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Report No. 13174-CD
ChadCountry Environmental Strategy PaperJune 1994
Country Operations DivisionAfrica RegionSahelian Department
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Document of the World Bank
This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by
recipientsonly in the performance of their official duties. Its
contents may not otherwisebe disclosed without World Bank
authorization
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CURRENCY EQUIVALENT
Currency Unit = CFA franc (CFAF)US$1.00 = CFAF (March 31,
1994)CFAF 1 million = US$1,722.65 (March 31, 1994)
SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURE: METRIC
Metric U.S. Eguivalent
1 meter (m) = 3.28 feet (ft)1 kilometer (kim) = 0.62 miles (mi)1
square kilometer (kimn) = 0.39 square mile (sq. mi)1 hectare (ha) =
2.47 acres (a)1 metric ton (t) = 2,205 pounds Ob)1 kilogram (kg) =
2.2046 pounds (lb)
FISCAL YEAR
January 1 - December 31
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ASECNA Agence pour la S6curite de la Navigation en Afrique et a
MadagascarATETIP Agence Tchadienne d'Execution des Travaux
d'Interet PublicBCR Bureau Central du RecensementB.E.T. Bourkou,
Ennedi and TibestiBRGM Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et
MinieresBSA Bureau des Statistiques AgricolesCESP Country
Environmental strategy PaperCILONG Centre d'Information et de
Liaison pour les Organisations Non-GouvernementalesCILSS Comite
Inter-Etat de Lutte contre la Secheresse dans le SahelCNAR Centre
National d'Appui a la RechercheCNED Comite National d'Energie
DomestiqueCONACILS Correspondant national du CILSSCTA Cellule
technique d'appuiCTA/LCD CTA/Lutte Contre la DesertificationCTA/DR
CTA/Developpement RuralDIAPER Diagnostique PermanentDREM Direction
des Ressources en Eau et de la MeteorologieDRTA Direction de
Recherches et Techniques AgronomiquesDSEED Direction de la
Statistique, des Etudes Economiques et DemographiquesEPS Executive
Project SummaryESMAP Energy Sector Management and PlanningFAO (UN)
Food and Agriculture OrganizationGIS Geographic Information
SystemIGN Institut Geographique National (de France)IUCN
International Union for the Conservation of NatureMET Ministere de
l'Environnement et du TourismeNEAP National Environmental Action
PlanNGO Non-governmental organizationNRM Natural Resources
ManagementONDR Office National de D6veloppement RuralONHPV Office
National d'Hydraulique Pastorale VillageoiseORSTOM Organisation de
Recherche Scientifique et Technique de l'Outre-MerPADS Programme
d'Actions Sociales pour le DdveloppementPNLCD Plan National de
Lutte Contre la DesertificationPNE Projet National d'ElevageROPANAT
Rdseau de Suivi des Paturages NaturellesSOFRECO Socidtd Frangaise
de Realisation, d'Etudes et de ConseilSONACOT Societd Nationale
Commerciale du TchadSTEE Socidtd Tchadienne d'Eau et
d'ElectricitdUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development
This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by
recipients only in the performance of theirI official duties. Its
contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank
authorization.
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PREFACE
This report is one of a series of Country Environmental Strategy
Papers prepared by World Bankstaff both for internal discussion and
to strengthen policy dialogue with borrower countries
onenvironmental issues and towards the preparation of a National
Environmental Action Plan. This reporthas been prepared by Ms. Joy
Hecht (Consultant) and has benefitted from contributions from
EmmerichM. Schebeck (Projects Adviser), Sarah Forster (Consultant,
AF5DR), Amadou B. Cisse (PrincipalCountry Officer) and Jan Bojo
(Environmental Economist). Ms. Katherine Marshall is the
DepartmentDirector.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................
vii
1. INTRODUCTION: THE CHADIAN CONTEXT ..........................
1Purposes of the CESP ....................................... 1What
is 'Environment"? ..................................... 1Criteria
for Ranking Environmental Problems ........................ 2The
Chadian Context ....................................... 2
Economy ......................................... 2Political
situation .................................... 3Demography
....................................... 3Bioclimatic zones and
associated production systems .............. 4Water resources
..................................... 5Biodiversity and wildlife
................................ 7Carrying capacity of the
environment ........................ 9
2. CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HARM ..............................
12Causes of Environmental Harm .................................
12Impacts of Resource-Based Economic Activity
........................ 13
Agriculture ........................................ 13Forestry
.......................................... 16Livestock
......................................... 18Fisheries
.......................................... 19
Urban Environment ........................................
20Water supply ....................................... 20Sewage .
......................................... 21Drainage and roads
................................... 21Solid waste
........................................ 22
3. INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY CONTEXT .23Current Organizational
Structure .23
Environment .23Agriculture .24Livestock .25Energy .25Rural water
resources .26Urban water supply .26Urban drainage and roads .27
Environmental Planning .27Introduction .27Desertification
Control (PDLCD) .28Rural Development .29Urban planning .30
Legal Structure for Environmental Protection .30General
Framework .30Land tenure .31Forest tenure and pricing .33
Non-Governmental Organizations .35
4. STRATEGIC ISSUES ................... 38
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How Can We Best Support Chad? ................................
38Why the Environment ....................................
39Strategies for Addressing Environmental Concerns
..................... 41
Integrated participatory approaches to NRM ....................
41Urban project design .................................. 43
Information Needs .................................... 43NEAP
Status and Next Steps .................................. 45
TABLES
Table 1: Evolution and structure of GDPTable 2: Population and
Population Density by PrefectureTable 3: Sustainable and Actual
Population DensitiesTable 4: Population Density by PrefectureTable
5: Tax Rates on Wood-based FuelsTable 6: Priority Ranking of
Chadian Environmental Problems
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Existing Data for Environmental ManagementAppendix
B: Documents ConsultedAppendix C: People Consulted
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CHAD
COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY PAPER
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION: THE CHADIAN CONTEXT
1. This document serves two purposes; to improve the World
Bank's understanding of environmentalissues in Chad, and to serve
as an input into the country's own environmental planning process.
Itdefines the environment broadly as an input into many sectors of
economic activity rather than as adiscrete sector, and consequently
places major emphasis on integrating environmental considerations
intosectoral projects. Several criteria determine which
environmental problems warrant attention andinvestment; the number
of people affected by the problem, the impacts on income, and the
extent towhich it is possible to resolve the problem through policy
reforms or capital investment. A fourthcriterion concerns the
protection of species, habitats, or ecosystems of unique global
importance, suchas the wintering grounds for European birds
provided by Lake Chad. Because the benefits of suchresources accrue
primarily to the international community, it is harder to justify
their protection as longas the costs of environmental protection
would be borne by the Chadians.
2. Chad is one of the poorest countries in the world, with per
capita income estimated at $US 260in 1991. The census completed in
1993 puts total population at 6,288,261 (up from 3,192,611 in
1968),of whom 1,327,570 were urban dwellers, 4,601,622 were
sedentary rural dwellers, and 359,069 werenomads. The economy is
based on the primary sector, which accounts for 35 to 40% of GDP
andprovides an income to more than 80% of the population. Livestock
and cotton provide just over 50%of the country's export earnings,
down from 77% in 1983; they are the major source of cash income
inrural areas. The recurring military and civil conflicts which
have beset the country since 1979 haveseverely hampered government
capacity to manage projects or absorb donor investments, with some
40%of government expenditures going to the military, and civil
service salaries paid irregularly.
3. Chad is conventionally divided into several broad bioclimatic
zones, exhibiting distinct agro-silvo-pastoral production systems.
Their spatial delimitation is not precise, because no clear
physicallandmarks separate one zone from another. The northern half
of the country is the Saharan and Saharo-Sahelian zones, which
include all areas with less than 400 mm of rainfall per year.
Agriculture is limitedto oasis areas, and population is sparse. The
Sahelian zone, which includes N'Djamena, receives up to600 mm of
rainfall per year. Agriculture is characterized by rainfed
cultivation of millet, sorghum,cowpeas, and peanuts, and irrigated
vegetable gardens in the wadis. While total rainfall is sufficient
toproduce adequate harvests, its spatial and temporal variability
poses significant risks. The Sudanian zonereceives from 600 to 1200
mm of rainfall. Vegetation in the northern part of this region is
characterizedby mixed dense savannah, while the south is woodland
savannah and deciduous open forest. Cultivationsystems are
primarily agricultural and agro-pastoralist, with crops including
maize, cotton, cowpeas,millet, sorghum, sesame, taro, and cotton.
The Guinean zone occupies only the southernmost tip of thecountry,
receiving more than 1200 mm of rainfall. Because this region is so
small--some suggest thatthere no longer is any Guinean zone in
Chad--it is relatively unimportant in terms of population
orproduction.
4. Chad's resource base is limited by the low level of rainfall
in most of the country. However, itdoes have a few areas of
particular importance in terms of biodiversity and wildlife. Lake
Chad is ofinternational importance as one of the few stopovers or
wintering places for migratory birds crossing theSahara. Lake Lerd
provides habitat to a species of endangered manatees, and Zakouma
National Park
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is reported to contain a large population of elephants. Although
most of the relatively humid parts of thesouthern third of the
country can probably still support more people than live there now,
in certainpockets the resource base is already severely strained;
this is particularly true with respect to fuelwoodresources around
N'Djamena and in the agricultural area around Moundou.
CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HARM
5. Natural resource degradation in Chad may be attributed to
four major factors; human populationincrease, decreased rainfall
over the past forty years, recurrent warfare and social and
cultural patternbehavior. These factors lead to changes in several
key sectors of the environment, particularlyagriculture, forestry,
livestock production, and fisheries. In agriculture, resource
pressure is likely tolead to expanded cultivation, with negative
effects on soil quality, erosion, water quality, and
eventuallywildlife through the destruction of their habitat. The
most serious impact on forest resources comes fromthe consumption
of wood as a cooking fuel and bushfires this has led to massive
destruction of forestsaround N'Djamena and, to a lesser extent,
around other cities. This threatens the energy supply to
urbanareas, leads to rapid soil erosion, and destroys wildlife
habitat. Recently, interest has grown in expandedcommercial use of
Chad's acacias for production of gum arabic; if feasible, this
would increase economicincentives for sustainable management of
those trees. In livestock production, environmental problemsarise
from grazing patterns which do not take into consideration the
complex role of livestock in pastoralproduction systems; this can
involve overgrazing, badly timed grazing, or other patterns which
do notallow natural vegetation to regenerate. Livestock production
is also linked to environmental problemsas decreasing rainfall
pushes herders towards the south, putting them in direct conflict
with agriculturalistsand agro-pastoralists for access to a limited
resource base. In the fisheries area, the apparent decreasein
stocks is probably due to overfishing, which is difficult to
regulate given the institutional climate ofthe country.
6. Chad's urban environmental problems, experienced primarily in
N'Djamena, are conceptually lesscomplex than its natural resource
management problems. The key issues relate to water,
sewers,drainage, and trash. The city has no sewage collection
system, and there is a serious danger that its watersupply may be
contaminated in the near future as a result. Urban drainage is a
significant problem duringthe rainy season, when the saturated
ground cannot absorb enough water and flooding is a problem.
Thenetwork of canals and drainage basins designed to channel
rainwater into the river is inadequate to meetthe city's needs,
creating serious hazards from standing water. There are no planned
activities to planttrees in the city and in the neighborhood. The
city also has no trash collection service; household wasteis placed
in empty lots and sometimes burned in the streets, both of which
constitute health hazards aswell. Since the country is not
industrialized and there are relatively few cars, air pollution is
not anissue, although the proposal to build an oil refinery near
N'Djamena could make it one.
INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY CONTEXT
7. Environmental problems are the responsibility of a number of
different government agencies.Until 1993 the Ministry of
Environment and Tourism was responsible for forestry, fisheries
andenvironmental protection, the Ministry of Livestock for
pastoralism, and the Ministry of Agriculture andthe National Office
for Rural Development for agriculture and extension. In 1993,
environment wasmoved into the Ministry of Agriculture, but the
staff of the new Environment Directorate still seethemselves as
quite separate from agriculture. Moreover, energy considerations
are the responsibility ofthe Ministry of Mines, Energy, and Water
Resources; thus supply side of fuelwood issues come
underenvironment while the demand side under energy. Responsibility
for urban infrastructure andenvironment is similarly split among
the municipal government, the Ministry of Public Works, and the
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parastatal water and energy company. The general picture is one
of considerable fragmentation andsectoralization; although in this
respect Chad may be little different from most Sahelian or even
westerncountries.
8. The Chadian government has undertaken two separate planning
processes related to NRM issuesand one on urban problems. One of
the NRM efforts is the preparation of the Plan Directeur de
LutteContre la Desertification (PDLCD), which focuses on natural
resources management and is under theauthority of the Director of
Forestry. The other focuses on rural development, and is under the
authorityof the Director-General of the Ministry of Agriculture.
(When the two processes began, they were notin the same ministry.)
A round table on rural development was held in December, 1993, at
which acomprehensive set of documents describing the country's
problems and proposing policy reforms,institutional restructuring,
and investment projects which could help address those problems.
Thedesertification round table is still under preparation. The
urban planning process has begun morerecently, and is expected to
provide a framework for addressing the environmental problems of
the capitalin particular.
9. The legal framework for environmental protection is weak. A
scattering of laws address forestprotection, endangered species,
and other conservation issues, and the country is a signatory to
severalinternational treaties and conventions. However, a Forestry
Code has been adopted in August 1989, butthis has not been followed
by implementation instructions. There are no pollutant discharge
regulationsand no national requirements to do environmental impact
assessments for infrastructure or constructionprojects (though most
donor agencies, which pay for the investments, do have such
requirements). Theland tenure situation is confused, with a mix of
traditional, French colonial, and modern Chadian systemsin effect.
Forest rights are also somewhat confused. According to existing law
most forest resourcesbelong to the state and a set of fees and
taxes are imposed on cut wood. A revised forest code whichallows
somewhat more village control was prepared in the late 1980s, but
it was never signed into law.Moreover, the existing regulations are
weakly enforced, if at all, so fuelwood cutting is in
practicesomewhat anarchic.
STRATEGIC ISSUES
10. A strategy for addressing environmental issues in Chad must
answer several general questions.First, what can reasonably be
accomplished given the present political climate? This clearly goes
beyondenvironmental considerations. Strategies which minimize
dependence on the civil service are likely tobe the most effective;
this is the route which many donors have gone in working in the
country. Second,how important is the environment, given the
country's extreme poverty and instability? Two argumentsmay be made
for maintaining a secondary, if not a primary focus on the
environment. In rural areas,the natural resource base is the source
of most income, so strategies whose primary goal is to
increaseincome must be rooted in sustainable resource management
practices, or their effects will be short-lived.In urban areas,
environmental problems are posing serious public health hazards,
which deserve attentionin any program oriented towards increasing
basic standards of living. Neither of these argumentsprovides much
justification for the Government of Chad or the World Bank to work
on biodiversity orwildlife conservation; fortunately, other donors
are supporting international environmental groups whichaddress
these issues. Based on the seriousness of the problems and the
feasibility of addressing them,this paper ranks environmental
problems according to their suitability for intervention. Of
highestpriority are peri-urban forestry and urban water supply and
drainage issues. Of moderate priority arefisheries management and
land degradation from agriculture or herding. Of low priority are
pollution,wildlife conservation, and urban sewerage.
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11. In rural areas, an integrated approach to environmental
issues is appropriate, incorporating theminto projects designed to
increase incomes rather than creating special environmental
projects. This willcall for an interdisciplinary and
interministerial approach to project design and implementation,
whichmay be difficult both for Chadian agencies and for the Bank.
In urban areas this will be somewhatsimpler, because environmental
improvement is not an inherent part of household production
strategies,but may be addressed more discretely without missing
important determinants of project effectiveness.An environmental
strategy should also pay particular attention to improving the
information base forresource management, incorporating data
collection and data sharing components into all projects so
asincrementally to strengthen the information available to support
decision-making by both the governmentand donor agencies.
12. The question of whether Chad needs to prepare a National
Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)has been on the table for some
time. The country has been engaged in intensive environmental
planningwork for several years. While these efforts are not,
perhaps, as complete as might be hoped, they haveinvolved a major
effort by virtually all of the government agencies and individual
civil servants whowould be involved in a NEAP. Therefore, the Bank
and other donors must not launch an effort whichin any way
duplicates the ongoing processes, nor should a NEAP be developed as
an umbrella plan whichincorporates work already underway or
completed. Instead, the Government should identify the
specificelements which are missing from the ongoing processes, and
the donor community may provide thesupport necessary to help the
government add them in, within the context of the existing
processes. Thisapproach to national environmental planning will
address the substantive needs for additional work,without
minimizing the efforts already made in this area both by government
agencies and by otherdonors.
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1. INTRODUCTION: THE CHADIAN CONTEXT
Purposes of the CESP
1.1 This document serves two purposes. The first is to improve
the World Bank's understanding ofenvironmental issues in Chad,
their place in the development process, and their implications for
Bank-financed activities in the country. Three important
considerations must be borne in mind. First, theChadian economy is
heavily dependent on the country's natural resource base.
Development activitiesmust therefore reinforce the ongoing
("sustainable") ability of the resource base to play a full role
ineconomic development. Second, development activities should not
have unintentional negative effectson the environment. Third,
insofar as possible or appropriate, specific Chadian natural
resources ofregional or global ecological importance must be
protected, even if they are not of economic importanceto Chad.
1.2 The second purpose of this document is to serve as an input
into the country's own environmentalplanning process. Given the
political situation in Chad, the preparation of a National
EnvironmentalAction Plan (NEAP) has not been actively promoted to
date. The Government is, however, developingits own approaches to
environmental issues through round tables on rural development and
environment,and through a comprehensive urban planning process,
which may be regarded as building blocks of aNEAP.1 Therefore,
while this document does not propose a strategy to address
environmental concernsas such, it does highlight technical,
economic and policy issues that will require development of a
nationalconsensus to complement the ongoing planning efforts.
What is "Environment"?
1.3 This paper views the environment in two ways. The first
concerns the use and degradation ofnatural resources, which must be
considered as a key element in human production systems.
