THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING IN TEACHING SPEAKING (An Experimental Study at the First Grade Students of SMAN 1 Ciputat Academic Year 2007/2008) A Paper Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the Degree of S.Pd (Bachelor of Arts) in English Language Education By Wendi Wijarwadi NIM : 103014027024 DEPARTMENT OF ENGLSIH EDUCATION FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS TRAINING SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY JAKARTA 2008
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING IN TEACHING SPEAKING
(An Experimental Study at the First Grade Students of SMAN 1 Ciputat
Academic Year 2007/2008)
A Paper
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
For the Degree of S.Pd (Bachelor of Arts) in English Language Education
By
Wendi Wijarwadi
NIM : 103014027024
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLSIH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
2008
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ACKNOWLEDMENT �Bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim�
All praises be to Allah, the universal lord who has bestowed his blessing upon the
writer in completing this paper. Peace and Blessing be upon Prophet Muhammad SAW,
his families, his companions and his followers.
This paper is presented to the English Education Department of the Faculty of
Tarbiya and Teachers Training, State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta as a
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Strata-1 (S-1)
The writer would like to express his great honor and deepest gratitude to his
Beloved Mother (Wiwi Hermawati), his father (Drs.H.Muzar Burhanuddin), his beloved
uncles (Tatang, Usep Saefuddin, Ade, Nana Supriatna and Tedi Supriadi), his lovely cute
little cousins (M.Alif and Mohammad Didan) and all families who always give support,
motivation and moral encouragement to finish his study.
The writer would like to express his thanks and gratitude to his advisor
Drs.Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed for his valuable help, guidance, correction, and suggestions
for the completion of this paper.
His gratitude also goes to:
1. Prof.DR.Dede Rosyada, The dean of faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training
2. Dr.Syauki, M.Pd, The Head of English Education Department
3. Neneng Sunengsih S.Pd, The secretary of English Education Department
4. All lecturers of English Education Department for their encouragement to the
writer
5. Drs.Akhmad Sopandi M.Pd, the Principle of SMAN 1 Ciputat Ciputat
6. Afif Fauzi S.Pd, The teacher of English Language at SMAN 1 Ciputat, for
giving the chance and help to conduct the research
7. All His Beloved friends in English Education Department (Mulkillah, Dade
Pamungkas, Irman Muchtar S.Pd, Ahmad Nurul Furqon S.Pd, Erwan, and
Supenih), Thanks for everything
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8. Miftahul Huda, Abdullah Al-Wazin, Akhmad Hairul Umam S.Pd, M.Fikri Arif, M.Bahrul Ilmi S.Pd and all friends of Initiatives of Change (IofC) Indonesia for their guidances and patience in giving the writer many experience
9. All the friends of Zakat Executive Development Program (ZEDP) 2 of Dompet
Dhuafa Republika for their amazing brotherhood and encouragement to the
writer in finishing his study
10. Ratu Euis Nuryanti, Euis Rahmini, Ratna, Abdul Syukurillah, Bambang
Rismayanto, Acep Heri Rizal, Erlangga Budi Patria and Abdul Ghafur for gving
support and spirit to the writer in completing his study
11. All Friend that cannot mention them one by one who always hel and give the
support, time and love during the study at UIN Jakarta.
May Allah, the Almighty bless them all, Amen.
Finally, the writer realizes that this paper is not perfect yet. Therefore, the writer
would like to welcome and constructive suggestion and criticism to make this paper
better.
Jakarta, April 9, 2008-08-10
\
The Writer
TABLE OF CONTENTS The Legalization of Advisor
The Legalization of Committee
Acknowledgement ���������������������� i
Table of Content ���������������������� iii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of Study ��������������� 1
B. The Limitation and the Formulation of Problem ������. 5
C. The Objective of Study ���������������� 6
D. The Method of Research ���������������. 6
E. The Organization of Writing �������������... 6 CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
5. The Assessment Grading Scale of Speaking ������ 17.
6. Teaching Speaking in KTSP ������������. 21
B. Contextual Teaching Learning (CTL)
1. The Understanding of CTL ������������. 23
2. The Characteristic of CTL ������������� 26
3. The Principle of CTL ��������������... 27
4. The Procedure of CTL in Teaching Speaking ����� 31
C Audio Lingual Method
1. The Understanding of Audio-Lingual Method ����.. 32
2. The Characteristics of Audio-Lingual Method ����� 34
3. The Procedure of Audio-Lingual Method ������... 35
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D. Thinking Framework ����������������. 36
E. Hypothesis ��������������������. 37 CHAPTER III Research Methodology and Findings
A Methodology of Research
1. The Place and Time of Research ����������.. 38
2. The Objective of Research ������������� 38
3. The Population and Sample ������������. 38
4. The Techniques of Data Collecting ���������. 38
5. The Techniques of Data Analysis ���������� 39
6. The Procedure of Research ������������. 40
B. Finding of Research
1. The Description of Data �������������.. 41
2. The Analysis of Data ��������������.. 43
3. The Test of Hypothesis �������������... 45
4. The Interpretation and Discussion of Data ������. 46
CHAPTER IV Conclusion and Suggestion
A. Conclusion �������������������. 47
B. Suggestion �������������������. 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY ���������������������� 49
iv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
It is an evitable fact that English language is the most widely used
language around the world. In current situation, four big countries in the world
use English language as their national language that are United Kingdom, United
States, Canada and Australia. Besides, all commonwealth countries also speak
English as their second language. English is also used as one of the formal
languages in United Nation. From the facts, we can imagine how big the influence
of English language in current global situation.
Indonesia government absolutely realizes with this situation, so that, they
decide English language as a compulsory subject to learn in formal school. Even,
since 1994, English has been decided as one of local-content subject at the
elementary school in the fourth, fifth and sixth year.1 In line with GBPP (Garis-
Garis Besar Pedoman Pengajaran/ The General Instruction of Teaching), the
teaching-learning process of English language concentrates on the four skills, that
are; listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
One of the four skills above which plays a significant role in mastering
English is speaking. As a skill, speaking is the most used skill by people rather
than the three other skills. According to Jack C. Richards, �Learners consequently
often evaluate their success in language learning as well as the effectiveness of
their English course on the basis of how well they feel they have improved in their
spoken proficiency2�. From the statement, writer can say that most language
learners study English in order to develop proficiency in speaking. Besides, many
language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language.
These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much more
1 Anonymous, Kurikulum Muatan Lokal untuk Sekolah Dasar, (Jakarta: Depdikbud, 1994), p. 30
2 Jack C. Richards, Developing Classroom Speaking Activities: From Theory to Practice, Http://www.professorjackrichard.com/developing-classoom-speaking-activities.pdf, p.1. Accessed on November 1, 2007
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than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking
as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in
terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication. Even, one of current
models in literary of language education stated that language is a communication,
not only a set of rule. It means that government and school with the model of
language competences should prepare learners to communicate with the language
in order to participate in the target language community itself.
Competence Based-Curriculum or 2004 curriculum as current
curriculum applied by Indonesian Government becomes such a bridge to achieve
communicative competence (CC) especially speaking skill. Canale and Swain, as
cited in Mariane Celce-Murcia, proposes that the ability to communicate in a
language comprises four dimension namely Grammatical Competence (Including
rules of phonology, orthography, vocabulary, word formation and sentences
formation), Sociolinguistic Competence (rules for the expression and
understanding of appropriate social meanings and grammatical forms in different
context), Discourse Competence (rules of both cohesion-how sentences elements
are tied together in repetition, synonymy, etc-and coherence-how texts are
constructed), and finally, Strategic Competence (a repertoire of compensatory
strategies that help with a variety of communication difficulties)3. This four
competences show the abilities underlying speaking proficiency and it is also
really important elements in the process of developing speaking ability. In line
with CC, one of the learning objectives of English language in 2004 curriculum is
to improve CC including spoken communication. That objective is stated as
follows: �Mengembangkan kemampuan berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Inggris,
dalam bentuk lisan atau tulisan. Kemampuan berkomunikasi ini meliputi
mendengarkan, berbicara, membaca dan menulis�4.
3 Marianne Celce-Murcia, Teaching English As A Second or Foreign Language (Boston: Heinly and Heinle, a Division of Thomson Learning,inc.2001) p.104
4 Depatemen Pendidikan Nasional, Kurrikulum 2004, Standar Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris, Sekolah Menengah Atas dan Madrasah Aliyah, (Jakarta:2003), p.14
2
(Developing the ability to communicate in English in the form of spoken or
written. The ability involves the four skills that are listening, speaking, reading
and writing).
