Report

MAGLEV TRAINS 1BM02ME041

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 What is maglev?

Maglev is an acronym for Magnetic Levitation.

Magnetic levitation is a process by which an object is suspended above another object with no other support but magnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational force.

Magnetic levitation (maglev) is a relatively new transportation technology in which noncontacting vehicles travel safely at speeds of 250 to 300 miles-per-hour or higher while suspended, guided, and propelled above a guideway by magnetic fields. The guideway is the physical structure along which maglev vehicles are levitated. Various guideway configurations, e.g., T-shaped, U-shaped, Y-shaped, and box-beam, made of steel, concrete, or aluminum, have been proposed.

The principal of a Maglev train is that floats on a magnetic field and is propelled by a linear induction motor. They follow guidance tracks with magnets. These trains are often referred to as Magnetically levitated trains, which is abbreviated to Maglev . Although maglevs don't use steel wheel on steel rail usually associated with trains, the dictionary definition of a train is a long line of vehicles travelling in the same direction - it is a train.

1.2 How it works?

A maglev train floats about 10mm above the guide way on a magnetic field. It is propelled by the guide way itself rather than an onboard engine by changing magnetic fields (see right). Once the train is pulled into the next section the magnetism switches so that the train is pulled on again. The Electro-magnets run the length of the guideway.

Dept Of Mechancial Engg B M S C E 1


Chapter 2 History Of Maglev

In the early 1900s, Emile Bachelet first conceived the concept of a magnetic suspension using repulsive forces generated by alternating currents. Bachelet's ideas for EDS remained dormant until the 1960s when superconducting magnets became available, because his concept used too much power for conventional conductors. In 1922, Hermann Kemper in Germany pioneered attractive-mode (EMS) Maglev and received a patent for magnetic levitation of trains in 1934. In 1939-43, the Germans first worked on a real train at the ATE in Goettingen. Kemper presented the basic design for pratical attractive-mode maglev in 1953. The Transrapid (TR01) was built in 1969.

Maglev development in the U.S. began as a result of the High-Speed Ground Transportation (HSGT) Act of 1965. This act authorized Federal funduing for HSGT projects, including rail, air cushion vehicles, and Maglev. This government largesse gave the U.S. researchers an early advantage over their foreign counterparts. Americans pioneered the concept of superconducting magnetic levitation (EDS,) and they dominated early experimental research. As early as 1963, James Powell and Gordon Danby of Brookhaven National Laboratory realized that superconductivity could get around the problems of Bachelet's earlier concepts. In 1966, Powell and Danby presented their Maglev concept of using superconducting magnets in a vehicle and discrete coils on a guideway. Powell and Danby were awarded a patent in 1968, and the Japanese for use eventually adopted their work in their system. Powell and Danby were awarded the 2000 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Engineering by the Franklin Institute for their work on EDS Maglev.

In 1969, groups from Stanford, Atomics International and Sandia developed a continuous-sheet guideway (CSG) concept. In this system, the moving magnetic fields of the vehicle magnets induce currents in a continuous sheet of conducting material such as aluminum. Several groups, including MIT (Kolm and Thornton, MIT, 1972,) built 1/25th scale models and tested them at speeds up to 27 m/s (97.2 km/h.) The CSG concept is alive and well in 2001 with the Magplane. EDS systems were also being developed in the US in the early '70s, including work by Rohr, Boeing, and Carnegie-Mellon University. Maglev research in the US came to a screeching halt in 1975 when the Federal government cut off the funds to HGST research.

Maglev research continued in Germany and Japan. Here's the history of each:

Germany

Transrapid 01 1969- Built by Krauss-Maffei, first practical EMS levitation

Transrapid 02 1971- Operated by K-M on a .93km track with EMS, max speed 164km/h

Transrapid 03 1972- Operated by K-M on .93km track, max speed 140km/h

Transrapid 04 1973- Operated by K-M on a 2.4km track, EMS support

HMB1 1975- First vehicle with long armature LSM and EMS by T-H



HMB2 1976- First passenger-carrying vehicle by Thyssen-Henshel.

Transrapid 05 1979- Emsland Test facility started; Carried passengers up to 75km/h

Transrapid 06 1983/4- First 21.5 km of Emsland opened; 302km/h achieved

Transrapid 07 1993- Achieves speed of 450 km/h

Transrapid 08 1999- Current system; is the only COTS system available today.

Japan

1972- Experimental superconducting maglev test vehicle ML-100 succeeded in 10 cm levitation.

1977- Test run of ML-500 vehicle on inverted-T guideway

1979- Unmanned ML-500 test vehicle achieved speed record of 517 km/h (321 mph)

1980- Test run of MLU001 vehicle of U-shaped guideway

1987- Speed of 400.8 km/h (249 mph) achieved by 2-car manned vehicle

1990- Yamanashi Maglev Test Line construction plan approved

1996- 18.4km section of YMTL completed; MLX01 (3 cars) delivered

1997- Tests of MLX01 started. Speed record of 550 km/h (342 mph) on 12/24/97

1999- New speed record of 552 km/h (343 mph) in TMTL

2005-Tokyo-Osaka route scheduled to be finished.



Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Physics

3.1 Fundamentals Of Maglev

When a magnet approaches a copper plate the changing field from the magnet causes the electron-see of the copper to swirl in a loop-shaped path. All metals, even non magnetic ones, are full of electron -fluid, and when magnetic fields are moved through it, they apply a pumping force to the electron. In physics-speak, the moving magnet induces an electric current. This circular current itself acts like an electro-magnet, and creates a magnetic field of its own. This fields repels the incoming magnet. As a result, magnets repel all metals, especially the good conductors like copper and aluminum. However, the repulsion force only exists briefly after the magnet approaches the metal. The electrical resistance of the metal rapidly slows the circulating current. As a result, when you bring a magnet near a piece of non-magnetic metal, the magnet and metal repels each other, but only for a fraction of a second. Drop a magnet onto a copper plate, and the magnet is slowed slightly, but does not hover. But if the magnet could keep moving, or if the metal plate was spinning fast, then the approaching new regions of metal would cause the current to renew itself and the repulsion force would not die away.