Severallinks between production and environment are likely to be
important. The environment is not a sectorof economic activity like
agriculture or industry, nor is it a form of infrastructure like
urban sewersystems or roads. Rather, it is an input into most
productive activity. At the same time, most productionsystems have
impacts on the environment which threaten their own sustainability.
Natural resourcemanagement considerations must therefore be
integrated into economic planning rather than treated as
anafterthought to efforts to increase income.
1.4 Urban pollution issues, the second dimension of
environmental problems, show somewhatdifferent characteristics.
Some pollution is an output of industrial activity, but there is
very little industryin Chad. Most urban pollution results simply
from the byproducts of living; human waste, trash, wastewater and
so on. Another major cause of urban environmental problems is
development which blocksthe operation of natural drainage systems,
leading to the city's flooded and rutted roads. While we mightbe
able to frame these problems in terms of production systems, it
would miss their importantimplications for human health, which is
important for its own sake, and only secondarily for its impacton
production. These issues can be addressed head-on in projects
directly targeted at environmentalimprovement rather than at
ensuring the sustainability of income-generating activity.
I These are discussed in section 3.2 of this document.
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Criteria for Ranking Environmental Problems
1.5 This framework suggests several criteria for determining the
importance of differentenvironmental problems. First, we can rate
environmental considerations according to their importanceas an
input into economic activity. Thus the relative importance of
agriculture, fisheries, and forestproducts in the economy, combined
with the severity of the environmental threat to each sector,
mightsuggest in which sector environmental hazards should receive
the most immediate attention. Second, thenumber of people affected
by an environmental threat will be a determinant of the importance
of promptaction. This is, of course, related to the first
criterion, although it is not quite the same. It may lead usto
conclude, for example, that the problems created by depletion of
fuelwood around densely populatedurban areas are more urgent than
the consequences of tree- or brush-cutting in sparsely settled dune
areas,or that urban pollution in N'Djamena is more urgent than in
Sarh or Abeche. Third, our ability to dealwith environmental
problems should be a factor in allocating resources; thus efforts
might better go intopreventing pesticide pollution of rivers,
lakes, and ground water, which should be feasible through
betterpest management techniques, rather than trying to address the
decreased levels of Lake Chad, which noone knows how to combat or
even how to explain. All of these criteria may be thought of as
specialcases of a standard cost-benefit framework for allocating
environmental protection resources. However,the more specific
criteria can provide useful rules of thumb, since cost benefit
analysis of environmentalprotection is difficult and subject at
best.
1.6 A fourth possible criterion concerns protection of
endangered species, unique ecosystems, orirreplaceable habitat
resources like the wintering grounds for European birds provided by
Lake Chad.Since the benefits of these resources accrue largely to
animals rather than humans, their protection is hardto justify in
cost-benefit terms. To the extent that humans do benefit, they are
more likely to beWesterners pleased that African wildlife thrives,
than Chadians prevented from eating that wildlife orcultivating its
habitat. Consequently, much of the pressure to protect such
resources is internationalrather than national, and the domestic
benefits could come more from public relations than from
increasedwelfare or economic health. Although this does not rule
out such problems from consideration, especiallyif the costs of
protection can be borne by the beneficiaries, it should be borne in
mind in assigningimportance to different environmental
problems.
T-he Chadian Context
1.7 Data on the physical condition of the Chadian environment
are rare.2 The poverty of the countryand instability of the
government have limited the resources devoted to routine data
collection on theenvironment. Economic data which show how the
environment is used and the pressures likely to beplaced on it in
the future are similarly weak. In contrast, the Government of Chad
carried out its firstcensus of population in April 1993, which has
already produced some provisional data and promises tobe a source
of a great deal of interesting information in the future. This
section describes various aspectsof the Chadian context, based on
the limited information available.
Economy
Chad is one of the poorest countries in the world, with per
capita income estimated at $US 260in 1991. Although economic data
on Chad are thin and unreliable, we do know that the economy
isbased on the primary sector, which accounts for 35 to 40% of GDP
and provides an income to more than80% of the population (see table
below). Livestock and cotton provide just over 50% of the
country's
2 Appendix A provides a summary of the major sources of data
useful for enviromnental management.
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export earnings, down from 77% in 1983, and are the major source
of cash income in rural areas(CTA/RD vol. 1 p. iv). The country's
national income accounts data do
Table 1: Evolution and structure of GDP (in $US 106 1990)
l 1983 1990 1993 2000
Primary sector 360.7 396.4 482.1 614.3Agriculture 182.1 210.7
282.1 364.3Cotton 35.7 42.9 46.4 67.9Livestock 142.9 142.9 153.6
185.7
Secondary sector 139.3 239.3 242.9 325.0Share of cotton 28.6
32.1 35.7 50.0
Tertiary sector 278.6 453.6 478.6 592.9
GDP at factor prices 778.6 1,089.3 1,203.6 1,532.1
Indirect taxes 17.9 67.9 82.1 132.1GDP at market prices 796.4
1,157.1 1,285.7 1,664.3Real growth rate 15.7% 0.2% 4.8% 3.4%GDP per
capita in $US 203.6 253.6 260.7 278.6
Source: CTAJDR Vol 1 p iv. Data in CFA were converted to $US at
$1 =FCFA 280.
not permit disaggregation of forestry, fisheries, or other
resource-based activity presumably accountedfor within primary
sector income, so it would be difficult to assess the importance of
each of theseactivities relative to the others in either income or
employment. This is unfortunate, since, as discussedabove, this
would provide a useful criterion for assessing the importance of
environmental degradationaffecting the different activities. The
data which are available show primary sector activity almost
stablethrough the 1980s, with some increase in 1993. This may be
attributable to the drought of the 1980s andsubsequent good
rainfall of the early 1990s. The decrease in the share of cotton as
a source of foreignexchange in the 1980s may be explained by the
50% drop in world prices in 1984-86.
Political situation
1.8 Chad's political situation is a key factor in all attempts
to work in the country. Chad experienceda civil war between 1979
and 1982, and recurring outbreaks of violence until 1992. Since
1993 ademocratic transition process has been ongoing, and there is
hope that regular elections will be held bylate 1994 or early 1995.
However, one result of the civil disturbances has been a very weak
institutionaland administrative capacity in the public sector. This
has had far-reaching implications for the abilityof the
administration to undertake development work, much less protect the
environment.Because of this situation, many donor agencies are
choosing to minimize their reliance on civil servantsin the
implementation of their programs.
Demography
1.9 The completion of Chad's first population census in April
1993 offers some hope of soon havinga much clearer picture of
demographic issues than has ever been available before. The
provisionalreport, issued in July 1993 (Bureau Central du
Recensement, 1993), puts total population at 6,288,261,
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of whom 1,327,570 were urban dwellers, 4,601,622 were sedentary
rural dwellers, and 359,069 werenomads. This is considerably higher
than the estimates available prior to the census; the World
Bank(June, 1992) put total population at 5.4 million. Table 2 below
gives a breakdown of population andpopulation density by
prefecture, as provided in the provisional census report. The
report primarilyprovides data on the urban, sedentary, and nomadic
population of each sub-prefecture. Further dataseries will cover
age group breakdowns, birth rates and fertility, mortality,
migration patterns, education,economic activity, household
structure, and housing.
Table 2: Population and Population Density by Prefecture
Prefecture Area in Population Population Populationin km2.(a)
1968 (a) 1993 (b) Density
Batha 88,800 260,000 288,074 3.24BET 600,350 72,000 70,603
0.12Biltine 46,850 114,028 187,115 3.99Chari Baguirmi except
N'Djamena 82,910 347,752 722,606 8.72
N'Djamena 126,483 529,555Gu6ra 58,950 133,332 306,653 5.20Kanem
114,520 162,777 280,804 2.45Lac 22,320 92,801 248,226 11.12Logone
Occidental 8,695 193,623 455,140 52.35Logone Oriental 28,035
250,233 440,342 15.71Mayo Kebbi 30,105 448,645 820,249
27.25Moyen-Cbari 45,180 333,117 744,741 16.48Ouaddai 76,240 310,000
549,932 7.21Salamat 63,000 100,000 185,981 2.95Tandjil6 18,045
247,820 458,240 25.39
TOTAL 1,284,000 3,192,611 6,288,261
(a) Area and population estimates from CTA/DR, June 1993.(b)
From Bureau Central du Recensement (1993), Tables i and 1.
Bioclimatic zones and associated production systems
1.10 Chad is conventionally divided into several broad
bioclimatic zones, based on weather, dominanttree or shrub species,
vegetative associations, and soil characteristics. These zones tend
to exhibit distinctagro-silvo-pastoral production systems. Their
spatial delimitation is not precise, because no clear
physicallandmarks separate one zone from another. Moreover,
climatic change and human interventions haveled to changes in
Chad's vegetation patterns, so the extensive work on vegetation
classificationsundertaken in the 1960s (see Pias, 1970) is only
partially valid now. There is no routine monitoring ofnatural
vegetation, so it is not possible accurately to describe trends in
vegetative cover which would beimportant indicators of
environmental risks.3 Despite these caveats, the existing
information doesprovide a useful way to frame a discussion of
Chadian environment and production systems. Theclassification
described here is based on Kindler (1989) and Keith and Plowes
(1993).
