Qualitative Research
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Qualitative Research
Definitions Quantitative Research - investigation in which
the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by isolating and measuring components of that reality without regard to their contextual setting.
Qualitative Research - investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by examining it in a holistic way or by examining components of that reality within their contextual setting.
Different Ways of Looking at Things Quantitative
Positivistic Epistemological basis is Realism Dates to the Age of Enlightenment
Qualitative Naturalistic (Post-Positivistic [PRE?]) Epistemological basis is Idealism Dates informally to prehistoric times
Formally to ancient Greece
Quantitative Research Reality is independent of human
understanding Reality can be defined as separate
and observable variables Goal of research is to define
and measure those variables Most accurate way to measure variables
is individually and in isolation We understand reality by defining all the
pertinent variables
Qualitative Research Human understanding and
interpretation define reality Complex reality can be understood
only as amalgam and not as simply a sum of its parts
Goal of research is to examine complex phenomena to define the reality within
To be meaningful, inquiry must be holistic and contextual
Researchers Argue Quantitative researchers fail because they can
neither adequately define nor accurately measure enough of the variables to understand complex natural interactions.
Qualitative researchers cannot rigorously examine the detailed structures underlying complex natural interactions.
Researchers Argue “Purists” contend
Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are incompatible because they have different epistemological bases.
Using them together is “mixing paradigms.”
Others believe Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are
simply different ways of looking at phenomena Using them together is symbiotic
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Purpose is understanding Oriented toward discovery Uses subjective data Extracts meaning from data Interprets results in
context Focus is holistic
Advantages of Qualitative Research
In-depth Examination of Phenomena Uses subjective information Not limited to rigidly definable variables Examine complex questions that can be
impossible with quantitative methods Deal with value-laden questions Explore new areas of research Build new theories
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
Subjectivity leads to procedural problems Replicability is very difficult Researcher bias is built in and unavoidable In-depth, comprehensive approach to
data gathering limits scope Labor intensive, expensive Not understood well by
“classical” researchers
Organizational Structures Historical Analysis Ethnography Phenomenology Life History,
Chronology, Historiography
Case Study
Historical Analysis
Archival Research Primary Documents Secondary Sources
Artifacts Relics Oral Histories
Ethnography
External Observation Passive Observation Balanced Participation Observation Participant Observation
Life History, Chronology, Historiography
Archival/Historical Personal Journals
Written Journals Electronic Journals
Electronic Media Long Term Observation Interviews
Case Study Detailed, in-depth examination of a
person, group, or setting Multiple data sources, perspectives Focus is on the individual or group, not
the population Meaning is extracted from observation Findings are instructive, not generalizable
Researcher seeks a complete picture of a total, complex situation
There may be no attempt to isolate specific variables or to answer specific questions
If specific questions are asked, the answers are sought within the context in which the phenomena naturally occur.
Holistic Approach
Internal Validity Validity is primarily a positivistic concept In qualitative research, equates to credibility
The right setting and informants Accurate reflection of situation, informant
perceptions Multiple approaches lead to similar results Multiple researchers yield similar interpretations Peer review/Informant review
External Validity In qualitative research, equates to
transferability Transferability is responsibility of reader,
not researcher Provide dense description Use nominated informant sample Provide detailed demographic and
situational description
To Seek Validity (Wolcott, 1990) (Think Credibility, Transferability)
Listen and observe carefully Be candid Record accurately Begin writing report early Use primary data in report Use all data for final report Seek feedback Seek balance Write accurately
Reliability Reliability is primarily a positivistic concept Reliability in qualitative research equates to
dependability Different researchers reach similar
interpretations Repeated examinations produce similar
observations Multiple researchers produce similar
interpretations of the same data
Triangulation Multiple perspectives, data sources,
researchers, data collection techniques Strongest evidence for credibility,
dependability, transferability Concept originated in navigation
Navigation using known points The more known points/angles, the
more accurate the “fix” on the unknown location
Corroboration Multiple informants hold similar
perceptions Same informant responds consistently to
related questions An attempt to confirm consistency of
perception not accuracy of perception
Constant Comparison Collect and analyze initial data Develop tentative conclusions,
hypotheses, themes Collect and analyze additional data Test against initial conclusions, hypotheses,
themes Seek new perspectives, data sources Write, re-write, re-assess, re-write, etc...
Discovery Approach to Qualitative Research
Identify setting to be studied Conduct initial data collection Analyze for emerging themes Formulate tentative questions, hypotheses,
theses Focus subsequent data collection to test/expand
initial themes Questions, themes, hypotheses, theories
EMERGE from the research
Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research
Define specific questions Define setting Identify informants Collect initial data Develop initial hypothesis
Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research
Collect additional data to test fit of hypothesis
Redefine questions or reformulate hypothesis based on further data collection and analysis
Search for negative case to disprove hypothesis
Qualitative Research: A Different Way of Looking
at the World Naturalistic Holistic Contextual Rich In-depth Reality derived not measured
Unstructured Interview Define basic goal Select setting for comfort of informant Try to establish rapport, trust Gently guide discussion toward goal Pursue profitable leads, tangents Make careful notes or electronic recording
during interview if practicable as soon afterward as possible otherwise
Structured Interview Define precise objectives Develop, validate, field test interview
schedule (protocol) Select setting for comfort of informant Try to establish rapport, trust Initiate interview using protocol Focus on specifics of protocol
Structured Interview Do not accept yes/no responses,
probe for more Pursue profitable tangents Remain flexible to encourage informant to talk Gently guide informant through protocol Make careful notes or electronic recording
during interview if practicable as soon afterward as possible otherwise
Focus Group Define goals Select participants Establish rapport Initiate discussion Encourage free discussion, but Guide discussion toward the goals Avoid contaminating discussion with
own biases
Ethnographic Observation Identify Goals Select site Establish rapport Determine critical informants Make detailed field notes Begin writing report from the start Observations external, passive, balanced, or
participant
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