Another way to make magnet hover use a superconductor. When a magnet approaches a superconductor plate, it induces a circle of moving charge. Since the superconductor has no resistance, the current will never be slowed, the repelling fields will not die away, and the magnet will hover. But superconductors require super-cold liquid nitrogen for their operation.

Here are some of the basic principles of physics that are related to maglev are discussed in this section.

3.1.1 Moving Charge & magnetic field

Magnetism is a phenomenon that occurs when a moving charge exerts a force on other moving charges. The magnetic force caused by these moving charge sets up a field which in turn exerts a force on other moving charges. This magnetic field is found to be perpendicular to the velocity of the current. The force of the field diminishes with distance from the charge.



Magnetic force is dependent on:

Length of wire

Current

Magnetic field strength

3.1.2 Current

A current is a moving charge. Moving charges set up magnetic fields. There are two basic setups which can be used for this purpose as seen in the above two illustrations.

Direction of the force is perpendicular to current direction and magnetic field. The repulsion or attraction between two parallel wires is of particular importance to magnetic levitation. If the currents flow in the same direction (as shown), the wires attract. If the current flow in opposite directions, the wire repel

i1 = current in wire 1

i2 = current in wire 2

F21= Force Exerted by magnetic wire 2 on 1

B1 = Magnetic field

D = distance between two wires

3.1.3 Faraday's Law Of Induction (Lenz’s law)

In conclusion from the experiments conducted, scientist have concluded that a change in the magnetic field through a current loop produces a current in that wire. It states that a change in the magnetic field through a current loop produces a current in that wire.

More scientifically, a change in magnetic flux through a given area induces a current in the loop to oppose a change in the flux.

3.1.4 Super conductivity and critical temperature:The resistance offered by certain metals, alloys and chemical compounds

to the flow of electric current abruptly drops to zero below a threshold temperature this phenomenon is called superconductivity and the threshold temperature is called critical temperature



The dependence of resistance (R) of a superconductor on temperature (T) is as shown in fig. The resistance of a superconductor in the non superconducting state decreases with decrease in temperature as in the case of normal metal, and at a particular temperature Tc, the resistance abruptly drops to zero. Tc is called critical temperature. Tc is different for different for superconductors.

3.1.5 Meissner Effect:A super conducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic

flux out of its body when it is cooled below the critical temperature. This effect is called Meissner Effect.



Chapter 4 Principle of Maglev

Maglev is a system in which the vehicle runs levitated from the guideway (corresponding to the rail tracks of conventional railways) by using electromagnetic forces between superconducting magnets on board the vehicle and coils on the ground.

It works on three mechanisms namely,

1. Magnetic levitation

2. Lateral guidance

3. Propulsion

4.1 Principle of magnetic levitation

The "8" figured levitation coils are installed on the sidewalls of the guideway. When the on-board super conducting magnets pass at a high speed about several centimeters below the center of these coils, an electric current is induced within the coils, which then act as electromagnets temporarily. As a result, there are forces, which push the superconducting magnet upwards, and ones, which pull them upwards simultaneously, thereby levitating the Maglev vehicle.



4.2 Principle of lateral guidance

The levitation coils facing each other are connected under the guideway, constituting a loop. When a running Maglev vehicle, that is a superconducting magnet, displaces laterally, an electric current is induced in the loop, resulting in a repulsive force acting on the levitation coils of the side near the car and an attractive force acting on the levitation coils of the side farther apart from the car. Thus, a running car is always located at the center of the guideway.

4.3Principle of propulsion

A repulsive force and an attractive force induced between the magnets are used to propel the vehicle (superconducting magnet). The propulsion coils located on the sidewalls on both sides of the guideway are energized by a three-phase alternating current from a substation, creating a shifting magnetic field on the guideway. The on-board superconducting magnets are attracted and pushed by the shifting field, propelling the Maglev vehicle

.



Chapter 5 TYPES OF MAGLEV

There are basically three types of maglev systems depending on the levitation1. Electromagnetic suspension (EMS2. Electrodynamic Suspension (EDS)3. Inductrack4.

The two principal means of levitation illustrated areThe two principal means of levitation illustrated are5.1 Electromagnetic suspension (EMS):5.1 Electromagnetic suspension (EMS): EMS system depends on attraction force. Most of the vehicles rides above the railEMS system depends on attraction force. Most of the vehicles rides above the rail but magnets wrap beneath the rail. It is an attractive force levitation system wherebybut magnets wrap beneath the rail. It is an attractive force levitation system whereby electromagnets on the vehicle interact with and are attracted to ferromagnetic rails on theelectromagnets on the vehicle interact with and are attracted to ferromagnetic rails on the guide way. EMS was made practical by advances in electronic control systems thatguide way. EMS was made practical by advances in electronic control systems that maintain the air gap between the vehicle and guide way, thus preventing contact.maintain the air gap between the vehicle and guide way, thus preventing contact.

Changing the magnetic field in response to the vehicle or guide way air gapChanging the magnetic field in response to the vehicle or guide way air gap measurements compensates for variations in payload weight, dynamic loads and guidemeasurements compensates for variations in payload weight, dynamic loads and guide way irregularities.way irregularities.