1.11 The northern half of the country is the Saharan and
Saharo-Sahelian zones, which include all areaswith less than 400 mm
of rainfall per year. This comprises the prefectures of Borkou,
Ennedi, and
3 For more detailed descriptive information about the natural
vegetation of Chad, see Pias (1970) and Louis Berger(1988 and
1989).
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Tibesti (the B.E.T.), and northern parts of Kanem, Batha, and
Biltine. The area under 50 mm of rainfallper year is desert, with
unstable, unproductive soils. The area from 50 to 200 mm of
rainfall is sub-desert steppe, with rainfall occurring in July and
August. The Saharo-Sahelian zone, with rainfall up to400 mm, is
characterized by sand dunes, sandy plains, and large depressions.
The sparse humanpopulation of this region depends on oasis and wadi
cultivation and herding of small ruminants, cattle,and camels.
About 90% of the agricultural systems involve date production
relying on shallow groundwater sources. This offers low yields and
poses a risk of salinization. The other 10% is organized ina
complex system in which dates are cultivated in the oases, with
irrigated vegetables and other cropsplanted beneath the trees. This
offers higher yields, and can satisfy most food needs.
1.12 The Sahelian zone receives up to 600 mm of rainfall per
year. This zone, which includesN'Djamena, has a four-month rainy
season from June to September. Natural vegetation is thorny
opensavannah, including the acacias which are a source of
potentially commercializable gum arabic.Agriculture is
characterized by extensive rainfed cultivation of millet, sorghum,
cowpeas, and peanuts,and irrigated vegetable gardens in the wadis.
Onions and tomatoes are important cash crops, sold as faraway as
Cameroon and Nigeria. While total rainfall is sufficient to produce
adequate harvests, its spatialand temporal variability poses
significant risks. Farmers reduce the risk of localized drought
bycultivating fields spread out as far as five or more kilometers
from their homes. To protect themselvesagainst low rainfall or
great temporal variability, they cultivate only soils with high
infiltration rateswhich will absorb the rain which does fall.
Transhumant herding is also of great importance in this zone,with
herds moved towards more humid zones in the south during the dry
season and back to the Sahelianzone in the rainy season.
Consequently, fluctuations in rainfall in the Sahelian zone have
significantimpacts on areas further south, as herders change their
migratory patterns in search of pastoral resources.
1.13 The Sudanian zone receives from 600 to 1200 mm of rainfall.
(A more detailed classificationconsiders the areas from 600 to 800
mm to be Sahelo-Sudanian, from 800 to 1000 to be Guineo-Sudanian,
and from 1000 to 1200 to be Sudano-Guinean; see Keith and Plowes
(1993)). Vegetation inthe northern part of this region, where the
rainy season lasts from four to six months, is characterizedby
mixed dense savannah. The southernmost part of the zone is woodland
savannah and deciduous openforest. This part of the country is
primarily agricultural and agro-pastoralist. Important rainfed
cropsinclude maize, cotton, cowpeas, millet, sorghum, sesame, and
taro. Cotton is the major cash crop, withCotonTchad, the government
cotton marketing organization, providing chemical inputs and
purchasingthe output. Riparian floodplains are important for
agriculture in this region, and also serve as nurserysites for fish
and a food source for water birds. Irrigated perimeters along the
Logone and Chari Riversare also important in the cultivation of
rice and other crops. The Sudanian zone is the most
denselypopulated region of the country, particularly around the
city of Moundou.
1.14 The Guinean zone occupies only the southernmost tip of the
country, receiving more than 1200mm of rainfall which may fall
during 8 months of the year. Its vegetation is characterized by
deciduousdense forest. Because this region is so small--some
suggest that there no longer is any Guinean zone inChad--it is
relatively unimportant in terms of population or production.
Water resources
1.15 Rainfall in Chad ranges from less than 50 mm per year in
the Sahara to as high as 1300 mm inthe Guinean zone in the
south-west corner of the country. There is a single rainy season
centered in thesummer, which is as short as two months in the north
or as long as eight in the south. Variability ofrainfall is very
great, especially in northern areas of low precipitation.
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1.16 Meteorological data are among the best routinely collected
time series data, due to support fromthe AGRHYMET project which in
the 1970s expanded and strengthened the network of weather
stationsbegun under colonial rule. These data show that there has
been a clear decline in average annual rainfallthroughout the
country over the past thirty years. For example, median average
rainfall in N'Djamenawas over 600 mm between 1950 and 1967, but
under 450mm between 1968 and 1985. The 100 mmisohyet averaged about
200 km. north of Lake Chad between 1950 and 1967, but fewer than 50
km fromthe lake after 1968.' Both the variability of the rainfall
and the drop over the past thirty years have beengreater in
northern parts of the country than in the south. The increased
variability, in particular, hasprofound implications for production
strategies and for natural resource degradation. Whether
thesechanges are evidence of long-term climate change or of
medium-term fluctuations which may be expectedto reverse themselves
soon is unknown. Either way, however, declines in rainfall have
hurt agriculturalproductivity and forced rural dwellers to change
their production systems in order to maintain theirincomes.
1.17 Chad is part of the Lake Chad basin, a large area which
includes parts of Niger, Nigeria,Cameroon, Central African
Republic, and the Sudan. The lake is the northernmost surface
waterresource in the country; further north, low rainfall, high
rates of evaporation, and high soil infiltrationrates keep
permanent surface water from accumulating. Two major Chadian rivers
flow into the lake,the Logone and the Chari. The waters of the
Chari arise in Central African Republic and southeasternChad. The
upper catchment of the Logone is in Central African Republic and
Cameroon. The Logonejoins the Chari just downstream from N'Djamena.
The Batha River, which flows into Lake Fitri, is theonly other
permanent river in the country.
1.18 Chad has a network of 58 hydrological monitoring stations
which track flow and water levels onthe country's major rivers.
These show a wide variation in flows. At the N'Djamena station on
theChari, the low (1984/5) was 213 m3 per second, the median
(1942/43) 1030, and the high (1955/56)1720. The flow of the river
shows a steady decline from the 1950s to the 1980s. Kindler (1989)
tracksthe standard deviation of average flow at N'Djamena relative
to the 40-year mean. They find that allreadings but one were 0.5 to
2.0 standard deviations above the mean prior to 1972, whereas all
readingsbut one were 1 to 2 standard deviations below it after that
year.5 The variation in level and flow of therivers is determined
primarily by rainfall; thus these observed decreases are consistent
with rainfalltrends.
1.19 Lake Chad is the country's most important surface water
resource. As recently as 50,000 yearsago, it covered almost all of
the present country of Chad, with water at a depth of 400 meters
and asurface area of 800,000 km2. 6,000 years ago it still covered
300,000 km2, and was 20 meters deepwhere N'Djamena is now sited.
Thus the decline of the lake has been a long-term phenomenon. In
morerecent history, it has ranged from a high of 26,000 km2 in 1962
to a low of 1,653 km2 in 1985. Itsmaximum depth is only a few
meters; the extremely flat topography of the region means that a
slightincrease in depth is associated with a very large increase in
surface area.6 The overall decline of the lakeis clearly due to
very long-term evolution of the environment rather than human
intervention. Recently,however, this decline combined with drought
has had severe implications for production systems whichdepend on
the lake, particular agricultural and fishing activity in the Kanem
and north of N'Djamena.The 1973 drought caused the lake to divide
into two pools separated by a ridge. When divided, the level
4 Kindler (1989), p. 20.
5 Kindler (1989), pp. 55-59.
6 Keith and Plowes, 1993, pp. 13-14.
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of the north pool dropped quickly, as the rivers flow into the
southern pool. A thick wall of vegetationgrew on the ridge, further
hindering the flow of water between the two pools. With increased
rainfallin the mid-1980s, the two pools merged again; however this
could occur again if rainfall dropped.
1.20 The groundwater resources of Chad are not fully
understood.' The country's principal aquifersare in a layer known
as the Chad Formation, which is divided into three zones known as
the Quaternarydeposits, Lower Pliocene, and Continental Terminal.
The Quarternary deposits range in thickness from30 to 100 meters,
and contain the phreatic aquifer recharged primarily through
infiltration from streamsand rivers. The top of Lower Pliocene
varies from a depth of 150 to 400 meters, and its total area
isunknown. Sketchy data suggest that the volume of natural recharge
of these two aquifers is relativelylimited in comparison with
surface runoff, although the total usable volume is expected to
meet demandwithout problem for the foreseeable future.' The
Continental Terminal, at a depth between 450 and 620meters, covers
parts of Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Chad. The lack of data makes
it difficult toassess whether human use poses a risk of lowering
the water table; however there is concern aboutreserving
groundwater in average rainfall years to ensure that it will be
available in case of drought.
1.21 The quality of the ground water is apparently not a problem
in rural areas, but it is a seriousconcern in N'Djam6na. The city
gets its water from twelve wells which tap into the Quarternary
deposit.A semi-permeable layer of sandy clay some 20 meters thick
separates the phreatic aquifer from theQuarternary. The city does
not have any sewage or trash collection, so all wastes are left on
the surfaceor in latrines. Polluted runoff can therefore filter
into the phreatic aquifer. Not enough is known aboutthe
permeability of the clay separating the two aquifers to assess this
problem definitively, but there isa significant possibility that
the city's drinking water supply could be polluted by its own
wastes, if notnow then in the future.
