&gr&' #) AT'g&1(

>CC

0igital supply voltage.

GND

85


68/86

&round.

P#r+ A PA-!PA8

2ort A serves as the analog inputs to the AR0 %onverter. 2ort A also serves as an ;:bit bi:directional

6R< port, if the AR0 %onverter is not used. 2ort pins can provide internal pull:up resistors ?selected

for each bit@. The 2ort A output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sin"

and source capability. When pins 2A3 to 2A5 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they

will source current if the internal pull:up resistors are activated. The 2ort A pins are tri:stated when a

reset condition becomes active, even if the cloc" is not running.

P#r+ B PB-!PB8

2ort - is an ;:bit bi:directional 6R< port with internal pull:up resistors ?selected for each bit@. The

2ort - output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sin" and source

capability. As inputs, 2ort - pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull:up

resistors are activated. The 2ort - pins are tri:stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if

the cloc" is not running.

P#r+ C PC-!PC8

2ort % is an ;:bit bi:directional 6R< port with internal pull:up resistors ?selected for each bit@. The

2ort % output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sin" and source

capability. As inputs, 2ort % pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull:up

resistors are activated. The 2ort % pins are tri:stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if

the cloc" is not running. 6f the GTA& interface is enabled, the pull:up resistors on pins 2%) ?T06@.

P#r+ D PD-!PD8

8;


69/86

2ort 0 is an ;:bit bi:directional 6R< port with internal pull:up resistors ?selected for each bit@. The

2ort 0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sin" and source

capability. As inputs, 2ort 0 pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull:up

resistors are activated. The 2ort 0 pins are tri:stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if

the cloc" is not running. 2ort 0 also serves the functions of various special features of the

ATmega18A.

RESET

eset 6nput. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset,

even if the cloc" is not running. The minimum pulse length is given in. 7horter pulses are not

guaranteed to generate a reset.

TAL1

6nput to the inverting


70/86


71/86


72/86

Figur 2(! S"$+ + $#'*#,,+ *r#$00

Figur 2-! Arr&,gi,g + $#'*#,,+0

S+* 3!6nserting Wires %onnect all components using the option 2lace a Wire available in the left

menu. Add each wire by clic"ing on a components pin, then dragging the wire to the pin it connects

to.

S+* 4!$dit 7chematic *a"ing changes to a schematic is simple by using standard commands such

as %opy, %ut and 2aste. earranging the components is easy by dragging them with the mouse.

Wires always stay connected to their pins, even when you move things around. $xplore for the other

options available from the left bar menu and menu bar.

5#


73/86

Figur 2/! R&rr&,gi,g + $#'*#,,+

S+* 5!aming the components double clic"ing on any component opens a dialog box. 6n

the component 60 box give uniue name to components such as 1,#... for resistors, %1,%#... for

capacitors , 01,0#.. for diodes etc. 6n the 2art 60 box, give component values.

S+* (!%hec" for errors 7elect !ile:%hec" schematic for enlist errors. 6t will pop a box with errors,

if any.

5.2 Pr#$ur )#r M&%i,g Lu+ #) Cir$ui+!9

S+*1!/in"ing schematic to 2%- 7elect the %omponent : %omponent *anager. -egin your layout

by adding the components. 7elect the parts from the %omponent *anager dialog box.

S+* 2!2osition the %omponents : 0rag each component to the desired location on your board. The

7nap to grid feature ma"es it easy to neatly align the parts.

5'


74/86

Figur 27! M&%i,g Lu+

5(


75/86

S+* 3!/in" the schematic to the 2%-. !ile : /in" schematic to the 2%- Add the Traces ?2lace a

trace@. ow add each trace by clic"ing on the pin of a component and dragging the trace to another

pin. 6f you lin" your schematic file to the 2%-, then the $xpress 2%- program highlights the

pins that should be wired together in blue by clic"ing highlight net connections.