5.2 Electrodynamics suspension (EDS):5.2 Electrodynamics suspension (EDS):EDS system is based on repulsion force. It employs magnets on the movingEDS system is based on repulsion force. It employs magnets on the moving

vehicle to induce currents in the guide way. Resulting repulsive force produces inherentlyvehicle to induce currents in the guide way. Resulting repulsive force produces inherently stable vehicle support and guidance because the magnetic repulsion increases as thestable vehicle support and guidance because the magnetic repulsion increases as the vehicle/guide way gap decreases. However, the vehicle must be equipped with wheels orvehicle/guide way gap decreases. However, the vehicle must be equipped with wheels or other forms of support for "takeoff" and "landing" because the EDS will not levitate atother forms of support for "takeoff" and "landing" because the EDS will not levitate at speeds below approximately 25 mph. EDS has progressed with advances in cryogenicsspeeds below approximately 25 mph. EDS has progressed with advances in cryogenics and super conducting magnet technology.and super conducting magnet technology.



ElectromagneticElectromagnetic Electrodynamic Electrodynamic Suspension Suspension Suspension Suspension

5.3 Inductrack

A newer, perhaps less-expensive, system is called "Inductrack". The technique has a load-carrying ability related to the speed of the vehicle, because it depends on currents induced in a passive electromagnetic array by permanent magnets. In the prototype, the permanent magnets are in a cart; horizontally to provide lift, and vertically to provide stability. The array of wire loops is in the track. The magnets and cart are unpowered, except by the speed of the cart. Inductrack was originally developed as a magnetic motor and bearing for a flywheel to store power. With only slight design changes, the bearings were unrolled into a linear track. Inductrack was developed by physicist Richard Post at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Post&action=edit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductrack


Inductrack uses Halbach arrays for stabilization. Halbach arrays are arrangements of permanent magnets that stabilize moving loops of wire without electronic stabilization. Halbach arrays were originally developed for beam guidance of particle accelerators. They also have a magnetic field on the track side only, thus reducing any potential effects on the passengers

5.4 Pros and Cons of different technologies

Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages and disadvantages. Time will tell as to which principle, and whose implementation, wins out commercially.

Technology Pros Cons

EMS (Electromagnetic)

Trains do not have to carry their propulsion system; can attain very high speeds (up to 500km/h); magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are insignificant; highly reliable computer controlled operations; proven, commercially available technology

Guideway includes stator packs along entire length, which add cost to construction, but do enable high speeds without vehicle weight penalty.

Superconducting EDS (Electrodynamic)

Powerful onboard superconducting magnets enable highest recorded train speeds (581 km/h) and heavy load capacity; has recently demonstrated (Dec 2005) successful operations using high temperature

Strong magnetic fields onboard the train make the train inaccessible to passengers with pacemakers; vehicle must be wheeled for travel at low speeds; system per mile cost still considered prohibitive; the system is not yet out of prototype phase.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_accelerator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbach_array


superconductors (HTS) in its onboard magnets, cooled with inexpensive liquid nitrogen.

Inductrack System (Permanent Magnets)

Failsafe suspension - no power required to activate magnets; can generate enough force at low speeds (around 5 km/h) to levitate maglev train; in case of power failure cars slow down on their own in safe, steady and predictable manner before coming to a stop

Requires wheels. New technology that is still under development (2005) and has as yet no commercial version or full-scale system prototype.

It must be noted, that the Inductrack and the Superconducting EDS are only levitation technologies. In both cases, vehicles need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor is used for propulsion in Japanese Superconducting EDS MLX01 maglev. Inductrack, should it ever be developed into a commercial transport technology, will have to solve the propulsion problem, as well as the need to deliver the propulsion energy onboard (due to itself being a completely passive technology). A Jet engine or a linear motor are being considered.

Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although Inductrack provides levitation down to a much lower speed. Wheels are required for both systems, whereas EMS systems are wheel-less.

The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem maglevs levitate at a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to 10 km/h speed, using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.

Chapter 6 Advantages and Disadvantages

6.1 Inherent Advantages

Much greater mobility

Freedom from delays due to traffic congestion and weather conditions



6.2 Environmental Advantages

Minimum land use and environmental impact.

Zero pollution – much less energy than autos, trucks and airplanes.

No carbon di oxide emissions when powered by solar, wind , hydro and other forms of non fossil power.

6.3 Consumer Benefits

Major reductions in travel costs, for both passengers and freight.

Much greater passenger comfort, through greater seating space and absence of vibration and noise

6.4 New markets and opportunities

Long distance, low cost transport of water.

Ultra high-speed transport over continental distances.

Ultra low cost launch of pay loads in orbits.

6.5 What is the disadvantages with Maglev

There are several disadvantages with maglev trains.

Maglev guide paths are bound to be more costly than conventional steel railways.

The other main disadvantage is lack with existing infrastructure. For example if a high speed line between two cities it built, then high speed trains can serve both cities but more importantly they can serve other nearby cities by running on normal railways that branch off the high speed line.

The high-speed trains could go for a fast run on the high-speed line, then come off it for the rest of the journey. Maglev trains wouldn't be able to do that; they would be limited to where maglev lines run. This would mean it would be very difficult to make construction of maglev lines commercially viable unless there were two very large destinations being connected.

Chapter 7Applications

The principal application for maglev has always been considered to be the high speed transport of passengers between major centers of population. Maglev is often viewed as a sort of super-speed train that competes with airplanes for inter-city



passengers. Moreover, potential maglev systems are generally examined in the context of routes between major population centers in a country or a region.

Maglev has many other applications, however, where it offers great advantages and benefits, and where systems can payback their construction cost in a much shorter time than an intercity passenger route.