1.22 No data are currently collected on the quality of surface
water, so there is no way to assesswhether urban or agricultural
pollution is affecting the rivers or Lake Chad. The Office
Nationald'Hydraulique Pastorale Villageoise (ONHPV), which is
responsible for village wells, analyses well waterquality upon
request, but it does not monitor regularly to detect changes in
ground water quality.
Biodiversity and wildlife
1.23 Chad's wilderness, lakes, and wetlands once provided
habitat for a rich array of indigenous andmigratory mammals and
birds. In recent years these resources have been depleted by
populationpressure, drought, poaching, and the inability of the
government to implement and enforce an effectiveconservation
strategy. As everywhere, quantitative data on the extent of these
resources or their declinedo not exist, so our discussion must be
based on visual observations by researchers and
governmentofficials.
1.24 Lake Chad is one of the country's key resources for
protecting birds and aquatic life. It supportsa population of about
130 species of fish, feeding on its rich supply of phytoplankton
and zooplankton.In the past the lake also supported hippopotami,
two species of otter, crocodiles, and other largemammals and
reptiles. These species are assumed to be endangered, but there is
no firm evidence about
7 Information on groundwater comes from Kindler (1989), pp.
27-31; their assessment is based on BRGM, 1987,Actualisation des
connaissances sur Ics ressources en eau souterraine de la
Republique du Tchad. 87 TCD 246Eau. (Orleans, France: Bureau de
Recherches Geologiques et Minieres)
For the latter judgment, see IWACO (1990), p. 10.
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their current status. The lake's birds are perhaps its most
important resource, and the one most at riskfrom the lake's drop.
One study recorded 230 species of birds, of which 76 were
palearctic migrants,on or around the lake in 1967. A 1984 aerial
survey observed over 700,000 waterfowl, accounting forhalf the
population of West Africa. A number of species listed
internationally as endangered are knownto rest on Lake Chad. Many
of these birds would not have alternate breeding or wintering
grounds ifthe lake were further degraded or polluted.9 The decline
in the lake level and size cannot be controlled;however there is
also a serious risk of pollution with agrochemicals, organic
matter, or sediments. Suchpollution would harm the plankton and
submerged vegetation on which the lake's ecosystem depends,with
possibly devastating effects on species higher in the food chain.
Effective regulation of river andlake shore activities and the use
of agricultural inputs should be considered to prevent this
danger.
1.25 Lakes Ler6 and Trene, on the Mayo Kebbi River in the south
western corner of the country, areof interest for several reasons.
The swamps which drain into the Mayo-Kebbi and Logone Rivers
exhibita unique reversible drainage pattern, which means that their
waters can flow into either the Chad basinor the Niger River.
Consequently, these two lakes show a mix of Niger River and Chad
basin fishspecies, constituting a totally unique ecosystem. Lake
Lere also sustains a population of fresh-watermanatees unknown
elsewhere in Africa. This population is estimated at 100 to 150,
but they are rarelyseen, so little is known for sure about their
numbers. Decreases in the water quality of the lake wouldharm their
habitat and place their survival in greater question than it
already is.
1.26 Several other lakes also provide important habitat for
birds and fish. Lake Fitri, in the south ofBatha prefecture, has
ranged in area in recent years from nothing at all to 1300 krm2. It
dried completelyafter the 1973 and 1984 droughts. One interesting
feature of Lake Fitri is a population of white pelicanswhich use it
as fishing grounds. They nest atop a 300 meter granite peak easily
visible from the Bitkine-Bokoro road, flying some 120 km to the
lake to feed.'° The lake is relatively inaccessible by land,being
surrounded by extensive clay soils that flood during the rainy
season and remain muddy in the dryseason; this could protect it
against some human-caused degradation. It has been designated as
abiosphere reserve, and a development and conservation plan was
proposed to the government; howeverbecause of the current situation
in Chad, the plan's funders retracted their offer of support. Lake
Iro inthe Salamat is protected by the poor road network in the
prefecture, and is one of the country's mostpristine lakes. For
this reason, it too has been suggested as a biosphere reserve. A
few lakes in theB.E.T. could be of interest in terms of
biodiversity. Situated some 220 km. northeast of Faya Largeau,they
are fed by underground aquifers. Since they are inaccessible by
road or air, they are unlikely to bethreatened by human activity,
nor is much known about them.
1.27 Chad's most important terrestrial reserve is Zakouma
National Park in the Salamat, establishedin 1963. Because of its
isolated location and sparse human population, both the vegetation
and thewildlife of this park have been somewhat less affected by
the degradation which have occurred elsewherein the country. The
park is composed of grassy floodplains interspersed with Sahelian
savannah. It isreported to contain some 1500 elephants, as well as
buffalo, giraffes, waterbucks, topis, lions, leopards,and other
large mammals." It is surrounded by a large faunal reserve, the
Bahr Salamat, which servesas a buffer zone for the park.
9 Keith and Plowes, pp. 14, 17, 25.
10 Keith and Plowes, p. 16, visual observation by the
author.
Keith and Plowes 1993, p. E30.
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1.28 Manda National Park, near Sarh on the road to Guelengdeng,
was established in 1965 to protectthe giant eland. Despite its
location on the road a short drive from an important city, a visit
in winter1993 showed the park relatively little encroached on by
neighboring populations. Some cattle weregrazing within park
boundaries, but forests had not been cleared for cultivation.
Although all of the largemammals and ostrich are gone, presumably
to poaching during the recent wars, enough of their habitatremains
that the park could be a good candidate for rehabilitation.
1.29 Chad's faunal reserves used to provide habitat for a number
of other mammal species which arenow seriously endangered in that
country, if not globally. A recent list of endangered species lists
theblack rhinoceros, the addax, the scimitar-horned oryx, and the
giant eland, all of which are consideredlikely to be extinct in
Chad. Species of which a few survivors may remain include the dama
gazelle, theslender-horned gazelle, the sitatunga, the cheetah, the
leopard, the wild dog, the manatee, the barbarysheep, and the wild
ass. Five species of bustards are also endangered, in part because
they are widelyhunted and breed slowly. Some other large animals
still may be found in Chad, but they are rare orthreatened; these
include elephants, hippopotami, giraffes, lions, ostriches,
crocodiles, desert tortoises,and so on. In addition to these, the
wadis and lakes of the B.E.T. are reported to sustain 16
endemicspecies of fish which may only exist in these relic bodies
of water. Drought, rather than human pressure,may be the major
threat to these species."2
Carryinz capacity of the environment
1.30 Increased population combines with decreased rainfall to
place pressure on the carrying capacityof the natural resource
base. Although carrying capacity studies of Chad in particular do
not exist, theestimates in a World Bank study of desertification in
the Sahel (World Bank, 1985) can suggest themagnitude of the
problem in Chad. The study estimates the density of population
which could besupported from crops and livestock managed with
traditional production systems in each climatologicalzone of the
Sahel. In each zone some land is best suited to cultivation and
other land to grazing, so thesetwo figures can be added together to
arrive at a total sustainable population density. The study
alsoestimates the density of population which could sustainably
meet its own fuelwood need from availableforest resources, a second
indicator of carrying capacity. These two numbers are then compared
withactual population densities. Combining these data with the new
Chad population data gives the veryapproximate results shown in the
table below.'3
12 The list of endangered species from which this information
was obtained was prepared by Darrel Plowes in 1993,
based on his extensive ongoing work on the natural resources of
Chad, Sudan, and other countries in the region.It is annexed to
Keith and Plowes, 1993.
13 'Very approximate' because the assignment of political
jurisdictions to bioclimatic zones, necessary to
calculatepopulation densities, is imprecise at best. Based on the
map of administrative boundaries in the provisionalcensus document
and the map of bioclimatic zones in Kindler (1989), p. 13, the
author has classified prefecturesinto zones as follows:
Sahelian and Sahelo-Saharan B.E.T.Sahelian Batha, Biltine,
Kanem, LacSahelo-Sudanian Chari-Baguirmi, North Guera,
OuaddaiSudano-Sahelian and Sudanian South Guera, North Mayo-Kebbi,
North SalamatSudano-Guinean and Guinean Logone Occidental, Logone
Oriental, South Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen
Chari, South Salamat, Tandjile
For prefectures divided across two bioclimatic zones (Guera,
Mayo-Kebbi, Salamat), half of the population and(continued...)
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Table 3: Sustainable and Actual Population Densities
SUSTAINABLE POPULATION DENSITY (per km) ACTUAL POP. DENSITY
ZONE: Crops Livestock Sum Fuelwood Rural Total
Saharan and 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.09 0.12Sahelo-Saharan
Sahelian 5.0 2.0 7.0 1.0 3.34 3.69
Sahelo-Sudanian 10.0 5.0 15.0 1> 6.67 aV
Sudano-Sahelian & 15.0 7.0 22.0 20.0 7.53 8.63Sudanian
Sudano-Guinean 25.0 10.0 35.0 20.0 14.80 17.76and Guinean
1.31 This table suggests that at present population density is
below the average carrying capacity ofeach bioclimatic zone for
food production, but that fuelwood supply has already become a
problem in theSahelo-Sudanian zone and north of it. However, a
number of caveats must be borne in mind. On the'demand" side, the
population figures do not tell us anything about how many people do
not, in fact,depend on agriculture or livestock for their
livelihood or food supply. Consequently, these resultsexaggerate
the number of people being supported by the available food supply.