Even though one of learning objectives of English language above is
directed to improve student speaking skill, but it has been put into effect in the
classroom teaching learning process. It can be seen by the low levels student�s
speaking skill. It can be seen from the writer�s experience when teaching Practice
at SMAN 1 Ciputat. Only few students can speak English well, some of students
can�t speak English well and even some others can�t speak English at all.
There are many factors that make student speaking skill is low. It could be
caused by internal factors and external factors. Motivation, interest, and
intelligence are the examples of internal factors. Meanwhile, economic
background, learning materials and teachers� performance including their teaching
methods are the example of external factors.
Method used by teacher in the classroom teaching is often assumed as the
factor that causes the student�s speaking problem. The method used by the teacher
has often been said to be the cause of success or failure in language learning for it
is ultimately the method that determines �the what� and �the how� of language
instructions5. Based on the writer experience when doing teaching practice at
SMAN 1 Ciputat, the writer assumed that Audio-Lingual Method is the method
used by the teacher. It could be seen from several teaching technique implemented
in classroom teaching. The teacher often applied the drill technique in presenting
speaking material before practicing the conversation on English text book Also,
the students were encouraged to memorize the dialogue in pair and then they
performed it in front of the class. Besides, the teacher seems to be the central in
teaching learning process and students just received what the teacher taught.
From that matter of facts, it is clearly seen that the method used by the
teacher, in this case is Audio Lingual Methods, became the causes of students
speaking problem. Eventough this assumption needs to be approved through this
5 William F. Mackey, Language Teaching Analysis, (London: Longman, Green and Co. Ltd, 1966), p. 138.
3
research, actually it�s not easy to teach language especially speaking without
using suitable method because a large number of methods are based on ideas of
how languages are learned. Therefore, the research is done in order to know the
effectiveness of the method in teaching speaking.
There are many methods of language teaching that may be selected for
teaching speaking skill. One of them that is appropriate in developing speaking
skill is Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL). According to Johnson:
CTL is an educational process that aims to help student see meaning in the academic subject with the context of their daily lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances. To achieve this aim, the system encompasses the following eight components: making meaningful connections, doing significant work, self-regulated learning, collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high standards, and using authentic assessments6
From the statement, the writer says that CTL is the method that helps
students relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivate
students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their
lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that
learning requires. In such an environment, student will discover meaningful
relationship between abstract ideas and practical applications in the context of the
real world. Concept is internalized through process of discovering, reinforcing and
relating. In other word, this method is regarded as the effective method in teaching
speaking.
In teaching learning theory, this method is based on constructivism
ideology. In teaching and learning model, students construct their own knowledge
by testing ideas based on prior knowledge and experience, applying these ideas to
a new situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with preexisting.
Constructivism calls for active participation in problem solving and critical
6 Elaine B.Johnson, Contextual Teaching and Learning: What It Is and Why It�s Here to Stay (Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc, 2002) p.25
4
thinking regarding an authentic learning activity that students find relevant and
engaging intellectual constructs.
Even though CTL and ALM are regarded as the appropriate methods in
teaching speaking skill, both methods have its advantages and disadvantages as
the method used for achieving communicative skill including speaking ability.
Therefore, in this paper, the writer would like to use Contextual Teaching and
Learning in teaching speaking in order to know the effectiveness in developing
student speaking ability as to compare with Audio Lingual Method.
B. The Limitation and the Formulation of Problem
1. The Limitation of Problem
In this paper, the writer limits the subject matters to discuss the
effectiveness of teaching speaking through Contextual Teaching and Learning as
to compare with Audio-Lingual Method at the first year students of SMAN
(Stated Senior High School) 1 Ciputat
2. The Formulation of Problem
To make this research more focus, the writer formulates research question as
follows:
�Does the use of Contextual Teaching and Learning in teaching speaking
improve student speaking ability rather than Audio Lingual Method at the first
grade student of SMAN 1 Ciputat?�
C. The Objective of Study
This study aims to know the influence of optimizing of Contextual Teaching
and Learning in student speaking improvement. The writer hopes this research
may become supporting material to get a better way of language teaching
D. The Method of Research
This research will be done by using experimental method. The writer will do
field research by teaching two different classes using two different methods. In the
5
beginning and in the end of the experiment, the students� speaking ability is tested
using the same instruments of speaking test. Then, the data will be analyzed by
using product moment theory.
E. The Organization of Writing
This paper consists of four chapters that are:
The first chapter is introduction which describes the background of study, the
limitation and formulation of problem, the objective of study, the method of
research and the organization of writing.
The second chapter is theoretical frame-work which explains three matters.
First, it explains the Understanding of speaking, the functions of speaking, the
kinds of speaking activity, Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability and the
assessment grading scale of speaking. Second, it explains the understanding of
Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL), characteristics of CTL, the application
of CTL in the classroom teaching and the procedure of CTL in classroom
teaching. Third, it explains the understanding of Audio Lingual Method (ALM),
the characteristics of ALM and the procedure of ALM in classroom teaching.
The Third chapter is the discussion about research methodology and findings.
Methodology of research explains the purpose of research, place and time of
research, techniques of sample taking, techniques of data collecting, techniques of
data analysis and procedure of research. Finding of research explains the
description of data, the analysis of data, the test of hypothesis, the interpretation
and discussion of data.
Finally, the fourth chapter is conclusion and suggestion
6
7
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.
A. Speaking
1. The Understanding of Speaking
Speaking is significant to an individual�s living processes and experiences
as are the ability of seeing and walking. Speaking is also the most natural way to
communicate. Without speaking, people must remain in almost total isolation
from any kind of society. For most people, the ability to speak a language is the
same with knowing a language since the speech is the most basic means of human
communication. When we speak, a great deal more than just mouth is involved
such as nose, pharynx, epiglottis, trachea, lungs and more. But, speaking isn�t just
making sound. Birds, animals, babies make sound and though it may be
communication of sorts, it�s not speaking.1
Actually, what is the meaning of speaking? In the process of writing this
paper, the writer has tried to find out the meaning of speaking as one of skills in
English language. He has finally found several resources that explain speaking as
follows.
According to Noah Webster, speaking has a variety of meanings:
a. To tell, to say, to make known or as by speaking, to declare; to
announce
b. To proclaim; to celebrate
c. To use or be able to use (a given language) in speaking
d. To address2
In addition, Oxford Dictionary states that "speaking is to make use of
language in an ordinary, not singing, to state view, wishes etc or an act of
spokesman3�.
1 Sandra Cornbleet and Ronald Carter , The Language of Speech and Writing, (London: Routledge publisher, 2001) p.17
2 Noah Webster, Webster�s New Twentieth Century Dictionary, 2nd Edition, (New York: William Collins Publishers, 1980), p.1980
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Meanwhile, Henry G. Tarigan defines that, ��speaking is a skill of
conveying words or sounds of articulation to express or to deliver ideas, opinions,
or feelings4�.
Don Bryne states that, �oral communication (or speaking) is a two way
process between speaker and listener and involves the productive skill of speaking
and the receptive skill of understanding5�.
Based on the previous four definitions, it can be synthesized that speaking
is the process of sharing with another person, or with other persons, one�s
knowledge, interests, attitudes, opinions or ideas. Delivery of ideas, opinions, or
feelings is some important aspects of the process of speaking which a speaker�s
idea become real to him and his listeners.
Meanwhile, in the process of writing this paper, writer has found some
different terms that are associated with �speaking� from several resources that are
�talk�, �speech�, �oral communication�, �oral language� and �spoken language�.
That is why the writer sometimes used that one of those five terms when
explaining speaking theory in this chapter. Basically, all the four terms have
similar meaning with term �speaking�.