5)


76/86

C&*+r (

PROGRAM

58


77/86

C&*+r (

PROGRAM

/*******************************************************This program was created by theCodeWizardAVR V3.17 Ea!"atio#A"tomatic $rogram %e#erator& Copyright 1''()+1, $ae! -aid"c -$ #0oTech s.r.!.http//www.hpi#0otech.com

$ro2ect Versio# ate 3/,/+14

A"thor Compa#y Comme#ts

Chip type ATmega15A$rogram type App!icatio#AVR Core C!oc6 0re"e#cy (.++++++ 8-z8emory mode! 9ma!!E:ter#a! RA8 size +ata 9tac6 size 45

*******************************************************/

;i#c!"de


78/86

de!ay@"sB1+I// 9tart the A co#ersio#AC9RADHB1


79/86

RHB+


80/86

TCCRHB+


81/86


82/86

aHread@adcB+IitoaBachI

!cd@p"tsBchIde!ay@msB1++I!cd@c!earBI

de!ay@msB1++IK e!se !cd@p"ts0B -F8TI $NRT.5H+I bHread@adcB+I

itoaBachI de!ay@msB1++I !cd@p"tsBchI de!ay@msB1++I

!cd@c!earBI de!ay@msB1++I K

Ki0B$P.+HH+ JJ $P.1HH1 JJ $P.HH+

!cd@c!earBIde!ay@msB1++I!cd@p"ts0B TE8$RATFRE 9EP9NR EVCE NPIde!ay@msB1++I

cHread@adcB+IdHc),(4I

0toaBd3chI

!cd@p"tsBchIde!ay@msB1++I

!cd@c!earBIcHread@adcB1I

!cd@c!earBIde!ay@msB1++I

i0Bd=,+

!cd@c!earBI

GHGU1I

!cd@p"ts0BTE8$ERATFRE PCREA9P%I $NRT.5H1I

de!ay@msB1++I!cd@c!earBI!cd@p"ts0BCNN>P% NPI

de!ay@msB1++I

;#


83/86


84/86

i0Bb='++

!cd@c!earBI!cd@p"ts0B%A9 >EVE> PCREA9P%I

$NRT.4H1I

bHread@adcBIitoaBbchI !cd@p"tsBchI

de!ay@msB1++I!cd@c!earBI

de!ay@msB1++IK

e!se !cd@p"ts0B %A9I $NRT.4H+I bHread@adcBI

itoaBbchI de!ay@msB1++I !cd@p"tsBchI de!ay@msB1++I


K i0B$P.+HH+ JJ $P.1HH+ JJ $P.HH+ JJ $P.3HH1


!cd@p"ts0B $N 9EP9NR EVCE NPIde!ay@msB1++I

EHread@adcB3IEH1+++)EI

itoaBEchI !cd@p"tsBchI


i0BE='++

!cd@c!earBI!cd@p"ts0B$RE99FRE >EVE> PCREA9P%I

$NRT.7H1IEHread@adcB3IEH1+++)EI

itoaBEchI !cd@p"tsBchI

de!ay@msB1++I

;(


85/86

!cd@c!earBIde!ay@msB1++IK

e!se !cd@p"ts0B $RE99FREI

$NRT.7H+I EHread@adcB3IEH1+++)EI

itoaBEchI de!ay@msB1++I !cd@p"tsBchI de!ay@msB1++I


K

K K

;)


86/86

REFRENCE

EBSITE REFRENCES

a@ www.efymag.com

b@ www.geocities.com

c@ www.microchip.com

d@ www.alldatasheets.com

e@ www.wi"ipedia.com

BOOK REFRENCES

& Mi$r#$#,+r#""r D.S.YADA>

; Mi$r#*r#$00#r Ar$i+$+ur Pr#gr&' A, A**"i$&+i#, R.S. GAONKAR

$ Digi+&" Fu,&',+&"0 THOMAS. I. FLAYD

Mi$r#$#,+r#""r E'; S0+' SAMPATH. K. >ENKATESH

Mi$r#$#,+r#""r0 T#r &, A**"i$&+i#, AQAY. >. DESSHMUKH

) E"$+r#,i$0 )#r U '&g&:i, EFY

g Digi+&" D0ig, MORRIS MANO

Mi$r#$#,+r#""r P. RAQA
http://www.efymag.com/http://www.geocities.com/http://www.microchip.com/http://www.alldatasheets.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.efymag.com/http://www.geocities.com/http://www.microchip.com/http://www.alldatasheets.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/

Report of Intelligent Patient Monitoring System - Copy

Documents