This is consistent withthe general impression that the pressure on
the Chadian resource base is not as bad as elsewhere in theSahel.
By contrast, the desertification study shows that in West Africa as
a whole, population densityexceeds food supply in the Sahelian zone
and fuelwood demand exceeds supply for both the Sahelian andthe
Sudanian zones.
1.32 Even taking into account population growth, it will be 22
years before any region exceeds itstheoretical ability to produce
food. The initial 1993 census publication does not estimate the
populationgrowth rates, but earlier estimates put it at about 2.6%
per year.'4 If average population density growsat the same rate as
population, the only imminent problem will be in meeting fuelwood
needs in theSudano-Guinean and Guinean zone, where carrying
capacity will be reached in 5 years. The Sahelo-Sudanian zone will
reach food production capacity in 22 years, the Sahelian in 25, the
Sudano-Guineanin 27, and the others in more than 30 years. This
suggests that theoretical carrying capacity for foodproduction is
not a serious problem in Chad, though energy supply is.
1.33 On the other hand, on the resource "supply" side, these
results do not factor in recurrent droughtswhich substantially
reduce carrying capacity. The variability of rainfall, and hence of
agricultural yieldsand natural vegetation, means that worst case
conditions may be more appropriate than average conditionsfor
estimating carrying capacity of the resource base. The World Bank
study does not indicate whetherits estimates are based on average
or worst case conditions; assuming they are based on averages,
theymay significantly overestimate carrying capacities.
...continued)half the area was assigned to each zone for the
purposes of these calculations. This probably inflates
thepopulation density of the northern zone and deflates the density
of the southern zone.
14 World Development Report, 1993, p. 288.
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Table 4: Population Density by Prefecture
PREFECTURE Rural Pop. Overall Pop.Density Density
Batha 2.84 3.24
BET 0.09 0.12
Biltine 3.66 3.99
Chari Baguirmi 7.81 8.72
Guera 4.46 5.20
Kanem 2.18 2.45
Lac 10.59 11.12
Logone Occidental 38.64 52.35
Logone Oriental 14.08 15.71
Mayo Kebbi 24.12 27.25
Moyen-Chari 13.17 16.48
Ouaddai 6.28 7.21
Salamat 2.49 2.95
Tandjile 22.22 25.39
1.34 These results may also mask more localized demand for
natural resources. Table 4 shows ruraland total population
densities by prefecture, from the 1993 census. In certain
prefectures, populationdensities are well above estimated carrying
capacities. For fuelwood, the overall population density (ruraland
urban) is the relevant indicator, since the fuelwood of a given
region must support both the urbanand the rural population. By this
indicator, Tandjile, Mayo-Kebbi, and Logone Occidental, all in
theSudano-Guinean zone, are exceeding their capacity, the last
prefecture by a huge amount. Perhaps lesssurprisingly, all of the
prefectures of the Sahelian zone (Kanem, Lac, Batha, and Biltine)
are exceedingtheir sustainable fuelwood supply. In terms of food
supply, it is less clear whether rural or overallpopulation density
is the appropriate indicator. This depends on the extent to which
urban populationsdepend on food from their immediate hinterlands
rather than on imported food. In large cities and nearthe borders,
imports probably play a larger role than in small cities. Even
using the rural populationindicator, however, Logone Occidental has
exceeded its ability to feed its population sustainably,suggesting
that this may be the area for greatest concern about resource
degradation. The sparselypopulated Salamat is in the same
ecological zone, but is far below its carrying capacity, which
accountsfor the zone as a whole not showing a deficit.
1.35 These indicators are obviously crude, and should only be
taken as broadly indicative of theprobable location of the most
serious resource degradation problems. They do suggest, however,
apossible strategy for future environmental monitoring which could
identify areas to which natural resourcemanagement efforts should
be targeted.
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2. CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HARM
2.1 The environmental situation of any country evolves in a
complex web of interrelated causes andeffects which link
demographic growth, economic growth, political development, and
exogenousenvironmental change. We can frame the issue in terms of
several different questions. One approachfocuses on how the natural
and physical environment is changing; water pollution, soil
erosion, duneencroachment, species extinction, etc. Another focuses
on ultimate causes of those changes, such aspopulation growth or
decreased rainfall. A third is between the first two; it
concentrates on sectors ofeconomic activity such as agriculture and
forestry which are particularly resource-dependent and have
thegreatest potential to harm the environment.
2.2 This chapter uses a combination of these approaches. It
begins by discussing "ultimate" causesof environmental harm, those
which are not both cause and effect. It then goes on to consider
how thosefactors are played out in four sectors of economic
activity; agriculture, herding, forestry, and fisheries.Finally, it
considers the major urban environmental issues, which are not as
closely linked to economicactivity.
Causes of Environmental Harm
2.3 Several distinct factors affect the state of the environment
in Chad. First is population growth,which, as everywhere in the
world, increases the pressure placed on land, forests, water
supply, andfisheries to meet human needs for food, fuel, and
shelter. This is clearly a human-generated problem,although it is
not clear how much impact public policy could have on it,
especially in a country facedwith management and administrative
problems as bad as Chad's. In a country as resource-dependent
asChad, the effects of population growth are more apparent than in
more industrialized countries. On theother hand, in a
resource-dependent country like Chad the meaning of sustainable
development is alsomore apparent; as population growth increases
pressure on the resources, they will not be able to providethe
food, fuel, and shelter needed by those people. Production systems
will have to change if people areto survive.
2.4 The population problem is clearly at the root, not only of
Chad's environmental problems, butof most environmental concerns
worldwide. Moreover, addressing population problems is essential
bothto protect the environment and to address economic and social
development concerns more broadly. TheBank is working on these
issues through support for public health, nutrition, and family
planning servicesat the central and regional levels. It is also
giving much attention to the links between population
andenvironment through the Nexus studies which have been underway
for several years. However, strategiesto slow population growth are
not explicitly addressed in this paper. While population problems
underlyenvironmental degradation, the solutions to population
problems involve institutions, specialists, andtechniques which are
not directly connected with environmental protection. As the Nexus
studies havemade clear, this set of problems must be approached
from both ends - from the family planning side todeal with
underlying causes, and from the environmental side to deal with the
consequences. Thisstrategy paper deals only with the latter.
2.5 Overall population growth is associated with increased
rural-urban migration. Although migrationdata from the 1993 have
not yet been published, the population of N'Djamena grew twice as
fast between1968 and 1993 as the country as a whole, and the ratio
of men to women in the city's population is now
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almost 6 to 5.'5 Both of these indicators suggest that rural
urban migration, primarily of men searchingwork, is an important
force in Chad. This places a great strain on urban infrastructure
and threatens theurban environment.
2.6 A second cause of environmental degradation in Chad is
decreased rainfall. As the statistics citedabove show, average
rainfall in Chad, as throughout the Sahel, has declined
significantly in the past thirtyyears. Whether this indicates
long-term climatic change, or can be entirely attributed to
medium-termcycles, is not clear from available data. Although human
activities such as deforestation might affectrainfall, by and large
this change must be viewed as exogenous, and cannot be influenced
by public policyor human action. Decreased rainfall leads to
degradation of natural vegetation and reduces agriculturalyields.
In addition, it forces some of the nomadic population southward in
search of grazing land fortheir herds. Thus herders who used to
move between the Saharan and Sahelian zones now travel furthersouth
in the dry season, and some do not return to the north at all. This
further increases pressure onthe resource base in areas of
relatively high rainfall, as well as causing competition and direct
conflictbetween the nomads and the sedentary populations of the
south.
2.7 A third factor affecting Chad's environment is the political
situation. This affects the environmentboth directly and
indirectly. While direct impacts, such as poaching by soldiers,
devastates wildlifepopulations, indirect impacts are probably even
more detrimental to the environment. Because of the
civildisturbances, the administration has become ineffectual. Civil
servants have only been paid intermittentlyin the past few years,
and no funds are available for public sector operating costs. Those
directlyresponsible for protecting environmental resources - the
wildlife and forest agents - must either consumethe resources they
are charged with protecting or take bribes from others in order to
make ends meet.They are not armed, moreover, and have no way to
protect those resources against armed soldiers whoin periods of
instability have had the run of the countryside. In this state of
uncertainty, very fewChadians would argue that the environment is a
top priority, especially environmental issues which donot have a
direct bearing on the short-term welfare of the population.
Impacts of Resource-Based Economic Activity
2.8 While conventional wisdom holds that degradation of the
natural resource base is less serious inChad than elsewhere in the
Sahel, it is already posing some significant problems. These may be
expectedto grow as population increases, especially if the trend to
decreased rainfall continues. This sectionconsiders how these
forces affect the environment through four major sectors of
economic activity;agriculture, forestry, livestock, and
fisheries."6
Agriculture
2.9 Decreased rainfall and demand for increased agricultural
output can affect agricultural productionin several ways. Output
can be increased (or maintained in the face of reduced rainfall)
throughshortened fallow cycles, expansion onto previous
uncultivated land, changed soil management or crop
15 Bureau Central du Recensement 1993, table 4
16 Given the absence of empirical data on Chad, published
reports are generally based on short-term field work,visual
observation, and discussions with farmers, herders,
developmentworkers, and public officials. Importantsources
contributing to this section are Kindler (1989), Berger (1988 &
1989), and Hecht et al (1993). Theinterviews conducted in the
preparation of the last document, in which this author
participated, also contributeto this section.
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rotation practices, or, where remaining rainfall permits,
introduction of inputs such as fertilizers andpesticides. These in
turn may affect the environment in several ways.
* Shortened fallow cycles cause soil depletion which over time
will lead to decreased output. Theyalso will reduce natural
vegetation which provides grazing resources, habitat for birds and
otherwildlife, and a source of fuelwood. This will increase
pressure on the remaining naturalvegetation.
* Expansion onto currently uncultivated lands will have similar
effects, directly reducing naturalvegetation with consequences for
wildlife, grazing, and fuelwood supply. It will also mean
thatfarmers begin cropping land which is not well suited to
agriculture, assuming that they alreadycultivate the best land and
leave the rest to herds and birds. If so, the new cultivation is
likelyto lead to greater erosion and soil depletion, as well as
declining yields. Increased soil erosionwill increase sedimentation
of rivers and lakes, inhibiting the growth of aquatic vegetation
onwhich aquatic and bird species depend for habitat and food.
* Bush fires, set either to clear land for cultivation or to
stimulate growth of young plants preferredby livestock, lead to
destruction of natural vegetation, and can hasten soil erosion.
* Increased use of pesticides and fertilizers, while likely to
increase agricultural output sharply insome areas, could lead to
pollution of both ground and surface waters. The danger to
groundwater would be greatest where pesticides are used near wells;
the primary impacts would be onhuman health. The danger to surface
water would be greatest in recessional agricultural systemsor
irrigated perimeters, where chemical runoff could move very quickly
into the rivers and lakes.
2.10 Interviews conducted in the winter of 1993 in the southern
part of the country and around Abechesuggest that pressure to
increase agricultural production is likely to be met by expanding
cultivation ontocurrently uncultivated land or by shortening fallow
cycles rather than by introducing agrochemical inputs.This is the
case for several reasons. First, most farmers indicated that land
was available to expandcultivation if they should want to; this is,
in fact, their response to changes in production technology suchas
the introduction of animal traction. Some farmers also reported
that they used to leave land fallowfor longer periods than they do
now. In the Sahelian zone it was possible to observe that most
cultivationand fallow was on light, permeable soils, while small
amounts of less productive clays were also beingcultivated where
precipitation was higher or population pressure greater.
2.11 In contrast, virtually no one anticipated introducing
agrochemicals as a way to improveagricultural output. In conditions
of uncertain rainfall agrochemicals can decrease rather than
increaseexpected yields. If rain is good, output will be plentiful,
but if it is poor or erratic, the relativelyundiluted chemicals
could destroy the plants altogether and the farmer will not even
have the poor yields/he could have anticipated without the inputs.
In much of the country, therefore, agrochemicals are arather risky
investment which farmers are not likely to make.
2.12 Agrochemicals are cost-effective in agricultural systems
which rely on more secure sources ofwater. This includes
recessional agriculture"', which is widely practiced on the
floodplains of theLogone and Chari Rivers, in the Salamat, and
elsewhere in the country. Irrigated gardens and rice
17 Cultivation on flood plains as the water recedes.
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paddies found along the rivers of the Sudanian zone and in wadi
beds in the Sahelian zone are alsocandidates for introduction of
pesticides and fertilizers.
2.13 However, at present there is no private market or
distribution system for agrochemicals in Chad.They are provided by
CotonTchad as part of a fixed package of inputs for the production
of cotton, butthese inputs cannot easily be used on other crops.
Cotton is purchased from the village as a whole andthe profits
redistributed among the farmers, so individual farmers face strong
peer pressure to keep cottonyields as high as possible and not
reallocate their chemicals to other crops. Some Nigerian pesticides
aresmuggled into Chad and sold--with no labelling or
instructions--in markets near the borders withCameroon and CAR.
Some CotonTchad inputs are also diverted into the black market,
presumably bycivil servants. However, most farmers said they would
not know how to get agrochemicals other thanfrom CotonTchad.
Moreover, farmers do not have the cash to buy inputs at the start
of the growingseason. The CotonTchad input package includes credit,
which is the only way the farmers can afford totake advantage of
it. Some donor projects are providing inputs and credit with which
to purchase them.Outside of these specialized areas, farmers do not
have access to the cash necessary to purchase inputseven where they
would be effective. This suggests that chemical pollution of ground
or surface watermay not be a matter for great concern at
present.
2.14 The lack of markets and access to credit for chemical
fertilizers might suggest that farmers woulduse less expensive,
more accessible organic fertilizers instead. However, this does not
seem to be thecase, despite the presence of either their own
animals or those of herder groups. Animal dung is not aseffective a
fertilizer as chemicals, and gathering it and spreading it on the
fields is very labor-intensive.Farmers did not seem to feel that
the results were worth the work involved.
2.15 A significant exception to the availability of cultivable
land for agricultural expansion is foundaround the city of Moundou
in Logone Occidental. In that region, land availability is a clear
constrainton production. This finding is borne out by the
discussion of carrying capacity above, which shows thatby far the
highest population densities in the country are in that prefecture.
Compounding the problemare northern herders forced south by
decreasing rainfall, who are bringing their herds through
theMoundou region. Because they are not regular visitors to the
area, they tend to have less concern fortheir hosts than herder
groups have in the past, and make less effort to keep their animals
from tramplingor eating the crops. (Farmers interviewed in villages
outside of Moundou reported that the worstagricultural "pest"
confronting them was herders!) Compounding the problems in this
area is an apparentinfestation of tse-tse fly, which is forcing
entire villages to relocate in order to protect their ownlivestock,
reducing land available for agriculture or grazing. These combined
pressures are likely to leadto severe overuse of the available
resources, and soil depletion and erosion may be serious
problems.Still, farmers do not expect to use chemical inputs to
increase their output, because of the lack of marketsand cash.
While organic fertilizers might be cost-effective in this
environment, the conflictualrelationships with nomadic herders may
hinder cooperative efforts.
2.16 The reports prepared for the Rural Development Round Table
(CTA/DR, 1993) partiallycorroborate these findings. They indicate
that agricultural production in the Sahelian zone has
increasedthrough extensification, because the risks of intensified
agriculture are too great. They observe lesscultivation of new land
in the Sudanian zone, which they attribute to the greater potential
of intensification
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(i.e. agrochemicals) in that part of the country. Unfortunately,
they do not address the issue of accessto agrochemicals, so it is
not clear how such intensification could actually be occurring.
Possibly thegreater importance of recessional agriculture and the
access to chemical inputs for cotton productionaccounts for the
relative lack of expansion in the area cultivated in the Sudanian
zone.
2.17 Overall, it would appear that the major threats to the
environment through agriculture come fromexpanded cultivation and
shortened fallows. Direct environmental harm is most likely to take
the formof soil depletion and erosion, with indirect impacts on
surface water and aquatic wildlife. Expandedagriculture will
directly destroy vegetation, and indirectly harm mammals and birds
which depended onthat vegetation for food and shelter.
Environmental harm from agrochemical use is likely to be
relativelyminor because of the unavailability of those products;
however any project which encourages use ofagricultural inputs
should, of course, consider the potential impacts seriously.
Forestry
2.18 The forest cover in Chad is estimated at some 31,170,000
hectares. Almost all of this isclassified as woodland or woodland
savannah, and only an estimated 500 hectares along rivers
andstreams as closed forest. Thus the term "forest" is used to
include vegetation which might not receivethat label in other parts
of the world; in the Sahel it can even be used to refer to
individual treespreserved in fields to provide shade.
2.19 The country's forest resources are used to meet a number of
different needs, some of which maybe compatible with each other
while others clearly are not.
* The major use of forest resources throughout the country is
fuel. According to the ESMAPstudy (ESMAP, 1993), wood and charcoal
account for 80 to 90% of energy consumption in thecountry, and 95%
of household energy consumption. In many cases, the use of forests
for fueldestroys individual trees or whole forest areas,
particularly when the resource is harvestedcommercially for sale in
urban areas. In some rural areas fuelwood gathering can be limited
todead wood, especially where population is sparse relative to
resource availability so family needscan be met without cutting
live branches or trees.
* Forest resources are an important source of forage for small
ruminants and camels. Theruminants eat young plants and leaves
close to the ground, while camels browse on larger plantsincluding
thorny trees like acacias. When necessary, herders will cut or pull
down branches tomake them more easily accessible to small animals.
When the grazing pressure is low, suchpractices may be compatible
with sustainable resource use; when there are too many animals,they
will destroy the resource they depend on. This issue is discussed
below in the section onherding.