2. The Functions of Speaking
Several language experts have attempted to categorize the functions of
speaking in human interaction. According to Brown and Yule, as quoted by Jack
C. Richards, �The functions of speaking are classified into three; they are talk as
interaction, talk as transaction and talk as performance. Each of these speech
activities is quite distinct in term of form and function and requires different
teaching approaches6�. Below are the explanations of the functions of speaking:
3 AS Hornby, Oxford Advance Learner�s Dictionary. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Sixth Edition, 1987) p.827
4Henry G. Tarigan, Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Ketrampilan Berbahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1981), p. 15
5 Donn Byrne, Teaching Oral English (New York: Longman, 1998) p.8 6 Jack C.Richard, Developing Classroom Speaking Activities; From Theory to Practice,
Http://www.professorjackrichard.com/developing-classoom-speaking-activities.pdf, p.2, It was retrieved on November 1 2007
9
a. Talk as Interaction
Being able to interact in a language is essential. In fact, much of our daily
communication remains interactional. This refers to what we normally mean by
�conversation�. The primary intention in talk as interaction is to maintain social
relationship.
Meanwhile, talk as interaction has several main features as follows:
Has a primarily social function Reflects role relationships Reflects speaker�s identity May be formal or casual Uses conversational conventions reflects degrees of politeness Employs many generic words Uses conversational register
Some of the skills (involved in using talk as interaction) are:
Opening and closing conversation Choosing topics Making small-talk Recounting personal incidents and experiences Turn-taking Using adjacency pairs Interrupting Reacting to others7
Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority
for all learners. In talk as interaction, the ability to speak in natural way is required
in order to create a good communication. That is why some students sometimes
avoid this kind of situation because they often lose for words and feel difficulty in
presenting a good image of them selves. This can be a disadvantage for some
learners where the ability to use talk as interaction can be important.
b. Talk as Transaction
This type of talk or speaking refers to situations where the focus is on what
is said or done. The message is the central focus here and making oneself
understood clearly and accurately, rather than the participants and how they
7 Jack C Richards, Developing Classroom�, p.2-3
10
interact socially with each other8. In transaction, talk is associated with other
activities. For example, student may be engaged in hand-on activities (e.g. in
language lesson) to explore concept associated with tenses and derivations.
Anne Burns, as cited in Jack C. Richards, distinguishes talk as transaction
into two different types. One is a situation where the focus is on giving and
receiving information and where the participants focus primarily on what is said
or achieved. Accuracy may not be a priority as long as information is successfully
communicated or understood. The second type is transactions which focus on
obtaining goods or services, such as checking into a hotel9. In this type of spoken
language, students and teachers usually focus on meaning or on talking their way
to understanding.
Meanwhile, talk as transaction has several main features as follows:
It has a primarily information focus The main focus is the message and not the participants Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves
understood There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks There may be negotiation and digression Linguistic accuracy is not always important
Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are :
explaining a need or intention describing something Asking questioning Confirming information Justifying an opinion Making suggestions Clarifying understanding Making comparisons10
Compared with talk as interaction, talk as transaction is easier for some
student because it only focuses on messages delivered to the others. Also, talk as
interaction is more easily planned since current communicative materials are a
rich resource of group activities, information-gap activities and role plays. It can
8Jack C Richards, Developing Classroom�, p.3 9 Jack C Richards, Developing Classroom�, p.3 10 Jack C Richards, Developing Classroom�, p. 4
11
provide a source for practicing how to use talk fro sharing and obtaining
information as well as for carrying out the real-world transactions.
C. Talk as Performance
This refers to public talk or public speaking, that is, talk which transmits
information before an audience such as morning talks, public announcements, and
speeches. Talk as performance tends to be in the form of monolog rather than
dialog. Often follows a recognizable format and is closer to written language than
conversational language. Similarly it is often evaluated according to its
effectiveness or impact on the listener, something which is unlikely to happen
with talk as interaction or transaction. Examples of talk as performance are giving
a class report about a school trip, conducting a class debate, making a sales
presentation, and giving a lecture.
The main features of talk as performance are:
There is a focus on both message and audience It reflects organization and sequencing Form and accuracy is important Language is more like written language It is often monologic
Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are:
Using an appropriate format Presenting information in an appropriate sequence Maintaining audience engagement Using correct pronunciation and grammar Creating an effect on the audience Using appropriate vocabulary Using appropriate opening and closing11
It is clearly seen from the features and skill involved in using talk as
performance that initially talk as performance needs to be prepared in much the
same way as written text. Therefore, this kind of talk requires a different teaching
strategy. This involves providing examples or models of speeches or oral
11Jack C Richards, Developing Classroom�, p.6
12
presentation. Therefore, question such as the following are needed in order to
guide this process:
What is the speaker purpose? Who is the audience? What kind of information does the audience expect Is any special language used?
3. The Kinds of Speaking Activities
To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, there are
some activities are used in the classroom to promote the development of speaking
skills in our learners. The discussions below centers on the major types of
speaking activities that can be implemented as follows:
a) Discussion
Discussion is probably the most commonly used in the speaking skills
classroom activity12. It is a common fact that discussion really useful activity for
the teacher in order to activate and involve student in classroom teaching.
Typically, student are introduced to a topic via reading, listening passage, or a
video tape and are then asked to get into pairs or groups to discuss a related topic
in order to come up with a solution, a response, or the like. Normally, people need
time to assemble their thought before any discussion and that is something needs
to consider. So, Teacher must take care in planning and setting up a discussion
activity. According to Marianne Celce-Murcia, there are several steps that should
be done by the teacher before starting the discussion activity, that are: first,
planned (versus random) grouping or pairing of students may be necessary to
ensure a successful discussion outcome. Second, students need to be reminded
that each person should have a specific responsibility in the discussion, whether it
is kept on time, take note or report results. And finally, students need to be clear
about what they are to discuss, why they are discussing it, and what outcome is
12 Marianne Celce-Murcia, , Teaching English As A Second or Foreign Language (Boston: Heinly and Heinle, a Division of Thomson Learning,Inc.2001)p.106
13
expected.13 In order to manage a good discussion activity, the writer concludes
that the steps above are really important to do because most teachers hope that
they will be able to organize discussion session in their classroom, particularly if
the exchanges of opinions provoke spontaneous fluent language use.
b) Information gap/problem solving
One type of speaking activity involves the so-called �information gap�-
where two speakers have different parts of information making up a whole.
Because they have different information, there is a �gap� between them14. In this
activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the
information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their
information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a
problem or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role
because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the
information the others need. An example of an information gap principle is using
the �jigsaw� material . Jo McDonough and Christoper Shaw said that,
In a jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the "puzzle," and the partners must cooperate to fit all the pieces into a whole picture. The puzzle piece may take one of several forms. It may be one panel from a comic strip or one photo from a set that tells a story. It may be one sentence from a written narrative. It may be a tape recording of a conversation, in which case no two partners hear exactly the same conversation.15
From the statement above, the writer can say that information gap and
jigsaw activity are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk
extensively in the target language and they can exchange information each others
because of the gap between them.
13 Marianne Celce-Murcia, Teaching English As�, p.107 14 Jeremy Harmer, How To Teach English (New York:Longman, 1990) p.91 15 Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw, Material and methods in ELT; a Teacher�s
Another common activity in the oral skills class is the prepared speech.
Topics for speeches will vary depending on the level of the students and the focus
of the class, but in any case, students should be given some leeway in determining
the content of their talks16. In order words, the teacher can provide the structure
for the speech-its theoretical genre and its time restrictions. For example asking
students to �tell us about an unforgettable experience you had�. Allow them to
talk about something that is personally meaningful while at the same time
encourages narration and description. Speeches can be frightening for the speaker
and after while boring for the listeners, so it is a good idea to assign the listeners
some responsibilities during the speeches. It is an excellent time to require peer
evaluation of classmate�s speech.
d) Role plays
One way of getting student to speak in different social context and to
assume varied social roles is to use role-play activities in the classroom. Role
plays can be performed from prepared scripts, created from a set of prompt and
expression or written using and consolidation knowledge gained from instruction
or discussion of the speech act and its variations prior to the role plays
themselves17. Because sociocultural are so crucial in the production of speech
acts, it is suggested that discourse rating task, in which students rate dialogues or
scenarios on various continua of formality and the like, can raise awareness about
language and can help transfer this knowledge to production activities such as role
plays. Besides, the social interaction activities, on the others hand, also requires
the learner to pay more attention to the establishment and maintenance of social
relationships. Meanwhile, two things can be added to this description. Firstly, the
teacher could make the role-play a whole-class activity by having all the students
act out a public meeting with many speakers. Secondly, not all role-play a party
16 Marianne Celce-Murcia, Teaching English As�, p.107 17 Marianne Celce-Murcia, Teaching English As�, p.107
15
situation, for example, all you might need to do is set the party scene and then tell
student to go either as themselves or as a living or dead person they would like to
be18. Role play is more than just play-acting. It offers chances for rehearsal and
engagement that some others activities fail to give.
e) Conversations
One of the recent trends in oral skills pedagogy is the emphasis on having
students analyze and evaluate the language that they or others produce. In other
word, it is not adequate to have students produce lots of language; they must
become more metalinguistically aware of many features of language in order to
become competent speakers and interlocutors in English. One speaking activity
which is particularly suited to this kind of analysis is conversation, the most
fundamental form of oral communication19. One way to approach this activity is
to assign students to find a native speaker (or near-native speaker) they know and
arrange to tape-record a 20-30 minutes interaction with this person. Of course, not
all of the discourse that results from this encounter will be truly �natural
conversation-the native may fall into the role of �interviewer and ask all questions
while the non-native merely responds; therefore the instructor may want to
encourage the learner beforehand to come up with a few questions to ask native
speaker. In any case, the resulting interaction will provide a sample of
spontaneous from (and for) the learner to analyze. In a variation of the
conversation, learners are required to tape-record an interview with native speaker
on a topic of their choices and then repot the result to the class .
4. Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability
According to Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Reynanda, there are four
factors that affect student oral communication ability that are age or maturational
constraints, aural medium, socio-cultural factors and affective factors. Below are
the explanations of the four factors that affect student speaking skill.
18 Jeremy Harmer, How To Teach�, p.91 19 Marianne Celce-Murcia, Teaching English As�, p.108
16
a) Age or Maturational Constraints
Age is one of the most commonly cited determinant factors of success or
failure in foreign language learning. Several experts such as Krashen and
Scarcella argue that acquires who begin learning a second language in
early childhood through natural exposure achieves higher proficiency than
those beginning as adults. Many adults fail to reach native-like proficiency
in a second language. Their progress seems to level off at certain stage.
This fact shows that the aging process itself may affect or limit adult
learner�s ability to pronounce the target language fluently with native-like
pronunciation20.
b) Aural Medium
The central role of listening comprehension in foreign language
acquisition process in now largely accepted. It means that Listening plays
an extremely important role in the development of speaking abilities.
Speaking feeds listening, which precede it. So, speaking is closely related
to or interwoven with listening which is the basic mechanism through
which the rules of language are internalized21.
c) Socio-cultural Factors
Many cultural characteristics of a language also affect foreign language
learning. From a pragmatic perspective, language is a form of social action
because linguistic communication occurs in the context of structured
interpersonal exchange and meaning is thus socially regulated. Thus, to
speak a language, one must know how language is used in a social context.
It is well known that each language has its own rules of usage as to when,
how, and what degree a speaker may impose a given verbal behavior of
their conversational partner. In addition, oral communication involves a
very powerful nonverbal communication system which sometimes
20 Jack C.Richards and Willy A.Reynanda, Methodology in �, p.205 21 Jack C.Richards and Willy A.Reynanda, Methodology in �, p.205
17
contradicts the messages provided through the verbal listening channel.
Because of a lack of familiarity with nonverbal communication system of
target language, EFL learners usually do not know how to pick up
nonverbal cues. So, it is an important point to understand that socio-
cultural factor is another aspect that great affect oral communication22.
d) Affective Factors
The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most important
influences on language learning success or failure. The affective factors
related to foreign language learning emotions, self-esteem, empathy,
anxiety, attitude and motivation. Foreign language learning is a complex
task that is supectible to human anxiety which is associated with feeling of
uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and apprehension. Speaking a foreign
language in public, especially in front of native speakers, is often anxiety-
provoking23.
These four factors play an important role in determining the success and
the failure of student in learning speaking. Learning to speak a foreign language
requires more that knowing its grammatical and semantic rules. Factors affecting
Adult EFL learners oral communication is the thing that need to be consider by
EFL teacher in order to provide guidance in developing competent speaker of
English. Once the EFL teachers are aware of these things, he will teach in more
appropriate way and it will help them to develop student speaking skill.
5. The Assessment Grading Scale of Speaking
As most people say that testing speaking is the most complex to assess
with precision. Many of teachers often feel uncomfortable when handling
speaking test since it is often difficult to be objective and consistent when testing
a large number of students. But it doesn�t mean that speaking test can�t be
22 Jack C.Richards and Willy A.Reynanda, Methodology in �, p.206 23 Jack C.Richards and Willy A.Reynanda, Methodology in �, p.206
18
measured in correct way. Writer has found several resources that explain about the
way to assess speaking test and its technique. Hughes, as quoted by Endang
Fauziati, listed three general formats for testing speaking ability that are interview,
interaction with peers and responses to tape recording24. Interaction with peers is
the technique that will be used by writer to assess speaking ability. In the
interaction with peers, two or more students may be asked to discuss a topic. The
problem with this format is that the performance of one student may be affected
by that of others. One student might dominate the conversation. Therefore, Heaton
said that it is important to make pair students with similar level of language
proficiency. Meanwhile, determining the rating scale used is the next step to do in
assessing speaking skill. Writer found various books that presented the sample of
an oral English rating scale. J.B. Heaton in his book, Writing English Language
Test, examined rating scale of six-point range. In addition, Ingram and Elaine
Wylie, in their article �Assessing Speaking Proficiency in the International
English Language Testing System examined rating scale of nine-point range.
Besides, Harris in his book Testing English as a Second Language examined
rating scales of five-point range.
In this paper, the writer quoted the one that used by Harris as it is the most
applicable to our speaking class rating system, since we would have 1-10 or 10-
100 range of point as stated in the guidelines of scoring speaking skill in 2004
curriculum. According to Harris, speaking is a complex skill requiring the
simultaneous use of different ability which often develops at different rates. Five
components are generally recognized in analyses of speech process that are
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency (the ease and speed of the flow of
the speech) and comprehension (an understanding of what both the tester and the
testee are talking about or the ability to respond to speech as well as to initiate
24 Endang Fauziati, Testing Speaking Skill, A paper of the49th International TEFLIN Conference, English :A Prerequisite for Global Communication (Denpasar: English Department, Faculty of Letters, University Of Udayana), p.4
19
it)25. Harris presented the sample of an oral English rating scale that used 1-5
points. Below is the frame of Harris�s oral English rating scale
No Criteria Rating Scores Comments 1. Pronunciation 5 Has few traces of foreign language
4 Always intelligible, thought one is conscious of a definite accent
3 Pronunciation problem necessities concentrated listening and occasionally lead to misunderstanding
2 Very hard to understand because of pronunciation problem, most frequently be asked to repeat
1 Pronunciation problem to serve as to make speech virtually unintelligible
2. Grammar 5 Make few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar and word order
4 Occasionally makes grammatical and or word orders errors that do not, however obscure meaning
3 Make frequent errors of grammar and word order, which occasionally obscure meaning
2 grammar and word order errors make comprehension difficult, must often rephrases sentence and or rest rich himself to basic pattern
1 Errors in grammar and word order, so, severe as to make speech virtually unintelligible
3. Vocabulary 5 Use of vocabulary and idioms is virtually that of native speaker
4 Sometimes uses inappropriate terms and must rephrases ideas because of lexical and equities
3 Frequently uses the wrong words conversation somewhat limited because of inadequate vocabulary
2 Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary makes comprehension quite difficult
1 Vocabulary limitation so extreme as to make conversation virtually impossible
4. Fluency 5 Speech as fluent and efforts less as that of native speaker
4 Speed of speech seems to be slightly affected by language problem
3 Speed and fluency are rather strongly affected by language problem
2 Usually hesitant, often farced into silence by language limitation
1 Speech is so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible
5. Comprehension 5 Appears to understand everything without
25 David P.Harris, Testing English as A Second Language, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,1969),p.
20
difficulty 4 Understand nearly everything at normal speed
although occasionally repetition may be necessary
3 Understand most of what is said at slower than normal speed without repetition
2 Has great difficulty following what is said can comprehend only �social conversation� spoken slowly and with frequent repetition
1 Can not be said to understand even simple conversational English
The oral ability test divided into five elements; pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Each element�s characteristics are then defined into five short behavioral statements as stated in the frames above. This helps to make the test reliable, since it avoids subjectivity because it provides clear, precise and mutually exclusive behavioral statements for each point of the scale. The writer will objectively see the characteristics of each student�s speaking ability whether they achieve 1,2,3,4 or 5 score. Then, it can easily calculate the score. The amount of maximum scores gained is 25. It is gained from the five elements of speaking as stated above. This amount of score can be described as follows:
25 Since our speaking class rating system is used the range of point 1-10 or 1-
100, then, to make it easier to calculate, the score is converted into 100 point scale
by multiplying it with 4. The rating system used here is based on the rounding off
system. It is also in line with the statement from Hazell. Hazell, as cited in Endang
Fauziati article, stated that teachers could modify the range point scale based on
their need. So, it is clearly seen that the writer modify the range score because the
need of the scoring system as stated in the previous page. According to the
rounding off system, writer concludes that 100 point is the highest score gained by
a student and 20 point is the lowest score gained by a student.