Maglev finds application in the following fields:

Intercity Passengers

Intercity Trucks

Mach 3 Maglev

Water Train

Maglev for Mining

Maglev Land Bridge

7.1 Intercity Passenger

As we enter the 21st Century, long distance travel remains dominated by the transport modes developed in the early decades of the 20th Century. In the United States, virtually all intercity passenger travel is by private autos or commercial airlines. Trains and buses carry only a small percentage of intercity passengers. The fractional split between air and auto modes depends on distance - for trips less than approximately 1000 miles, most travelers choose to drive, while for longer trips, most choose airplanes.

Intercity passenger travel is big business in the US. While autos and airplanes have served us well in the past, their limitations are becoming ever more apparent. Unit costs, whether cents per passenger mile for air travel, or cents for vehicle mile for autos, are high, and will go higher as the world's petroleum becomes scarcer and more expensive.

First, maglev guideways are readily adaptable to existing rights of way and terrain with minimal environmental impact, and can carry enormous volumes of passengers. A 2-way maglev guideway system, for example, requiring a right of way less than 50 feet in width, could easily carry over 100,000 passengers per day. Because the guideway is constructed as a narrow beam on piers with a small footprint, its effect on the local terrain is minimal, compared to that for conventional highways. In fact, in many locations, maglev guideways would be built alongside already existing highways using their rights of ways, and would not need new land.

Second, because maglev travel is independent of weather and can be reliably and precisely scheduled, delays and congestion will be virtually eliminated.

Third, since maglev uses much less energy than autos and airplanes, and because its energy is not supplied from petroleum, it is not hostage to rising oil prices. Instead,



maglev vehicles can be powered by solar, wind, or hydro renewable energy, or by coal fired power plants.

Fourth, maglev's high guideway capacity and low energy costs lead to total travel costs, in cents per passenger mile, that are much less than those for auto and air transport. The cost per passenger mile for a typical maglev trip should be less than ½ of that for air travel.

Fifth, because of its low energy usage, maglev travel will be much more comfortable and luxurious than air travel. The M-2000 vehicle is designed to carry 100 passengers in first class seating style at prices far below those for air economy class. Moreover, the vibration and noise that travelers experience on airplanes is completely absent from maglev vehicles. Riding in a maglev vehicle will be like sitting in your living room - the only sensation of motion will be visual, as the scenery flashes by.

A National Maglev Network based on the M-2000 maglev system will provide fast, low cost intercity travel for virtually all Americans in the early decades of the 21st Century. Following the proposal of Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, the National Network would be built alongside existing Interstate Highways using the rights of way. The National Network illustrated here has 16,000 miles of M-2000 guideway, compared to the total 42,000 miles of Interstate. 70% of the US population live within 15 miles of a maglev station on the Network, and over 90% are in states served by it.

To travel to any part in the US served by the Network, a person would only need to go to his or her nearby station and wait a few minutes for the next maglev vehicle to take them to the appropriate hub point. Because of the low operating cost for maglev vehicles, and the fact that they are not mechanically stressed and do not wear out, in contrast to autos, planes, and trains, advance reservations and ticket purchases would not be needed. Hub points would be located on the Network where several maglev lines met - for example, New York, Chicago, Denver, and so forth.

All maglev stations would be located off-line, so that vehicles would not need to slow



7.2 Intercity trucks

Intercity truck transport is an enormous business in the United States. We spend over 260 billion dollars annually on intercity truck transport, more than four times the amount spent on Intercity Passengers transport.

Many of these intercity trucks move on Interstate Highway routes, such as US-80 (New York to Chicago), US-95 Boston to Florida), and US-5 (San Diego to San Francisco) and other highways. A daily 2-way traffic of 10,000 trucks or more - on some routes 20,000 trucks - is common. The trucks often form an almost continuous line, with as many trucks on the highway as automobiles.

The M-2000 maglev system can transport freight containers and truck trailers in a faster, lower cost, safer, and less polluting manner than if they traveled on the highway. The same M-2000 guideway that transports passenger vehicles can also transport vehicles that carry a truck trailer.

7.3 Mach 3 maglev

Because there are no mechanical contact between the Maglev vehicles and its guideway, friction and wear do not impose any limit on the speed of the vehicle. The only limits are air drag and the straightness of the guideway. At ground level, in the Earth's atmosphere, air drag constrains the maximum speed of a maglev vehicle to a practical limit of about 300 mph. Since air drag on a vehicle is proportional to the cube of the vehicle's speed, trying to go much faster simply consumes too much energy. Moreover, the aerodynamic noise generated at much higher speeds would be objectionable in populated areas. Japan has demonstrated satisfactory operation of Maglev vehicles at speeds up to 350 mph on its guideway in Yamanashi Prefecture. If the Maglev vehicles operate in a low-pressure tunnel, however, air drag is effectively zero and no longer a factor, so that vehicles can travel at speeds of thousands of miles per hour. There still is a small magnetic drag due to power losses in the normal metal loops on the guideway, but this does not impose any practical limit. The magnetic drag power, in fact, is constant with speed while the magnetic drag force decreases as (1/velocity). A typical 100 passenger, 40 ton Maglev vehicle, for example, would experience a magnetic drag force of only 0.001 g at 2000 mph. 7.4 Water Train

Water scarcity is the number one resource problem in the world today, according to the United Nations and other organizations concerned with international issues. Almost half of humanity now lives in water scarce regions. Many countries now use more than 40% of their total renewable water supply. Since water availability can vary widely from region to region inside a country, even when there is surplus water in one region, there can be severe scarcity in another. Moreover, in many regions, people are pumping out underground water that is not replaced by rainfall. This "mining" of fossil water depletes the aquifer, causing wells to dry up and the ground to crack and settle. Much of the American Southwest has been over-pumped, including



large parts of California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, as well as parts of the High Plains region. Many other regions of the world are being over-pumped, including the Mid-East, Mexico, parts of China and Africa and so on. In a few years, most of these aquifers will cease to yield water, precipitating a crisis in supply. The available options to avert future water supply crises are limited. Desalination is prohibitively expensive and consumes enormous amounts of costly and scarce oil and gas fuels. The current cost of desalination is approximately $6.00 per 1000 gallons and is only practical for Mid-East countries with ample amounts of low cost oil and gas. Transport of water in tankers is too expensive to be practical for long distances, while towing of icebergs to arid regions does not appear feasible. As a result, pipelines appear to be the only practical option for the long distance transport of water. However, pipelines have limitations. They are very expensive, require large amounts of pumping power, and are not suited to hilly and rolling

In order to achieve the very low transport cost needed, the Water Train vehicles must carry considerably greater weight than passenger and freight vehicles. The weight of a loaded Water Train vehicle is on the order of 200 tons, as compared to 40 to 50 tons for the vehicles that carry and Intercity Passengers. To handle such large weights at low cost, the guideway is modified from the M-2000 guideway used for passenger and freight transport. For the M-2000 Water Train System, the narrow beam guideway is located on-grade rather than elevated on piers. This greatly reduces structure cost. In addition, iron plates are positioned along the upper edges of the guideway beam. The magnetic interaction between the vehicle magnets and the guideway iron plates levitates the vehicle, effectively making it weightless. The passive aluminum loops in the guideway stabilize the vehicle laterally and vertically. In particular, the vertically unstable lift force from the iron lift plates is overcome by the aluminum guideway loops, providing net



vertical stability. A magnetic restoring force that pushes it back to the equilibrium point automatically counters any displacement of the vehicle from its equilibrium suspension point.

After delivering its load of water, the water balloon on the vehicle is collapsed, which greatly reduces cross sectional area. This in turn greatly reduces the air drag on the vehicle on its return to pick up the next load of water for transport.

7.5 Maglev for mining

The mining of coal fuel and metal ores is a major industry involving hundreds of open pit and underground mines located around the world. A large fraction of the cost of coal and ores is due to the need to transport the valuable product, as well as waste rock, from the deep underground or open pit mine site.In open pit mines, giant trucks costing up to a million dollars each, carry ore from the bottom of the pit to its rim and beyond, where it is locally processed or shipped by rail to a distant plant. The trucks have to slowly wind their way up the spiral haulage road on the wall of the pit. A direct maglev line up the sidewall of the pit would move the ore much more rapidly, and at much lower cost.

In underground mines an extensive and very expensive shaft and tunnel system is required to transport ore and waste rock to the surface. Mine cars, or conveyer belts, move the ore and rock horizontally from the working face through long tunnels to the shaft, or shafts, where it is vertically lifted for thousands of feet to the surface. Typically, the volume of waste rock which must be extracted in order to construct the vast network of tunnels and shafts is much greater than the volume of actual ore.

Using a maglev M-2000 mining system, the valuable ore could be lifted along angled shafts that followed the actual ore veins, instead of through the network of horizontal tunnels and vertical shafts. This would greatly reduce the volume of waste rock to be excavated, and consequently the cost of the product ore. In addition, the maglev mining system would greatly reduce the number of engine powered underground ore carriers, reducing both the operating cost and the pollution of the miner's air supply.



7.6 Maglev Land Bridge

Ships are the only practical way to move large amounts of bulk material between continents, and often, the most cost effective way to move material from one point to another on the same continent. Unit cost for bulk transport by ship is approximately one cent per ton-mile, compared to several cents per ton mile by railroad, and several tens of cents per ton-mile by truck.To reduce the distance that ships have to travel, canals have been built at key spots. The most famous of these are the Panama Canal, intended to eliminate passage around Cape Horn at the tip of South America, and the Suez Canal, intended to eliminate passage around The Cape of Good Hope at the tip of South Africa.While these canals cut off thousands of miles from shipping routes, economics are forcing the use of giant ships, which are too large to pass through the canals. These ships then have to go the long way around, increasing cost and fuel consumption.Maglev can rapidly move materials at low cost across land portions of a shipping route, eliminating the need to travel thousands of extra miles. Using maglev, a container ship would unload its cargo at one end of the land portion, or "land bridge". The containers would then rapidly move via a M-2000 maglev guideway to the far end of the land bridge, where they would be loaded onto a second ship, to continue to their final destination.

Chapter 8 General Discussion

8.1 What is the need for Maglev?

Faster trips - high peak speed and high acceleration/braking enable average speeds three to four times the national highway speed limit of 65 mph (30 m/s) and lower door-to-door trip time than high-speed rail or air (for trips under about 300 miles or 500 km). Still higher speeds are feasible. Maglev takes up where high-speed rail leaves off, permitting speeds of 250 to 300 mph (112 to 134 m/s) and higher.



Maglev has high reliability and less susceptible to congestion and weather conditions than air or highway travel. Variance from schedule can average less than one minute based on foreign high-speed rail experience. This means intra and intermodal connecting times can be reduced to a few minutes (rather than the half-hour or more required with airlines and Amtrak at present) and that appointments can safely be scheduled without having to consider delays.

Maglev gives petroleum independence - with respect to air and auto because of Maglev being electrically powered. Petroleum is unnecessary for the production of electricity. In 1990, less than 5 percent of the Nation's electricity was derived from petroleum whereas the petroleum used by both the air and automobile modes comes primarily from foreign sources.

Maglev is less polluting - with respect to air and auto, again because of being electrically powered. Emissions can be controlled more effectively at the source of electric power generation than at the many points of consumption, such as with air and automobile usage.

Maglev has a higher capacity than air travel with at least 12,000 passengers per hour in each direction. There is the potential for even higher capacities at 3 to 4 minute headways. Maglev provides sufficient capacity to accommodate traffic growth well into the twenty-first century and to provide an alternative to air and auto in the event of an oil availability crisis.

Maglev has high safety - both perceived and actual, based on foreign experience.

Maglev has convenience - due to high frequency of service and the ability to serve central business districts, airports, and other major metropolitan area nodes.

Maglev has improved comfort - with respect to air due to greater roominess, which allows separate dining and conference areas with freedom to move around. The absence of air turbulence ensures a consistently smooth ride

8.2 Maglev Suspension Versus Wheeled Suspension

The advantages of maglev trains over wheeled trains are as follows

1) Wheels produce medium to high environmental noise levels.

2) Wheeled systems rely on propulsion through wheel-rail friction, and the high aerodynamic drag forces lead to upper speed limits due to limited wheel-rail adhesion.

3) Maglev vehicles can accelerate and decelerate rapidly and bank steeply on curves.



4) Suspension through point contact (up to 70,000 psi or 482 MPa) leads to increased structural requirements and increased wear/maintenance.

5) Maglev trains have a certain romantic appeal.

The most interesting facts about Maglevs:

Current speed record is held by MLX01 at the Yamanashi Maglev Test line: 581 km / h.

The possible topspeed of Maglev in a vacuum-filled tunnel (no air resistance):6000-8000 km /h

First approvel of a Maglev line: 1996 Germany, it would have linked Hamburg and Berlin, but the project was cancelled in 2000.

The first official Maglev line: 2004, Shanghai opened line between the airport and the financial district. The length of this line is 30km, the possible top speed on this route: 432km / h.

8.3 Issues Related to Magnetic Levitating Trains

8.3.1 Magnetic Fields

Intensity of magnetic field effects of Maglev is extremely low (below everyday household devices)

Hair dryer, toaster, or sewing machine produce stronger magnetic fields

8.3.2 Energy Consumption

Maglev uses 30% less energy than a high speed train traveling at the same speed. (1/3 more power for the same amount of energy)

Speed ICE Train Maglev Train



200 km/hr 32 Wh/km 32 Wh/km



400 km/hr - 71 Wh/km

8.3.3 Noise Levels

No noise caused by wheel rolling or engine

Maglev noise is lost among general ambient noise

At 100m - Maglev produces noise at 69 dB

At 100m - Typical city center road traffic is 80 dB

8.3.4 Vibrations

Just below human threshold of perception

8.3.5 Power Supply

110kV lines fed separately via two substations

8.3.6 Power Failure

Batteries on board automatically are activated to bring car to next station

Batteries charged continuously

8.3.7 Fire Resistance of vehicles

Latest non-PVC material used that is non-combustible and poor transmitter of heat

Maglev vehicle carries no fuel to increase fire hazard

8.3.8 Safety

20 times safer than an airplane

250 times safer than other conventional railways

700 times safer than travel by road



Collision is impossible because only sections of the track are activated as needed. The vehicles always travel in synchronization and at the same speed, further reducing the chances of a crash.

8.3.9 Operation Costs

Virtually no wear. Main cause of mechanical wear is friction. Magnetic levitation requires no contact, and hence no friction.

Components normally subjected to mechanical wear are on the whole replaced by electronic components which do not suffer any wear

Specific energy consumption is less than all other comparable means of transportation.

Faster train turnaround time means fewer vehicles

8.4 Questions on Maglev

Q. How much will it cost to travel by Maglev compared to airplanes? Will it be faster or slower, more comfortable?

A. The average cost for air travel is about 13 cents per passenger mile. This includes labor, airplanes, fuel, and other costs, and corresponds to a ticket price of about $600 round trip, for a coast-to-coast flight. Some tickets cost less, some more, for a particular flight, depending on the discount offer, date of purchase, age, and so on. The 13 cents per passenger mile does not include government subsidies for airports, highway access, FAA operations, etc.

M-2000 Maglev operational costs for vehicles, energy, and labor total about 4 cents per passenger mile, not including the amortization cost for the guideway. Projecting guideway amortization cost is difficult since it depends on ridership and whether the guideway carries freight as well as passengers. For a M-2000 guideway cost of 10 million dollars per 2-way mile, that carries only passengers, amortization cost is about 10 cents per passenger mile, assuming a 30-year payback period and 10,000 passengers daily. If the guideway carries 1000 trailers daily and allocates 3 cents per ton mile (30 tons per trailer} of revenue to guideway amortization, the passenger share for guideway amortization is zero cents per passenger mile. Total cost for passengers is then only 4 cents per passenger mile, about 1/3 of that for air travel. If M-2000 guideways carry both passengers and truck type freight, Maglev will be much cheaper than air travel.

Although jet aircraft speed is greater than Maglev (500 mph compared to 300 mph) the actual trip time will be much less for Maglev. First, access to Maglev stations will be much easier and faster than airports. With the M-2000 National Maglev Network, over 70% of the population will live within 15 miles of a Maglev station, which they could reach in a few minutes. Second, the departure frequency of Maglev vehicles will be much greater than for aircraft. Most airports have only a few flights daily to a given



destination: Maglev stations will typically have dozens. Third, Maglev schedules will not be upset by bad weather or congestion, which is often the case for air travel.

Finally, because Maglev vehicles are much cheaper than airliners -a few million dollars per vehicle, compared to a 100 million dollars or more for an airliner - and because their operating cost is very low, Maglev travel will be much more comfortable than air travel. There is no need to pack riders in like sardines to save money -passengers will travel in first class style, for lower cost than economy air. Moreover, the vibration and noise experienced on airliners are completely absent on Maglev vehicles.

Q. Why is Maglev better than the High-Speed Trains already operating in Europe and Japan?

A. Maglev is better than high-speed trains for many reasons. First, rather than the point-to-point service between city centers characteristic of high speed rail, Maglev will have many more stations, distributed so that people have easy and fast access to the Maglev Network. Second, individual Maglev vehicles will hold 100 people at most, compared to the 500 to 1000 people on a high-speed train. This enables more frequent and convenient service. Third, Maglev vehicles travel at 300 mph, compared to 180 mph for high-speed trains. The faster Maglev vehicles, plus their ability to accelerate and decelerate much more quickly, cut the travel time for Maglev by at least a factor of 2, as compared to high speed rail. Fourth, the Maglev noise is much less than steel wheels on rail. Finally, Maglev vehicles travel on elevated guideways, something that the much heavier trains cannot do. Elevated Maglev guideways enhance safety and reduce environmental impact, compared to an on-grade rail track.

Q. How will Maglev change my life, other than making it easier to take trips?

A. Maglev will dramatically change the way people live in the 21st Century, with effects far beyond those associated with personal trips. First, and very important, with Maglev people will live much farther from their work place and from city centers, while still being able to travel to them in a short time. Spreading population over a much larger area than is possible with present transport systems will greatly reduce the cost of owning a home, and allow people to enjoy nature much more.

Second, sending trailer trucks by Maglev instead of on highways will cut the costs of goods, increase highway safety, reduce congestion and delays, and make the highways last much longer.

Third, Maglev will greatly reduce pollution, extend oil resources and help keep oil and gas prices reasonable, and lessen the rate at which carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. This will help slow global warming.



Fourth, Maglev because of its potential for greatly reducing the cost of launching payloads into orbit will open up space to much greater usage, colonization, and eventually tourism.

Q. Why are superconducting magnets used in the Japanese and M-2000 Maglev systems? What are the advantages and disadvantages of superconducting magnets?

A. Superconducting magnets are used in the M-2000 and Japanese Maglev Systems for the following reasons:

Superconducting magnets enable Maglev vehicles to operate with much greater clearances above the guideway, than are possible with room temperature magnets. With superconducting magnets, the gap between the Maglev vehicle and the guideway can be 6 inches. With room temperature electromagnets or permanent magnets, the gap is only about 3/8 of an inch. Large gaps improve safety, allow greater construction tolerances, decrease construction costs, and reduce sensitivity to ground settling and earthquakes.

Superconducting magnets enable the levitated vehicle to be inherently and passively strongly stable against external forces (winds, grades, curves, etc.) that act to displace the vehicle from its normal suspension point. Attractive force suspensions based on room temperature electromagnets are inherently unstable, and require constant, fast response servo control of the magnet current to operate safely.

Superconducting magnets let Maglev vehicles levitate much heavier loads than are possible with room temperature electromagnets or permanent magnets. Heavier load capacity lets Maglev vehicles carry freight, water, mining ores, etc., to generate large revenues.

Superconducting magnets have much lower power requirements than conventional room temperature electromagnets.

The only disadvantage of superconducting magnets is their need for refrigeration. However, the power for the refrigerator is small compared to the power to overcome air drag on the vehicle. Accordingly, operating cost for superconductors is a minor perturbation.

The superconducting magnets on Maglev vehicles are not complicated to construct or operate. Thousands of superconducting magnets now operate routinely and reliably around the world in MRI devices, high-energy accelerators, and other applications.

Q. What is a superconducting magnet? How is it different from ordinary magnets?

A. The main difference between superconducting magnets and conventional room temperature electromagnets is that they use low temperature, zero electrical resistance



conductor wire in the magnet winding, instead of room temperature, non-zero electrical resistance conductor. Conventional electromagnets use aluminum or copper conductor, while superconductor magnets use niobium-titanium-copper wire (or other superconductor, depending on application). Also, conventional electromagnets often use iron cores to reduce the current and I2R losses in the conductor winding.

Because superconductors have no electrical resistance, very high currents and current densities are practical, resulting in much more powerful electromagnets than are possible with room temperature conductors. While room temperature permanent magnets have no current windings or I2R losses, their inherent physical characteristics limit their magnetic field capabilities to much less than those of superconducting magnets.

Superconducting magnets require good thermal insulation to keep the superconductors cold. They also have to be cooled with helium (for low temperature superconductors) or nitrogen (for high temperature super conductors) compared to conventional electromagnets which are cooled by ordinary water.

Q. Are superconducting magnets really dependable? Will it be safe to travel by Maglev?

A. Superconducting magnets are highly reliable. High-energy accelerators routinely operate with many hundreds of superconducting magnets positioned along the path followed by particles that travel in precise orbits along miles of evacuated tubes. If only one of these many hundred magnets failed, it would shut down the accelerator for a long period while the magnet was repaired or replaced. Such a situation could not be tolerated, and in fact, does not occur in practice. In the proposed superconducting super collider (SSC), for example, over 10,000 superconducting magnets would have been positioned along the 76-kilometer circumference of the SSC. Failure of one of these magnets would have shut down the SSC.

The M-2000 Maglev vehicles are designed with multiple (typically 16) superconducting magnets that operate separately and independently of each other. The M-2000 vehicle will remain levitated and operate safely even if several of its magnets were to fail. Because the failure rate of superconducting magnets is very low, the probability of two magnets failing in a period of few minutes, the time needed to reach a stopping point, would be less than once in a million years of operation.

Such a failure rate is much smaller than the engine failure rate in jet aircraft. Furthermore, the Maglev vehicle would continue to operate, while the jet aircraft would not. In fact, it would take the simultaneous failure of at least 6 independent magnets to compromise levitation capability -a probability that is infinitesimally small compared to other modes of transport.



Q. What happens if the electric power is cut off to a Maglev guideway? Will the vehicles on it crash?

A. The M-2000 vehicles are automatically and passively stably levitated as long as they move along the guideway. The electric power fed to the guideway magnetically propels the M-2000 vehicles and maintains their speed. If the guideway power were cut off, the vehicles would coast for several miles, gradually slowing down due to air drag. When they reach 30 mph, they settle down on auxiliary wheels and brake to a stop on the guideway. When power is restored to the guideway propulsion windings, the vehicles can magnetically accelerate back up to their cruising speed.