* Some commercial products may be sustainably harvested from
Chadian forests; these includekarite and gum arabic. These products
have been harvested traditionally for centuries, butindustrial
processing and export have been limited or non-existent. Recently
they have receivedrenewed attention, because they may offer
economically viable uses of the forest which, unlikeharvesting for
fuelwood, are also biologically sustainable. Thus they can create
an incentive forneighboring communities to protect rather than
destroy the forests.
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* Forests are a source of a variety of non-marketed resources of
use to rural populations, includingfruits, leaves used for making
baskets and other tools, building materials, medicines, and so
on.Because these products are not marketed, they are relatively
hard to track or quantify. Evenmore difficult are intangible
benefits of forests such as shade. By and large these
non-marketedbenefits are sustainable; realizing them does not harm
the tree or the forest in which it grows.
2.20 The destruction of forests has several different impacts on
the environment. First, the vegetationitself is lost; this is the
most obvious direct impact. Second, natural vegetation helps hold
the soil inplace and reduce erosion due to wind or water. Soil
erosion reduces agricultural potential and degradesthe water bodies
into which the soil is deposited. This in turn degrades the habitat
of aquatic wildlife,including both fish and birds. Third,
destruction of natural vegetation reduces habitat available
toterrestrial wildlife, including both mammals and birds.
2.21 The most destructive use of forest resources is clearly to
meet household energy demand. Asalways, reliable statistics are not
available. One source estimates annual consumption at 5.7 million
cubicmeters of wood, of which 1 million are consumed in the three
largest urban areas (CTA/LCD 1993, p.12). The ESMAP study estimates
national consumption of wood in petroleum equivalent tons
(PET),finding that about 590,000 PET are consumed annually in rural
areas and about 185,000 in urban areas.The authors also estimate
urban consumption of wood at 2.3 million tons per year, but do not
give acomparable estimate for rural consumption. Using
low-resolution satellite images and productivity datafrom the
literature, this study calculates that the total sustainable
production of fuelwood which can beharvested sustainably is over 14
million tons per year. (ESMAP, pp. 9-10) They give many
caveatsabout the reliability of these estimates, however, and use
them only to conclude that the country as awhole is unlikely to run
out of fuelwood in the near future.
2.22 There is a consensus both in the literature and among those
working in energy and forest sectorsthat the worst problems are
experienced around urban areas, particularly N'Djamena, where
forests areclear-cut and sold in urban markets in the form of
either wood or charcoal. There are two elements tothis concern. One
is that the supply of wood which can be accessed easily and
inexpensively from thecity will be depleted, driving up the cost of
household energy. The second concern is that, even if
theinexpensive sources of supply have not dried up, the harvesting
of fuelwood is causing soil erosion andhabitat destruction in the
peri-urban area, with predictable impacts for soil productivity,
wildlife, andwater quality. Visual observation of the area around
N'Djamena, particularly the region north of the citywhere the road
has recently been paved, suggests that these concerns are
well-founded. Approaches tosolving this problem typically focus on
changing the pricing, taxation, and tenure systems which
affectforest use, in order to create an institutional framework
which encourages sustainable use of the resourcebase rather than
forest "mining".
2.23 Harvesting fuelwood, and particularly charcoal production,
may involve destroying the forestresource entirely. In contrast,
products such as karite and gum arabic tap into a market for
forestresources where the tree must stay alive in order to remain
productive. These products might beeconomically interesting enough
to compete with destruction of trees to expand agriculture,
although theyare not likely to be competitive with urban fuelwood
markets. Karite, which grows in the Sudanian zone,is a nut
processed to produce oil and karite butter. Most of its
exploitation has been on a small scale,using artisanal techniques,
although some projects have attempted to introduce industrial
processing ofthis product. Gum arabic comes from the sap of the
acacia tree, which grows primarily in the Sahelianzone. It is used
as a stabilizer in foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, glues and
inks, and a variety ofother products. It has been a major export of
the Sudan for some time.
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2.24 In the past year new interest has been sparked in more
systematic exploitation of Chad's acaciatrees. Sudan, which now
holds about 80% of the world market for gum arabic, has recently
raised itsprices to levels which have consumers interested in new
sources of supply, and could make Chadianexports competitive. Two
reports have been produced assessing the potential of this industry
(Agala,1993 and Mallot, 1993), and a seminar on gum arabic was held
in N'Djamena in October, 1993. Chadnow accounts for about 6.7% of
world consumption of gum arabic, with exports of 4,687 tons in
1992-3.The species from which it is harvested, acacia senegalensis
and acacia laeta, are most productive withfrom 300 to 400 mm per
year of rainfall. Based on this, the gum arabic reports estimate
that currentproduction levels representing 10% of the potential
could be quadrupled if all suitable land were plantedwith acacias.
The crop is grown on a 20-25 year rotation, with 4-5 years of
agricultural activity (milletcultivation in Sudan) followed by
15-20 years of fallow in which the trees grow back naturally.
Gumcan be harvested once the trees are 4 years old, and they remain
productive for 11-15 years. When nolonger productive, the trees are
cut down to 1.5 meters high and the ground is cultivated again.
2.25 The economic viability of this scheme rests on a number of
factors in the Chadian environment;access to reliable
transportation networks from rural areas to international ports,
the security situationwhich hinders all transport of goods at
present, improvement in the techniques currently used to tap
thetrees, quality control on the processing, resolving the tree
tenure issues which will arise as the value ofthe trees becomes
apparent, and so on. This is clearly a tall order, but the
potential seems to warrantthe further investigation it is likely to
get from the donors which funded the initial studies.
Livestock
2.26 Livestock raising in Chad occurs in the context of a
variety of different production systems.18
These systems are typically described in terms of whether the
animals are mobile or sedentary, oraccording to the extent of
economic dependence on livestock vs. cultivation. In terms of
theenvironment, decreased rainfall and increased human and animal
populations combine to place increasingpressure on the supply of
pastoral resources. This occurs in several different ways:
- The use of cattle or donkeys for animal traction allows
farmers to expand the areas which theymaintain under cultivation.
Such agricultural expansion has impacts on soil erosion,
waterquality, vegetation, grazing resources, and wildlife habitat,
all of which have been discussedabove under agriculture.
* All livestock browse on natural vegetation and fallow lands.
In small numbers, these animals willnot have a significant impact
on the supply of available vegetation. In large numbers or at
highlevels of concentration, however, natural vegetation can be
consumed beyond sustainable levels,so it will not be able to
reproduce. Like all other activities which harm natural vegetation,
thiscan lead to soil erosion, water pollution, and destruction of
wildlife habitat.
is This section relies primarily on Bonfiglioli 1993 and
Deffendol 1993. The interdisciplinary approach to studying
the role of livestock in Chadian production systems taken by
Bonfiglioli offers a useful example of how toapproach the
relationship between rural production systems and the
environment.
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* Some livestock owners burn natural vegetation from fields in
order to stimulate the growth of theyoung grasses preferred by
herds. This has the same impacts on soil quality and habitat as
otherloss of vegetation, although it is destructive than more
gradual consumption of existing plants.
* Transhumant herds can have a devastating impact in the small
area around individual wells,where they deplete the available
vegetation and can trample the ground making it too hard topermit
new plants to take root.
2.27 The problems of pastoralists and agriculturalists are
closely linked. In much of the country theycompete for the same
land and vegetative resources, particularly during the dry season.
Moreover, mostpeasants are not solely cultivators or
livestock-breeders, but combine the two activities, along with
others,in an income-producing strategy modified each year in
response to environmental and economicconditions. It is difficult,
therefore, to identify discrete, separable issues affecting
livestock production,or through which livestock production affects
the environment, without taking into consideration thecomplex
interactions between pastoral production strategies, agricultural
production strategies, andeverything between them. This kind of
integrated approach is being considered in some
projects,particularly the new activities being developed through
the PNE and the World Bank's proposed naturalresources management
project. This will require careful interdisciplinary and
interministerial work inthe future if these issues are to be
addressed effectively.
Fisheries
2.28 The Chadian fishery resource is regarded as being of
considerable potential, though insufficientlyunderstood and
possibly overused. Fishing is important on all of the major lakes
and on the Logone andChari Rivers. No data are collected on yields
now, although some were collected in the past. Yield isestimated at
about 80,000 tons per year, down from about 200,000 tons in the
1960s; about one third isthought to come from Lake Chad."9 Other
lakes, particularly Lake Iro, are thought to be
underexploitedrelative to their potential, based on occasional
visual observations of the fishing activity going on.
2.29 Various explanations are given for the decrease in yields
since the 1960s. Reduced rainfall haslowered the levels of the
rivers and lakes and drastically reduced the surface areas of the
lakes, destroyingfish habitat. Some species breed in the flood
plains, where both drought cultivation may be havingdeleterious
effects on reproductive success. Any agricultural or urban activity
which lead to organic orinorganic pollution of the rivers could
have a significant impact on fish populations. However,
thecountry's low level of industrialization and low level of
agrochemical use suggest that this is not likelyto be a source of
the problem, although in the absence of any water quality data we
cannot be sure.
2.30 Decreased yields are frequently ascribed to overfishing.
Most professional fishermen are reportedto be foreign, particularly
Malian, and there is a tendency to blame them for the decreasing
y