21
6. Teaching speaking in KTSP (Kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan)
Speaking is one of skills that taught in english language material. KTSP is
curret curriculum applied by indonesian government. KTSP is similar with KBK
or curriculum-based competence in several ways. The differentiates are that KTSP
give more space to the school to determine basic competency (kompetensi dasar)
and indikator (indikator) based on the situation of the school. So, the government
only determined the standar of competency and then it is interpreted by each
school.
A. The Standard Competence
To implement KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan,) the local
government now has right to improve more how to implement it in school level. It
is obviously stated on the government decree number 19 year 2005 about National
Standard Education:
Sekolah dan komite sekolah, atau madrasah dan komite madrasah, mengembangkan kaurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan dan silabusnya berdasarkan kerangka dasar kurikulum dan standar kompetensi lulusan di bawah supervisi Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten/Kota yang bertangung jawab terhadap pendidikan untuk SD, SMP, SMA, dan SMK, serta Departemen yang menangani urusan pemerintahan di bidang agama untuk MI, MTs, MA, dan MAK ( Pasal 17 Ayat 2)
Perencanan proses pembelajaran meliputi silabus dan rencana pelaksanan pembelajaran yang memuat sekurang-kurangnya tujuan pembelajaran, materi ajar, metode pengajaran, sumber belajar, dan penilaian hasil belajar (Pasal 20)
So it is understood that school could explore and modify KTSP according to school�s need and its vision and mission. Furthermore, KTSP implementation is also stated on National Education Minister�s decree number 22 and 23 year 2006.
In implementing KTSP, one of the points that need to be considered is how to develop the syllabus. In English subject, the syllabus is designed based on Standar Isi which is consist of subject, identity, competence standard and basic competence, main learning material, learning activity, and indicators, assesment, time alocation and learning resource.
So, the goverment has defined standard competence for speaking in the first
year grade (kelas sepuluh) at second semester of senior high school level as
follows:
22
1. Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan transaksional dan interpersonal
dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari
2. Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks fungsional pendek dan monolog
sederhana berbentuk narative, descriptif, dan news item dalam konteks
kehidupan sehari-hari
2. The Basic Competence
The basic competence is the minimum competence that needs to be
mastered by the students in achieving reading skill; it is the modification of the
standard competence. The basic competence for speaking skill in the second
semester of first year grade student at SMAN 1 Ciputat are:
1. Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan transaksional (to get things
done) dan interpersonal (bersosialisasi) resmi dan tak resmi secara
akurat, lancar berterimakasih dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan
sederhana dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan melibatkan tindak
tutur:berterimakasih, memuji dan mengucapkan selamat.
2. Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan transaksional (to get things
done) dan interpersonal (bersosialisasi) resmi dan tak resmi secara
akurat, lancar berterimakasih dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan
sederhana dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan melibatkan tindak
tutur: menyatakan rasa terkejut, rasa tak percaya, serta menerima
undangan, tawaran dan ajakan.
3. mempergunakan makna dalam bentuk teks lisan fungsional pendek
(misalnya pengumuman, iklan, undangan dll) resmi dan tak resmi
dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan sederhana dalam berbagai
konteks kehidupan sehari-hari
4. mengungkapkan makna dalam teks monolog sederhana dengan
menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan secara akurat, lancar dan berterima
dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dalam teks berbentuk:narative,
descriptive dan news item.
23
Further detailed of basic competence operational in speaking skill for
senior high school in first year students (tenth year) at second semester will be
explained in the indicator of learning out come.
C. The Indicator
The learning outcome or the indicator indicates some areas that need to
be gained by the students in achieving speaking skills. Below are the learning
outcome at second semester:
1. students are able to use and respond the expression of gratitude, praising,
and congratulate to other
2. students are able to use and respond the expression of surprise, disbelieve
annd offering
3. students are able to announce in the form of spoken language
4. students are able to deliver verbal invitation
5. students are able to act the monolog to advertise something
6. students are able to use oral language
7. students are able to use simple present tense in describing something or
someone
8. students are able to do monolog to deliver an information and to describe
something
9. students are able to tell the story in the form of oral language
10. students are able to be a reporter and story teller
B. Contextual Teaching and learning (CTL)
1. The Understanding of CTL
The philosophy of CTL was rooted from progressivisms of John Dewey26.
John Dewey, an expert of classical education proposed the theory of curriculum
and teaching methodology related to the student�s experience and interest.
26 Nurhadi,Dkk., Pembelajaran Kontextual (Contextual Teaching and Learning/CLT) dan Penerapannya Dalam KBK (Malang: Penerbit Universitas Negeri Malang, 2004), p.8
24
Principally, the students will learn effectively if they can make a connection
between what they are learning with the experience they had, and also they
actively involve in learning process in the classroom. John Dewey, as quoted by
Donald freeman, said that,� what an individual has learned in the way of
knowledge and skills in one situation becomes an instrument of understanding and
dealing effectively with the situation which follows. The process goes on as long
as life and learning continue27�
The theory of Cognitivisme also influenced the philosophy of CTL. The
students will learn so well if they actively involve in the classroom activities and
have a chance to inquiry it by their selves. Students will show their learning
achievement through the real things that they can do. Learning is regarded as an
effort or intellectual activity for developing their idea through introspection
activity28.
Based on two theories above, the CTL philosophy was developed. CTL is
a proven concept that incorporates much of the most recent research in cognitive
science. It is also a reaction to the essentially behaviorist theory that have
dominated American education for many decades. CTL is promoted as the
alternative for the new learning strategy. CTL emphasize the learning process
through �constructing� not memorizing and teaching is interpreted as an activity
of inquiring process not only transferring knowledge to the students. In CTL,
student are expected to develop their own understanding from their past
experience or knowledge (assimilation). It is important because our brain or
human mind functioned as the instrument for interpreting knowledge so that it
will have a unique sense.
Meanwhile, several attempts have been made to define the meaning of
CTL method. In the process of searching the meaning of CTL, writer has found
several definitions about it from different resources.
27 Donald Freeman, Changing Teaching: Insight Into Individual Development In The Contexts Of School, On Christopher Ward and Willy Reynanda (Ed.), Language Teaching, a New Insights For The Language Teacher (Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Center, 1999), p.34
28 Nurhadi,Dkk., Pembelajaran Kontextual�, p.9
25
Johnson defines CTL as follows:
CTL is an educational process that aims to help student see meaning in the academic subject with the context of their daily lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances. To achieve this aim, the system encompasses the following eight components: making meaningful connections, doing significant work, self-regulated learning, collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high standards, and using authentic assessments29
In addition, Berns and Errickson stated that,
Contextual teaching and learning is a conception of teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivates students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires.30.
Meanwhile, The Washington State Consortium for Contextual Teaching
and Learning, as cited in Nurhadi, formulate the definition of CTL as follows,
Contextual teaching is teaching that enables students to reinforce, expand, and apply their academic knowledge and skills in a variety of in-school and out-of school settings in order to solve the stimulated or real-world problems.31
Based on the previous four definitions, the writer concludes that CTL is
the way or the concept of teaching that help teacher and students to relate subject
matter to the real life situation and motivate student to connect and apply all
aspect of learning into their role in real life. When we talked about context, most
people say that it related to their social life. In the classroom teaching, CTL means
teacher should present the student real world inside the classroom.
29 Elaine B.Johnson, Contextual Teaching and Learning: What It Is and Why It�s Here to Stay (Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press,Inc,2002) p.25
30 Robert G. Berns and Patricia M. Erickson, Contextual Teaching and Learning:Preparing Students for the New Economy. www.nccte.com, it was retrieved on November 1 2007.