Because the vehicles are automatically levitated and stabilized for speeds greater than 30 mph, there is no chance of a crash if guideway power is cut off.

Q. Are there any health or environmental hazards from the magnetic fields of a Maglev vehicle?

A. There are no health and environmental hazards from the magnetic fields around the M-2000 Maglev vehicle. The magnetic fringe fields from the quadrupole magnets on the M-2000 vehicles drop off much faster with distance than do the fringe fields from dipole magnets. This rapid decrease in fringe fields allows the magnetic fields in the passenger compartment to be at Earth ambient level, ~ 0.5 Gauss. All humans live constantly in Earth's magnetic field and are adapted to it. They will experience no difference in field strength when they ride in a M-2000 Maglev vehicle.

In fact, people presently experience stronger magnetic fields than the Earth ambient value when they ride subways and electrified trains, when they operate electrically powered equipment in the home or when they walk down city streets. The magnetic fields in M-2000 vehicles will be lower than in the above examples.

Q. Why don't we already have Maglev systems? If they are as good as you say, why aren't they being built?

A. There is a tremendous investment, both in money and human experience, in our present modes of auto, truck, air, and rail transport. The US spends almost a trillion dollars annually on these transport systems. Until recently, they have functioned adequately.

Moving into a new transport mode like Maglev is difficult and takes time, because of the large capital investments required, and the need for people to acquire new job skills and change their ridership habits. Such a shift requires demonstration Maglev systems to convince the public that Maglev is real. Such demonstrations are now at hand. Moreover,



the increased congestion, delays, and costs of transport on the nation's highways and airways will help speed the transition to Maglev.

Q. You state that Maglev vehicles can deliver trailers and freight containers over long distances at high speed and low cost. What about personal autos?

A. It appears practical to transport autos by Maglev over long distances. Such capability would be attractive for vacationers, since it would be much faster and more comfortable than driving hundreds of miles. To transport an auto from New York to Chicago by Maglev, a distance of 800 miles, would cost about 100 dollars.

Chapter 9Conclusion



Maglev has many advantages for the public. With the research conducted, itMaglev has many advantages for the public. With the research conducted, it shows that Maglev is cost effective environmentally sound, alternate transport systemshows that Maglev is cost effective environmentally sound, alternate transport system with significant benefits.with significant benefits.

Maglev’s key advantage over high speed rail and other modes of transportation are its hillMaglev’s key advantage over high speed rail and other modes of transportation are its hill climbing ability, rapid acceleration, low noise and zero emission, dedicated right away,climbing ability, rapid acceleration, low noise and zero emission, dedicated right away, low energy usage, low land use requirements. The acceleration and deceleration of thelow energy usage, low land use requirements. The acceleration and deceleration of the maglev vehicle is four times that of traditional rail systems, permitting the vehicle tomaglev vehicle is four times that of traditional rail systems, permitting the vehicle to make more stops without excess time loss. Due to the non-contact of the vehicle with themake more stops without excess time loss. Due to the non-contact of the vehicle with the guideway, the only noise generated is the aerodynamic noise of the vehicle. At lowguideway, the only noise generated is the aerodynamic noise of the vehicle. At low speeds (below 125 mph) the maglev vehicles makes almost no noise. The vehicle utilizesspeeds (below 125 mph) the maglev vehicles makes almost no noise. The vehicle utilizes the electromagnetic field in the guide way to propel and guide the vehicle with nothe electromagnetic field in the guide way to propel and guide the vehicle with no emissions from the vehicle itself. Elevating the guide way provides a dedicated rightemissions from the vehicle itself. Elevating the guide way provides a dedicated right away for the vehicle eliminating the possibility of collisions as well as delays associatedaway for the vehicle eliminating the possibility of collisions as well as delays associated with other modes of transportation. with other modes of transportation.

Independent experts have also examined the safety of the Transrapid MaglevIndependent experts have also examined the safety of the Transrapid Maglev System. Their conclusion is that the Maglev system is the world’s safest means ofSystem. Their conclusion is that the Maglev system is the world’s safest means of transportation.transportation.

Maglev provides a fast safe and efficient nt means of transportation. It has beenMaglev provides a fast safe and efficient nt means of transportation. It has been tested successfully and operating in developed countries whereas its still a dream fortested successfully and operating in developed countries whereas its still a dream for developing countries like India due to the high investment and maintenance cost.developing countries like India due to the high investment and maintenance cost.

Bibliography



Reference :

1.Sinha, P. K. Electromagnetic suspension dynamics & control. Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London, United Kingdom, 1987.

2. Polgreen, G. R. Magnetic system for transportation. U. S. Patent 3,158765, 1964.

3. Silverman, J. S. Transportation apparatus. U. S. Patent 3,125,964, 1964.

4. Powell, J. R. Electromagnetic inductive suspension and stabilization. U. S. Patent 3,470,828, 1969.

5. Pougue, L. C. Magnetic switching of vehicles. U. S. Patent 3,763,788, 1973.

6. Steenbeck, U. Suspended railway having a magnetic suspended guide of its vehicles. U. S. Patent 3,847,086, 1974.

7. Lorinet, J. P. Standstill-positioning and restarting arrangement for a linear induction motor driven vehicle. U. S. Patent 3,736,881, 1973

Websites:

Http// www. Howstuffworks.com

Http// www.American-maglev.com

Http// www.maglevwikipedia.com

Http// www. Calmmaglev.org


Report

Documents

magnetic levitation

maglev concept

maglev vehicles

maglev train floats

maglev development

magnetic levitation

magnetic fields

magnetic suspension