Johnson, as quoted by Nurhadi, characterizes CTL into eight important
elements as follows:
1. Making Meaningful Connections
Students can organize them selves as learners, who learn actively in
improving their interest individually, person who can work
individually or collectively in a group, and a person who can do
learning by doing
2. Doing Significant Work
Student can make relationship among schools and the various existing
contexts in the real world as business maker and as a citizen
3. Self-Regulated Learning
Students do the significant work; it has purpose, it has connection with
others, it has connection with decision making and it has the concrete
results or products
4. Collaborating
Students are able to work together. The teacher helps students in order
to work effectively in a group and teacher helps them to understand the
way how to persuade and communicate each others.
5. Critical and Creative Thinking
Students are able to apply higher level thinking critically and
effectively. They are able to analyze, to synthesize, to tackle the
problem, to make a decision and to think logically.
6. Nurturing the Individual
Students carry on their selves, understand, give attention, posses high
wishes, motivate and empower themselves. Students can�t get the
success without the support from adult people. Students should respect
their companion and adult person
27
7. Reaching High Standards
Students know and reach the high standard. It identifies their purposes
and motivates them to reach it. Teacher shows to students how to reach
what called �excellent�
8. Using Authentic Assessments
Students use academic knowledge in the real world context to the
meaningful purposes. For example, students may describe the
academic information that have learnt in subject of science, health,
education, math, and English subject by designing a car, planning the
school menu, or making the serving of human emotion or telling their
experience32
These eight characteristics make CTL different from other methods. These
Characteristics became the main components in applying CTL method. It is also
clearly seen that these eight characteristics asks the students for actively involving
in classroom activity. Collaborating, nurturing the individual and creative and
critical Thinking ask the students to responsible for their own learning. The role of
teacher in CTL is to facilitate student to find the fact or the meaning, concept, or
principles for their selves. Once these eight characteristics applied in classroom, it
will help both student and teachers in creating a good atmosphere where the
learners have a great responsibility in achieving their success in leaning.
3. The Principle of CTL
1. Constructivism
Constructivism is the foundation of CTL. The basic premise is that an
individual learner must actively �build� knowledge and skills. However, all
advocates of constructivism agree that it is the individual�s processing of stimuli
from the environment and the resulting cognitive structure that produce adaptive
32 Nurhadi,Dkk., Pembelajaran Kontextual�, p.14
28
behavior rather than the stimuli themselves33. In the classroom teaching learning
process, the application of constructivism are applied in five step of learning that
are activating knowledge, acquiring knowledge, understanding knowledge,
applying knowledge and reflecting on knowledge34. The constructivism paradigm
has led us to understand how learning can be facilitated through certain types of
engaging, constructive activities. This model of learning emphasizes meaning-
making through active participation in situated context socially, culturally,
historically, and politically.
2. Inquiry
Basically, inquiry is a complex idea that means many things to many
people in any contexts. Inquiry is asking, asking something valuable that related
to the topic discussed. Inquiry is defined as �a seeking for truth, information or
knowledge�seeking information by questioning. in applying inquiry activity in
the classroom teaching, there are several steps that should be followed that are
formulating problem, collecting data through observation, analyzing and
presenting data (through written form, picture, report and table) and finally,
communicating and presenting the result of data to the readers, classmates, and
the other audients
3. Questioning
Questioning is the mother of contextual teaching and learning, the
beginning of knowledge, the heart of knowledge and the important aspect of
learning. Sadker and Sadker, as quoted by Nurhadi, mentioned the important of
questioning technique in classroom teaching. They said,
To question well is to teach well. In the skillful use of the question more than anything else lies fine art of teaching; for in it we have the guide to clear and vivid ideas, and the quick spur of imagination, the stimulus to thought, the incentive to action. What�s in a question, you ask?
2008
33 www.chiron.valdosa.edu/whuitt/cogys/construct.html. it was retrieved on January 1 34 Nurhadi,Dkk., Pembelajaran Kontextual�,p.33
Everything. It is the way of evoking stimulating response or stultifying inquiry. It is in essence, the very core of teaching. The art of questioning is the art of guide learning35
Sometimes, the teacher asks to the students before, during and after the
lesson. At other times, they are posed effectively by the students to focus their
own lesson, keep them engaged and help them monitor their understanding of
what was learned. In a productive teaching learning, questioning activity are
useful for checking students comprehension, solving problem faced by students,
stimulating responses to the students, measuring student�s curiosity, focusing
student attention, and refreshing students prior knowledge.
4. Learning Community
In learning community, the result of learning can be gotten from
gathering others and also can be taken from sharing with friends, other groups,
and between make out person and not. Actually, learning community has the
meaning as follows: 1).Group of learning which communicate to share the idea
and experience, 2).Working together to solve the problem and 3).The
responsibility of each member of learning group
It is sometimes forgotten that language classes operate as communities,
each within its own collection of shared understandings that have been build up
over time. The overall character or each language class is created, developed, and
maintained by everyone in room. Each class member has a specific role to play,
even those with ostensibly low profile such as �onlooker� or �observer� (noticing
what is going on), �knower� (being privy to shared class understanding) and
follower (reacting in the same way as everyone else to certain teacher or student
initiatives).
35 Nurhadi,Dkk., Pembelajaran Kontextual�,p.45
30
5. Modeling
Basically, modeling is verbalization of ideas, teacher demonstrates to
students to study and acting what the teacher need to be implemented by students.
Modeling activity can be summarized into demonstrates the teacher�s opinion and
demonstrates how does the teacher want the student to learn
6. Reflections
Reflection is the ways of thinking about what the students have learned
and thinking about what the students have done in the past. Reflection is
figuration of activity and knowledge that just have received. Teacher need to do
the reflections in the end of teaching learning process. In the end of teaching
learning process, teacher spends a little time and ask student to do the reflection.
The realization of reflection can be done by giving direct statement about the
information that acquired in the lesson, some notes or journal on student book,
some impression and suggestion from students about the learning process and
discussion.
7. Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessment is a procedure of achievement in the CTL.
Assessments of students� performance can come from the teacher and the
students. Authentic assessment is the process of collecting the data that can give
the description of student learning development. In the process of learning, not
only the teacher that can be placed to provide accurate assessments of students�
performance, but also students can be extremely effective at monitoring and
judging their own language production. They frequently have a very clear idea of
how well they are doing or have done, and if we help them to develop this
awareness, we can greatly enhance learning36. Meanwhile, authentic assessment
has some characteristics that are :(a) Involves real world experience, (b) Allows
access to information, (c) Encourages the use of computer, dictionary and human
36 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, the Third Edition (Longman, 2002), p. 100
31
resources, (d) Engages the students by relevance, (e) Uses open-ended format, (f)
Includes self-assessment and reflection, (g) Warrant effort and practice, (h)
Identifies strength to enable students to show what they can do and (i) Make
assessment criteria clearer to students37
Essentially, the question that needs to answer by authentic assessment is
�Does the students learn something?� not �What have they already known?� So,
the students are assessed through many ways, not only assessed their examination
test.
3. The Procedure of CTL in Teaching Speaking
Seven main components of CTL that explained above are the main
requirements in classroom teaching learning process. Below are the procedures
how to apply CTL, including speaking class activity, in the classroom teaching
learning process.
1. Improve the understanding that student will learn more effectively through
self-learning, self-inquiring, and self-constructing using their own
knowledge and experience.
First, Teacher need to encourage student to actively involve in learning
process and use the student�s idea and experience to conduct the learning
and whole learning unit
2. do the inquiring activity to achieved desired competences in speaking
activity
In this step, the teacher presents the speaking material (e.g in the form of
certain pictures or visual aid that describes some activities) in which the
student need to analyze it by their self. Try to challenge the students with
their own ideas and conceptions to interpret it. Allow them to present their
own idea and encourage them to apply their own ideas, experience and
interest to direct learning process.
37 Nurhadi,Dkk., Pembelajaran Kontextual�,p.43
32
3. Create learning community or learning in groups
This step will help student to improve their leadership and their
cooperation among the student. In this step, the students discuss the
material with their friends and then they present it in front of the class. To
make the learning process more effective, teacher need to encourage the
students to express their own ideas before the teacher did it.
4. Questioning as a learning tool. it is useful for improving student�s
curiosity
The teachers allow the students to ask something related to the material
after the discussion and presentation session finished. It will give them
more understanding in material discussed.
5. Do the reflection in the end of learning to make student feel that they have
learned something.
Provide enough time to reflect, analyze, and respect all ideas that are
expressed by all students. Teacher need to engage the students in searching
the information that can be applied in solving the problem in their own
life. So, the learning process will give them many benefits in their real life.
C. Audio-Lingual Method
1. The Understanding of Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-lingual method is the product of three historical
circumstances38. For its views on language, Audio-Lingualism drew on the work
of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield. The prime concern of
American linguistics at the early decades of the 20th century had been to
document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. However, because of
the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description
of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason,
a strong focus on oral language was developed. At the same time, Behaviorists
38 Audio-Lingual Method, From Wikipedia; the Free Encyclopedia. www.wikipedia.com, it was retrieved on November 1 2007
psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behaviour
(including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative
reinforcement. The third factor that enabled the birth of the Audio-Lingual
Method was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large
number of American servicemen all over the world. At that time, there was a need
for people to learn foreign language rapidly for military purposes. Because of the
influence of the military, early versions of the Audio-Lingualism came to be
known as the �Army Method�.
This method also was developed as a reaction to the grammar-translation
method of teaching foreign languages39. Grammar-translation had been used to
teach for thousands of years, but the method was perceived as taking too long for
learners to be able to speak in the target language. The Audio-Lingual method set
out to achieve quick communicative competence through innovative methods.
Audio-Lingual Method which based on Behaviorism was also one of the
basic contributions of linguistics to the teaching of modern foreign language in the
1940�s40. Modern linguistic science maintains that language is behavior. The
Audio-Linguists maintain that only classroom procedures which include behavior
in the classroom will develop the terminal behavior desired.
Meanwhile, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia in internet, define Audio-
Lingual Method as follows:
The Audio-Lingual Method, or the Army Method or also the New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement�correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback41.
Thus, it can be concluded that Audio-lingual method is followed
behaviorists theory. This method is an interpretation of language learning in terms
39Susan Kifuthu, Background and Characteristics of the Audio-Lingual Method, www.caridulu.com, it was retrieved on November 1 2007
40 Kenneth Chastain, �The Audio-Lingual Habit Theory The Cognitive Versus The Cognitive Code Learning Theory: Some Considerations� on Robert C.Lungton and Charles H.Heinle (ed.), Toward a Cognitive Approach to Second-Language Acquisition (Philadelphia: The Center For Curriculum Development, Inc, 1971,) p.113
41 www.wikipedia.com , the Free Encyclopedia. It was retrieved on November 1 2007.
of stimuli and response, operant conditioning and reinforcement with emphasis on
successful error-free learning. In this method, language is primarily spoken and
only secondarily written. Therefore, it is assumed that speech has priority in
language teaching.
2. The Characteristics of ALM
Brown has summarized the Characteristics of Audio-Lingual Method as follows:
1. New material is presented in dialog form. 2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over-
learning. 3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one
at a time. 4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. 5. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by
inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation. 6. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. 7. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids. 8. Great importance is attached to pronunciation. 9. Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted. 10. Successful responses are immediately reinforced. 11. There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances. 12. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content42.
This is useful for the teacher of speaking skills in the classroom to look at the
characteristics of Audio-Lingual Method in order to present this method in the
correct way. From the characteristics above, it can be seen that this method is
primarily concern with the speaking skill. This method is really concerned about
the pronunciation in producing words because it is important o prevent learners
from making errors. It is also clearly seen that one of the language teacher�s major
roles is a model of the target language. Teacher should provide students with a
native-speaker-like model. By listening to how it is supposed to sound and
students should be able to mimic the model.
42 Douglas H.Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (Englewood Cliffs:: Prentice Hall Regent, 1994) p.57
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3. The Procedure of Audio-Lingual Method in teaching speaking
Since Audio-Lingualism is primarily an oral approach to language
teaching, it is not surprising that the process of teaching involves extensive oral
instruction. As far as possible, the target language is used as the medium of
instruction, and translation or use of native tongue is discouraged. Classes of ten
or less are considered optimal, although larger classes are often the norm. Brooks,
as cited in Richards and Rodgers, list the procedures that the teacher should adopt
in using Audio-Lingual Method that are:
Lesson begins with the modeling of the speaking material by the teacher
and the students follow what the teacher said. Then, the students repeat each line
of the dialogue, individually and in chorus. While the students are producing the
dialogue, the teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation and fluency. If
there is any mistake, the teacher needs to correct the mistakes directly and
immediately. Then, the students memorize the dialogue gradually and line by line.
After they have memorized it, the dialogue is read aloud in chorus, one half
saying one speaker and the other half responding. The students are really not
allowed to open their book or read the dialogue throughout this phase.
After that, to make the learning process more interesting and effective, the
dialogue is then adapted to the student�s interest or situation, through changing
certain key words or phrases. This phase is acted out by students.
The teacher may select certain key structures or sentences from the
dialogue and use as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. The selection is
based on the current speaking material that is being learned in class. Then, these
are practiced in chorus and the individually.
After all this process, the students should memorize certain key sentences
or structure from the dialogue. Then, the last process of speaking activity is that
the teacher divides the student into a group of two and asks them to practice all
the dialogue from the text book in front the class.43
43 Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches And Method.., p.58
36
D. Thinking Framework
The research is done in order to know the effectiveness of CTL in teaching
speaking. The writer is interested in this topic because of several facts that found
in classroom teaching when doing teaching practice at SMAN 1 Ciputat. The
students speaking ability is still low and even there are some students who can�t
speak English language at all. Ideally, the students of second year of Senior high
school should have a good ability in English language or at least, they can speak
in a simple conversation. As we know, that English has been decided as the
compulsory subject to learn since 4th year�s grade of elementary school. It means
that they have been learning English language for six years.
One of the reason of that problem is because the majority of students in the
schools are unable to make connections between what they are learning and how
that knowledge will be used. This is because the way they process information
and their motivation for learning are not touched by the traditional methods of
classroom teaching. Audio-Lingual Method, which is often considered as the
traditional method, plays a significant role in this matter. In ALM, the students are
not fully involved in classroom teaching and they are just functioned as the
receiver of knowledge transferred by the teacher. Many time, this situation made
them feel boring in facing the English language subject. As a result, the students
have a difficult time in understanding academic concepts of English language as
they are commonly taught (that is, using an abstract, lecture method), and they
feel difficult to understand the concepts as they relate to the real live situation and
to the larger society in which they will live and work. Traditionally, students have
been expected to make these connections on their own live and outside the
classroom. These facts make them difficult in developing their English language
ability.
The writer believes that Contextual Teaching and Learning can be a
solution to tackle the problem in learning speaking. In a CTL learning
environment, students can discover meaningful relationship between abstract
37
ideas and practical applications in a real world context. Meanwhile, CTL also
encourages teacher to design learning environment that incorporate many kind of
experiences to achieve desired outcomes. The writer believes that the application
of CTL in English language teaching will help student in developing their
proficiency in speaking and also encourage them to learn well because they are
held accountable in their learning process in classroom teaching.
Generally, there are several reasons to choose CTL as follows:
1. Students accept more responsibility of their own learning
2. Students enjoy a positive interaction
3. CTL creates a team that enliven learning process
4. Students are encouraged to explore their potency
5. Student are the center of learning process
E. Hypotheses
This research is to answer the question about the significance different
between teaching speaking using Contextual Teaching Learning and teaching
speaking using Audio-Lingual Method. Therefore, writer proposed hypotheses as
follows:
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):
�There is a significant difference between the students� speaking scores
taught by contextual Teaching Learning and taught by Audio-Lingual
Method�,
Null Hypothesis (Ho):
�There is no significant difference between the students� speaking scores
taught by contextual Teaching Learning and taught by Audio-Lingual
Method�
38
38
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND FINDINGS
A. The Methodology of Research
1. The Place of The Research
The research of this study was held at SMAN 1 Ciputat. The writer
conducted the research about three weeks. It was begun by observation and
finished by giving the test in speaking ability. From 15th February up to 8th march
2008, the writer did the research for seven meeting. It consisted of giving pre-test,
presenting lesson and giving post-test.
2. The Objective of Research
As mentioned in chapter one that the objective of research is to know the
influence of Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) in optimizing student
speaking improvement and also to find out whether there is any significance effect
in speaking achievement of the students who are taught using CTL method and
those who are taught using Audio Lingual Method
3. The Population and Sample
The population of the study is 315 students from the first year of SMAN
1 Ciputat which consists of eight classes. The writer only took two classes that are
X.8 and X.7 and taught these two classes using CTL (for experiment class) and
ALM (for control class). The writer took 58 students where 29 students are from
experiment class and the rest are from control class. The sample was taken
purposive using random sample technique.
4. The Technique of Data Collecting
The writer used the test to collect the data. The pre-test and post test were
administered to both classes. The pre-test was done before the teaching learning
process and the post-test was done after teaching learning process. The pre test
id1034390 pdfMachine by Broadgun Software - a great PDF writer! - a great PDF creator! - http://www.pdfmachine.com http://www.broadgun.com
39
was done in order to know the homogeneity of the two classes in speaking skill
and the post-test was done in order to know the influence and the effectiveness of
using CTL and ALM in teaching speaking skill.
In collecting the data, writer has designed the items for speaking test. As
stated in previous chapter, the writer used the interaction with peer technique. In
this technique, the writer divided the student into a group of two and then they�re
asked to discuss a certain topic. Meanwhile, in determining the score gained by
the student, the writer used an oral rating scale that proposed by David P. Harris
as stated in chapter two.
5. The Technique of Data Analysis
Data analysis is the last step in the procedure of research. In analyzing the
data from the pre-test and post test, the writer used the statistical calculation of T-
test. T-test is used in order to find out the differences of the result/score of
student�s achievement in studying speaking by using CTL and ALM.
After getting the data, they are proceeded and analyzed through the
following steps:
a. Seeking gained score from student�s speaking test and describing
it in the tables. The gained scores of experiment class are variable
I that symbolized by X and the gained scores of control class are
variable II that symbolized by Y.
b. Determining mean of variable of experiment class with formula
MX= ∑X N
c. Determining mean of variable of control class with formula
MY= ∑Y N
d. Determining deviation score of variable X with formula
÷ = X-MX
Sum of ÷ or ∑ ÷ must equal to null. From the square of ÷, the
writer found out ∑ ÷2
40
e. Determining deviation score of variable Y with formula
y = Y-MY
Sum of y or ∑ y must equal to null. From the square of y, the
writer found out ∑ y2
f. Analyzing the result by using statistic calculation of T-Test
to =_ MX-My_________
( ∑ ÷2 + ∑ y2 ) . ( NX + NY)
( NX + NY - 2) (NX . NY)
g. Giving Interpretation
6. The Procedure of Research
Before doing the research, the writer observed the location and population
were carried out. The research was done in two classes namely experiment class
and control class. Before treating the students using CTL and ALM, the writer
administered the pre-test to the students in both classes with the same instrument
to know the homogeneity of student�s speaking skill.
The next step was the treatment, where the Class of X.8 as the experiment
class was taught using CTL and class of X.7 as the control class was taught using
ALM. The presentation of the lesson was done by the writer.
Then, post-test was administered after finishing the treatment. The writer
used the same format of question that was administered in the pre-test. Even
though the test instrument was the same, students didn�t realize that it would be
examined again later. Finally, the writer made a calculation of the result from both
test. The further explanation will discuss later.
41
B. The Finding of Research
1. The description of data
The writer conducted field research. The writer held this research by
teaching learning process that was done at two classes that are X.7 as control class
and X.8 as experiment class. And the writer got the data from pre-test and post
test. The pre-test was given before the lesson began and the post-test was given
after the lesson finished.
The result of data analysis can be described as follows:
a). the experiment class using contextual teaching learning (CTL)
The result of pre-test is gained with range score between 20 and 88 and
the mean score is 40.83. Meanwhile in the post-test, the range score is between 32
and 92 and the mean score is 59.45.
The result of data analysis, both data calculation and raw scores, can
be described as follows:
Table1. The score of pre-test and post-test of experiment class
No Pre-test Post-test Gained Score
1 40 52 12
2 60 52 -8
3 40 72 32
4 88 92 4
5 60 64 4
6 48 60 12
7 40 56 16
8 40 56 16
9 6 0 64 4
10 52 56 4
11 40 40 0
12 88 92 4
13 40 32 -8
14 40 56 16
15 40 72 32
16 20 60 40
17 20 48 28
18 56 68 12
19 28 52 24
20 28 56 28
42
21 28 56 28
22 44 64 20
23 40 56 16
24 40 60 20
25 20 60 40
26 40 56 16
27 40 64 24
28 44 60 16
29 20 48 28 ∑ ÷1 = 1184
M ÷1 = 40.83
∑ ÷2 = 1724 M ÷2 = 59.45
∑X = 480
MX = 16.55
b.). The Control Class Using Audio-Lingual Method
The result of pre-test is gained with range score between 20 and 92 and
the mean score is 49.53. Meanwhile, the result of pre-test is gained with range
score between 20 and 92 and the mean score is 55.73.
The result of data analysis, both data calculation and raw scores, can
be described as follows:
Table 2. The score of pre-test and post-test of control class
No Pre-test Post-test Gained Score
1 82 92 10
2 80 84 4
3 56 60 4
4 60 60 0
5 20 48 28
6 40 60 20
7 60 60 0
8 64 76 12
9 60 64 4
10 44 68 24
11 72 64 -8
12 40 60 20
13 40 60 20
14 40 44 4
15 40 44 4
16 52 56 4
17 48 40 -8
18 92 80 -12
19 24 40 16
43
20 40 40 0
21 72 76 4
22 40 56 16
23 40 36 -4
24 60 64 4
25 60 60 0
26 40 40 0
27 40 40 0
28 20 20 0
29 20 40 20 ∑ y1 = 1446
M y1 = 49.86
∑ y2 = 1632 M y2 = 56.28
∑Y = 186 MY = 6.41
2. The Analysis of Data
After writing the comparison between the score of experiment and the
control class, the writer calculates the deviation and square deviation for two
classes as follows:
Table 3. The comparison of scores of each student in experiment class
and control class
No X Y × y ÷ ² y²
1 12 10 -4.55 3.59 20.72 12.86
2 -8 4 -24.55 -2.41 602.79 5.83
3 32 4 15.45 -2.41 238.65 5.83
4 4 0 -12.55 -6.41 157.55 41.14
5 4 28 -12.55 21.59 157.55 465.96
6 12 20 -4.55 13.59 20.72 184.59
7 16 0 -0.55 -6.41 0.30 41.14
8 16 12 -0.55 5.59 0.30 31.21
9 4 4 -12.55 -2.41 157.55 5.83
10 4 24 -12.55 17.59 157.55 309.27
11 0 -8 -16.55 -14.41 273.96 207.76
12 4 20 -12.55 13.59 157.55 184.59
13 -8 20 -24.55 13.59 602.79 184.59
14 16 4 -0.55 -2.41 0.30 5.83
44
15 32 4 15.45 -2.41 238.65 5.83
16 40 4 23.45 -2.41 549.82 5.83
17 28 -8 11.45 -14.41 131.06 207.76
18 12 -12 -4.55 -18.41 20.72 339.07
19 24 16 7.45 9.59 55.48 91.90
20 28 0 11.45 -6.41 131.06 41.14
21 28 4 11.45 -2.41 131.06 5.83
22 20 16 3.45 9.59 11.89 91.90
23 16 -4 -0.55 -10.41 0.30 108.45
24 20 4 3.45 -2.41 11.89 5.83
25 40 0 23.45 -6.41 549.82 41.14
26 16 0 -0.55 -6.41 0.30 41.14
27 24 0 7.45 -6.41 55.48 41.14
28 16 0 -0.55 -6.41 0.30 41.14
29 28 20 11.45 13.59 131.06 184.59
∑X= 480
MX=16.55
∑Y =186
MY= 6.41 ∑ ÷ =0 ∑ y=0 ∑÷2=4567.17 ∑y2=2939.03
From the table at the page above, the writer has got the result of
∑X=480, ∑Y=186, ∑ ÷2=4567.17 and ∑ y2=2939.03, while each NX and NY is 29.
Then, the writer found out the mean score of variable X and Y as follows;
MX=16.55 and MY=6.41. After getting MX, MY, ∑ ÷2, ∑ y2, NX and NY, the
writer calculated them based on the steps of the t-test formula as follows: